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Land use and systematic survey in the study of hunter-gatherers from northwestern Patagonia, Argentina
Abstract
In this paper, we focus on the results of the archaeological research in the Diamante Valley, the southernmost limit of the expansion of agriculture, sedentary societies, and the Inka empire (Fig. 1). We conducted the first fieldwork in this area involving random surface sampling, followed by test pits in open-air sites. Our analyses
show changes in the settlement pattern of hunter-gatherer societies. During the first part of the Late Holocene (3000–1500 years BP), hunter-gatherers used the highlands and the piedmont seasonally. The archaeological evidence suggests a context of resource abundance and frequent movements from one patch of resources to the other in both biogeographic units. During the last part of the Late Holocene (post-1500 BP period), the increased demography made hunter-gatherers stay longer in each patch. In this later period, we observe a settlement pattern that combines, on the one hand, short-term particular tasks camps with shallow anthropogenic deposits, low artifactual density, richness, and diversity, and on the other hand, larger residential base camps with deep deposits, high artifactual density, richness, and diversity. We also find differences in how hunter-gatherers use
the two biogeographic units. We find short-term non-residential camps and larger residential camps in the piedmont. Here we found versatile toolkits with abundant cores and cortex. Even though basalts are abundant in the highlands, there is a more significant amount of non-local raw materials, such as obsidians. Projectile points
and scrapers dominate the assemblages, which might lead to task-specific activities such as hunting and processing guanacos. From these results, we can affirm that Late Holocene hunter-gatherer groups from Diamante Valley had an excellent knowledge of the landscape and took advantage of the different altitudinal gradients’
different resources with an organized settlement pattern.
... Distributional archaeology, geomorphology, sampling design, site formation processes INTRODUCCIÓN Durante los últimos ocho años, se han desarrollado investigaciones arqueológicas sistemáticas en la cuenca media y superior del río Diamante, sur de la provincia de Mendoza. Desde una perspectiva biogeográfica, se elaboró un diseño de investigación que contempló estudios de arqueología distribucional con muestreos sistemáticos al azar y sondeos estratigráficos dirigidos (Franchetti, 2019(Franchetti, , 2022Otaola et al., 2020Otaola et al., , 2023. Como resultado se generó información arqueológica a partir de tres unidades de paisaje a nivel regional: Planicie, Piedemonte y Cordillera (Figura 1). ...
... A partir de estos resultados, se realizaron prospecciones asistemáticas y dirigidas en este sector de la cuenca (Figura 1). Durante las mismas, a diferencia del muestreo anterior, pudieron detectarse una gran cantidad de hallazgos arqueológicos pero concentrados en contextos de dunas que cubren planicies fluvio-eólicas o en áreas desmontadas por la traza de los caminos vecinales y rutas provinciales (Otaola et al., 2023). Esto encendió una luz de alerta, y resultó claro que el registro arqueológico no había podido ser detectado con las técnicas implementadas en los trabajos de campo previos y que ése sistema de muestreo no sería eficiente de igual manera en las tres unidades biogeográficas seleccionadas (Cordillera, Piedemonte y Planicie). ...
... Distributional archaeology, geomorphology, sampling design, site formation processes INTRODUCCIÓN Durante los últimos ocho años, se han desarrollado investigaciones arqueológicas sistemáticas en la cuenca media y superior del río Diamante, sur de la provincia de Mendoza. Desde una perspectiva biogeográfica, se elaboró un diseño de investigación que contempló estudios de arqueología distribucional con muestreos sistemáticos al azar y sondeos estratigráficos dirigidos (Franchetti, 2019(Franchetti, , 2022Otaola et al., 2020Otaola et al., , 2023. Como resultado se generó información arqueológica a partir de tres unidades de paisaje a nivel regional: Planicie, Piedemonte y Cordillera (Figura 1). ...
... A partir de estos resultados, se realizaron prospecciones asistemáticas y dirigidas en este sector de la cuenca (Figura 1). Durante las mismas, a diferencia del muestreo anterior, pudieron detectarse una gran cantidad de hallazgos arqueológicos pero concentrados en contextos de dunas que cubren planicies fluvio-eólicas o en áreas desmontadas por la traza de los caminos vecinales y rutas provinciales (Otaola et al., 2023). Esto encendió una luz de alerta, y resultó claro que el registro arqueológico no había podido ser detectado con las técnicas implementadas en los trabajos de campo previos y que ése sistema de muestreo no sería eficiente de igual manera en las tres unidades biogeográficas seleccionadas (Cordillera, Piedemonte y Planicie). ...
En este trabajo presentamos los resultados de la prueba piloto del muestreo sistemático en la cuenca distal del río Diamante, en su desembocadura en el sistema fluvial Desaguadero-Salado. Se analizan los distintos elementos del paisaje y su relación con la presencia de registro arqueológico. Se observan también las relaciones entre registro de precipitaciones y caudales del río para indagar acerca de la potencialidad de este indicador para predecir desbordes de río y su impacto en la preservación del registro arqueológico. Durante las prospecciones realizadas, hemos logrado detectar que el registro arqueológico se encuentra asociado de manera recurrente a sectores desmontados, elevados, en los que predominan sedimentos eólicos. En cuanto a los hallazgos arqueológicos recuperados en los sitios excavados, se observaron diferencias significativas en la distribución de los mismos a lo largo de la estratigrafía. A partir de los resultados obtenidos, proponemos un tipo de muestreo arqueológico de superficie diferente al utilizado en trabajos de campo previos.
... Archaeological research over the past 20 years suggests that late Holocene people of northwestern Patagonia did not cultivate domestic crops, in spite of their proximity to farmers, but instead subsisted on wild camelids such as guanacos (Lama guanicoe), large flightless birds, small game, and seeds (Otaola et al. 2019;2023). Around 2000 years ago, demographic pressures, perhaps the result of human population growth, may have forced more intensive resource procurement and processing behaviours, as well as more regular and extensive interactions between individuals and groups over large areas (Otaola et al. 2023). ...
... Archaeological research over the past 20 years suggests that late Holocene people of northwestern Patagonia did not cultivate domestic crops, in spite of their proximity to farmers, but instead subsisted on wild camelids such as guanacos (Lama guanicoe), large flightless birds, small game, and seeds (Otaola et al. 2019;2023). Around 2000 years ago, demographic pressures, perhaps the result of human population growth, may have forced more intensive resource procurement and processing behaviours, as well as more regular and extensive interactions between individuals and groups over large areas (Otaola et al. 2023). Gusta vo Neme (2007) describes an intensification process that provoked a series of social changes, including the incorporation of new technologies, such as ceramics and the bow, and the increase of exchanges and territoriality. ...
The aim of this paper is to study the use of ceramics of small-scale societies during the late Holocene in northern Patagonia. The technological investment model predicts that use-time and utility will determine the investment spent in ceramics. We explore how ceramics were used in short-term camps and aggregation sites during summer at high elevations, and residential camps during winter at lower elevations. To test the investment in ceramics we use four technological variables: temper size, average thickness, surface treatment and firing. Our results indicate that hunter-gatherers expected a short-term use in summer locations and therefore made a low investment in ceramics.
... Esta metodología permitió detectar, sitios de gran tamaño (n > 25), mediano (n= 4-24) y pequeño (n= 1-3). Además, fue posible identificar la variabilidad de sitios dentro de cada una de las áreas seleccionadas: campamentos base, campamentos de tareas específicas, canteras, e incluso de áreas de caza (Otaola et al. 2023). La escala seleccionada, 100 km 2 , es una escala intermedia que permite una aproximación al uso del espacio por parte de bandas de cazadores recolectores dentro de rangos de movilidad semanales o mensuales, promediando dicho uso a lo largo de milenios. ...
Resumen Los estudios distribucionales en el valle del Diamante, Mendoza, permitieron la comparación del uso del espacio entre zonas ecológicas, con robustos resultados en cordillera y piedemonte. Los análisis de densidades de materiales y organización lítica posibilitaron detectar canteras de basaltos, rocas criptocristalinas y otras rocas en ambas zonas. La zona ecológica piedemonte muestra mayor presencia de canteras secundarias con énfasis en el uso de basaltos. Allí también se localizó la presencia de una cantera de riolitas que se encuentra a dos kilómetros de los cursos de agua. En la zona ecológica de cordillera se encuentran dos fuentes secundarias de basalto. Estos resultados muestran la importancia de la base regional de recursos líticos para la organización tecnológica, con un uso predominante de materias primas locales. Los resultados en el valle del Diamante indican que: 1) Los basaltos y rocas criptocristalinas muestran un claro uso mediante adquisición incluida durante otras actividades de subsistencia. 2) El uso de canteras de otras materias primas fue realizado en contextos de mayor distancia a fuentes de agua. 3) La incorporación de obsidianas se da en proporciones mínimas y está principalmente asociada a mitigar el riesgo en ocupaciones de altura. Abstract The distributional studies in the Diamante valley, Mendoza, allowed the comparison in the use of space between ecological zones, with robust results in piedmont and highlands. The analysis of densities of archaeological materials and the lithic organization helped to detect presence of sources of basalts, cryptocrystalline and other raw materials. The piedmont showed more presence of basalt secondary sources and a source of rhyolites located at 2km from water sources. In the highlands, a diminished used of basalts complements with higher use of cryptocrystalline and obsidian rocks. These results show the importance of the COMECHINGONIA. Revista de Arqueología. Vol. 28, n° 2. 2024
The south of Mendoza province has been characterized as the southern frontier of South American pre-Hispanic agriculture on the eastern slope of the Andes. This characterization has been based on the presence of crops at the archaeological sites and adopting a dichotomic perception of hunter-gatherers and farmers. During the last few decades, the archaeological record has shown a complex and shifting situation both at a spatial and temporal level in relation to the dependence of human groups on this type of resource. Based on a biogeographic model, we evaluated different lines of analysis from the archaeological record to assess the impact of environmental factors on the emergence of agriculture within the region. The results obtained confirm the low importance of agriculture among human groups as well as their flexibility in facing different environmental and demographic scenarios. Finally, we propose that the environmental structure of Patagonia would have played a central role in limiting the spread of domesticated plant use in this region of South America.
This research focuses on land use and risk management by hunter-gatherers in the Diamante valley, northern Patagonia, Argentina, across three ecological zones: the Highlands, the Piedmont, and the Lowlands. I also explore how site structure differed within these ecological zones, how mobility was used to manage the heterogeneous distribution of resources, and how ceramics were used in the context of high residential mobility. To determine the differences in land use, the fieldwork for this research involved a systematic random sample of surface deposits from 400 one-hectare units within a 100 km2 area in each ecological zone, followed by lithic and ceramic analysis of the materials recovered.
The Piedmont contains the highest density of human activity, followed by the Highlands, and then the Lowlands. In the Lowlands, the relative absence of evidence for human activity suggests this was an inhospitable place for people to live. In both the Piedmont and the Highlands, larger sites close to water courses and to raw materials were occupied repeatedly. Across the region, the most common raw material was basalt, followed by cryptocrystalline, and then obsidian. Chipped stone implements and fragments in the Highlands were smaller than in the other areas. In the Highlands, the most abundant camps were of medium size, possibly located and organized to support logistical foraging trips to acquire resources in a patchier environment. Ceramics were more abundant in the Highlands, but required only minimal investment suggesting they were used for only short periods of time. In addition to ceramics, obsidian was also more important in the Highlands than it was in the Piedmont. I examine how patterns of human mobility complement the use of resources across different ecological zones, nothing that the Piedmont, which is accessible all year round, was used the most. These findings contribute to our understanding of the diversity of evolutionary trajectories of small-scale groups in marginal environments by the use of a variety of adaptive strategies.
Ethnographic studies and ethnohistoric literature from the south of South America showed strong interest in Rheas (Rhea americana and Rhea pennata) consumption. The Chronicles from numerous explorers of the nineteenth century mentioned different aspects of the exploitation of these birds by Native American people from South America, as well as by rural populations from the Pampa and Patagonia regions at the beginning of twentieth century. In this chapter we show the traditional techniques of hunting, butchering and consumption of these birds. The information belongs to direct observations and interviews to ranchers from rural areas of southern Mendoza, Argentina.
Vegetation units of Argentina. There are numerous maps of the spontaneous vegetation of Argentina. However, a country-level map with enough detail to discriminate vegetation units within the phytogeographic provinces described by Cabrera (1976) is lacking. We analyzed vegetation descriptions published in recent decades, with special attention to those that produced physiognomic-floristic maps. As a result of this analysis, here we present a physiognomic-floristic map of spontaneous vegetation of Argentina that shows the heterogeneity within phytogeographic provinces. The map has 50 vegetation units as subdivisions of the phytogeographic ecotone and provinces early described, and a brief physiognomic-floristic description of each ecotone, province and vegetation unit. We propose a nomenclature of each vegetation unit based on dominant type of spontaneous vegetation and characteristic species and present digital cartographic material.
This paper presents the results of feldwork at Risco de los Indios, an archaeological site situated at 2.400 m elevation in the upper Diamante River watershed. The site contains twenty nine stacked-rock residential structures and dates to ca. 500 cal BP. Recovered faunal and macrobotanical remains indicate the site focused mainly on hunting camelids, underwritten by exploitation of local plants as well as transport and consumption of domestic beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Extralocal ceramics and obsidian sourcing indicates substantial mobility and contact with other groups within and across the southern Andes. These results are discussed in the context of the other high-altitude residential sites in the southern Mendoza region.
Existen numerosos mapas de la vegetación espontánea de la Argentina. Sin embargo, no contamos aún con uno de todo el país con una resolución que permita distinguir unidades de vegetación dentro de las provincias fitogeográficas descriptas por Cabrera (1976). Analizamos las descripciones de vegetación publicadas en las últimas décadas, con especial atención sobre aquellas que produjeron mapas fisonómico-florísticos. Como resultado de ese análisis, presentamos aquí un mapa fisonómico-florístico de la vegetación espontánea de la Argentina que muestra la heterogeneidad dentro de provincias fitogeográficas. El mapa tiene 50 unidades de vegetación como subdivisiones de las provincias fitogeográficas y el ecotono descritos con anterioridad, acompañadas de una breve descripción de la fisonomía y la composición florística. Proponemos una nomenclatura de las unidades de vegetación según el tipo de vegetación espontánea dominante y especies características, y presentamos material cartográfico electrónico.
El trabajo explora cuan estables fueron las estrategias humanas una vez que estas incorporaron cultígenos. Asimismo evalúa si incorporado el consumo de plantas domésticas, las estrategias fueron, o no, progresivamente apoyándose más sobre la
producción y consumo de las mismas. El estudio compara tres sitios con restos humanos (Jaime Prats-1, Rincón del Atuel-1 y Cañada Seca-1) localizados entre sí a una distancia máxima de 40 km y en un valle considerado como el límite sur de la agricultura andina prehispánica. Estos sitios, que presentan una continuidad temporal,
abarcan desde aprox. 1900 (300 años posterior al registro inicial de las plantas domesticas en la región) a ca. 1400 años AP. Se comparan datos de isótopos estables (13C, 15N, 18O), morfometría craneal, mandibular, y dental, junto a información contextual arqueológica. El sitio más antiguo (Jaime Prats-1) muestra semejanzas isotópicas y morfológicas con Cañada Seca-1, el más reciente, a pesar de no ser continuos en el tiempo. Ambos se diferencian de Rincón del Atuel-1, que temporalmente se intercala entre los mencionados previamente. Los resultados señalan una mayor importancia del maíz en Rincón del Atuel-1, junto a una menor
movilidad residencial, aunque en ninguno de los casos este recurso habría contribuido a la dieta más del 30%. Los sistemas humanos que ocuparon la frontera agrícola en estos primeros 500 años de uso de plantas domésticas muestran una alta variabilidad en su organización, sin cruzar umbrales que impidan retornar a sistemas de baja producción.
Test excavations were conducted at Risco de los Indios (RDLI), a site at 2480 masl with 29 residential features and a well-developed midden containing abundant floral, faunal, lithic, and ceramic materials. Analyses indicate the site was intensively used ca. 500 cal b.p. as a residential base for groups focused on hunting guanaco, supplemented by locally-available wild flora and fauna as well as domestic beans transported from the lowlands. Ceramic and obsidian artifacts indicate these groups were highly mobile and in contact with groups on the eastern and western margins of the Andes. These patterns compare favorably to those seen in the region’s other high altitude villages. It appears that the development of these patterns began with population increase and economic intensification in the lowlands ca. 2000 cal b.p. and that the move to slightly lower elevation settings like RDLI may have been conditioned by the onset of the Little Ice Age.
Significance
Hunter-gatherers are notable for their high levels of mobility, but the ecological and social cues that determine the timing of camp movements (residential mobility) are poorly understood. Using models from foraging theory, we found that, for one population of hunter-gatherers, camp movements coincided with the point at which resource acquisition declined to a critical threshold level, but before local resources were completely depleted. These results suggest that hunter-gatherer residential mobility is constrained in a predictable fashion by rates of local resource depletion.
Se presentan los resultados de los trabajos de campo en el sitio arqueológico Risco de los Indios, localizado en la cuenca alta del río Diamante a unos 2.400 m s.n.m. El sitio reúne un total de veintinueve estructuras habitacionales pircadas y fue fechado en ca. 500 años AP. Las características generales de Risco de los Indios sugieren que es un sitio de caza, con una fuerte dependencia en el consumo de camélidos, complementado con la explotación de plantas domésticas (Phaseolus vulgaris) y silvestres. Algunos de los tipos cerámicos recuperados en el lugar, al igual que los instrumentos de obsidiana y la mayor parte de las especies de plantas y animales identificadas, muestran una importante circulación de bienes. Los resultados presentados son discutidos en el contexto del resto de los sitios arqueológicos de altura del sur de Mendoza.
Archaeological investigations of hunter-gatherer site structure have remained largely descriptive, despite significant explanatory advancements by evolutionary approaches to foraging behavior and ecology. To date, calls to incorporate site structure studies within this behavioral ecological framework have largely been ignored. We suggest there is a clear explanation for this. At large spatial extents, human behavior is constrained by patterned ecological variability, as such, a general theory of behavior is likely to characterize key aspects of human decisions. At small spatial extents, human behavior is not constrained by patterned ecological variability, therefore, the human decisions that produce site structure should be driven by mechanical constraints or random variation. However, variation in site structure may be ecologically relevant inasmuch as it informs on landscape level variation in human-environment interactions. Drawing on ethnoarchaeological data collected in collaboration with Martu, Aboriginal foragers in Western Australia, here we test empirically-derived, mechanistic predictions on site size and material size sorting to show how these can inform theoretically-derived, adaptive predictions from the Marginal Value Theorem. Results show that site size increases with the number of occupants and hence, the amount of in-patch foraging competition, while size sorting increases with the duration of occupation and hence, in-patch residence time. Combined, these attributes of site structure can be used as proxies of foraging behavior to explain variability in overall foraging yields. With this approach, site structure can provide insights into foraging decisions that can be examined through a general theory of behavior.
The nature of hunter-gatherer mobility strategies--the way in which hunter-gatherers move about a landscape over the course of a year--is discussed, using ethnographic data. Several mobility variables that measure residential and logistical mobility are defined; several environmental variables which measure resource accessibility and resource monitoring costs are also defined. Ethnographic data are used to demonstrate patterning between the nature of mobility strategies and the resource structure of an environment. The data show that the extent to which a group of hunter-gatherers emphasizes residential or logistical mobility is closely related to the structure of resources in their environment.
Identification of preserved biological materials is often regarded as a skill which has little to do with analysis and interpretation. This paper argues that in zooarchaeological studies-here with particular reference to vertebrate remains-identification procedures deserve more detailed consideration, because these procedures have a significant effect on the results of faunal studies. It is suggested that most identifications are made within a system of usually unspecified rules which vary from one analyst to another. Improvements in comparability between faunal studies will result if these rules are considered before beginning an analysis, and if the rules are made explicit in publications.
The rapid spread of Numic peoples into the Great Basin about 500-700 years ago is a major anomaly in the prehistory of that region because, according to current interpretations, it occurred in the absence of major adaptive change. A review of existing evidence suggests that this view is incorrect; we propose an alternative notion of important contrasts between Prenumic and Numic adaptation in terms of the relative reliance on large game and small seeds. These contrasts explain why the Numic speakers were consistently able to expand at the expense of Prenumic groups.
In the decade since its publication, the first edition of Statistics for Archaeologists has become a staple in the classroom. Taking a jargon-free approach, this teaching tool introduces the basic principles of statistics to ...
Summertime [December-February (DJF)] precipitation over the western slopes of the subtropical Andes (32 degrees-36 degrees S) accounts for less than 10% of the annual accumulation, but it mostly occurs as rain and may trigger landslides leading to serious damages. Based on 13 year of reanalysis, in situ observations, and satellite imagery, a synoptic climatology and physical diagnosis reveal two main weather types lead to distinct precipitation systems. The most frequent type (~80% of the cases) occurs when a short-wave midlevel trough with weak winds and thermally driven mountain winds favor the development of convective precipitation during the daytime. The trough progresses northwest of a long-lasting warm ridge, which produces low-level easterly airflow that enhances its buoyancy as it moves over the arid land of western Argentina toward the Andes. The weak winds aloft facilitate the penetration of the moist easterly flow into the Andes. Midlevel flow coming from the west side of the Andes is decoupled from the low-level maritime air by a temperature inversion, and thus provides little moisture to support precipitation. The less frequent type (~20% of the cases) occurs when a deep midlevel trough and strong westerly flow produces stratiform precipitation. This type has a baroclinic nature akin to winter storms, except that they are rare in summer and there is no evidence of a frontal passage at low levels. The lifting and cooling ahead of the trough erode the typical temperature inversion over the Pacific coast, and thus allows upslope transport of low-level marine air by the strong westerlies forming a precipitating cloud cap on the western slope of the Andes.
Este artículo presenta, desde una perspectiva biogeográfica, un modelo del poblamiento humano en los Andes Meridionales enfatizando el registro arqueológico del sur de Mendoza. Sobre la base de los conceptos de exploración, colonización y ocupación
efectiva se intenta explicar la tendencia temporal y espacial de las ocupaciones humanas. La heterogeneidad ambiental del área en
estudio genera una jerarquización de los diferentes sectores para los que se esperan diferencias cronológicas en su colonización y
ocupación efectiva. El modelo es confrontado con los fechados radiocarbónicos disponibles y con las características del registro
arqueológico regional.
A comprehensive, but simple-to-use software package for executing a range of standard numerical analysis and operations used in quantitative paleontology has been developed. The program, called PAST (PAleontological STatistics), runs on standard Windows computers and is available free of charge. PAST integrates spreadsheettype data entry with univariate and multivariate statistics, curve fitting, time-series analysis, data plotting, and simple phylogenetic analysis. Many of the functions are specific to paleontology and ecology, and these functions are not found in standard, more extensive, statistical packages. PAST also includes fourteen case studies (data files and exercises) illustrating use of the program for paleontological problems, making it a complete educational package for courses in quantitative methods.
Con la intención de evaluar la incorporación del maíz en las poblaciones del centro occidente de Argentina, el límite prehispánico de la agricultura americana, el trabajo explora la variabilidad espacial y cronológica en los valores de δ13C en colágeno, apatita y δ15N en muestras humanas. El estudio incluye 104 muestras arqueológicas humanas registradas entre 32° S y 40° S con cronologías de los últimos 6.000 años. También se presenta información sobre la ecología isotópica de la región. Los resultados muestran una
baja correlación tanto en latitud como en tiempo con los valores de δ13C. Los valores que señalan una importancia significativa del maíz en la dieta se registran en el sector más septentrional y durante los últimos 1.500 años. A pesar de esa tendencia, hay una notoria variabilidad entre muestras, inclusive contemporáneas y localizadas en los mismos sectores. Los resultados debilitan la supuesta dispersión gradual en espacio y tiempo del maíz mostrando un patrón de alta heterogeneidad en cuanto a la importancia del maíz en el límite sur de la dispersión agrícola.
Hunter-gatherers: An Interdisciplinary Perspective
This paper explores the relationships between population change and human diet after the adoption of domesticated resources in northwest Mendoza, a subregion of central western Argentina (CWA). To estimate population, we used summed probability distributions of radiocarbon ages (RC-SPD). We used carbon and nitrogen stable isotope values (ẟ¹³Cco, ẟ¹³Cca, and ẟ¹⁵N) obtained on human bone (collagen and carbonate) to reconstruct human diet. The population trend of late Pleistocene-Holocene hunter-gatherers changed its trajectory ca. 2300 cal years BP coincident with the adoption of domesticates. After this date, a significant increase in human population occurred. We observe population increases (“booms”) followed by notable drops (“busts”). Stable isotopes (ẟ¹³C) on human bone follow a similar trend, indicating an increased consumption of maize during the “boom” periods and a decreased consumption during the “bust” periods. Based on the association between estimated changes in human population and changes in human bone isotope values over the last 2300 cal years BP, we propose that levels of maize consumption emerge from human predator–prey and plant-herbivore interactions. The use of maize, thus, is not part of a social evolutionary stage, but, rather, an outcome of continuous social-ecological process in which maize use may increase or decrease over time.
This research discusses land use in three ecological zones from the Diamante Valley: the highlands, the piedmont, and the lowlands-while focusing on mobility and the lithic organization of prehistoric hunter-gatherers. To determine the differences in land use, the fieldwork for this research involved a systematic random sample of surface deposits from 400 one-hectare units within a 100 km 2 area in each ecological zone, followed by lithic analysis of the materials recovered. The piedmont contains the highest density of human activity, followed by the highlands, and then the lowlands. In the lowlands, the relative absence of evidence for human activity suggests this was an unfavorable place for people to live. However, geomorphology, site formation processes, and visibility , may also be a plausible cause of the lack of findings. In both the piedmont and the highlands, larger sites close to watercourses and raw materials were occupied repeatedly. Across the region, the most common raw material was basalt, followed by cryptocrystalline, and then obsidian. Chipped stone implements and fragments in the highlands were smaller than in the other areas. In the highlands, the most abundant camps were of medium size, possibly located and organized to support logistical foraging trips to acquire resources in a patchier environment. I examine how patterns of human mobility complement the use of resources across different ecological zones, nothing that the piedmont, which is accessible all year round, was used the most. These findings contribute to our understanding of the diversity of evolutionary trajectories of small-scale groups in marginal environments by the use of a variety of adaptive strategies.
Wetlands in mountains are highly dynamic and provide ecosystem services to human wellbeing. Understanding temporal and spatial wetland dynamics is crucial for successful management. This paper presents the reconstruction of a mire evolution at a high-altitude Andean valley in central-western Argentina, in subtropical South America (30°-36° S), during the Mid- and Late Holocene. The research is based on sedimentological and pollen analysis from a sedimentary section of 3.2 m thick exposed at the El Peñón valley. The record begins with an outwash environment after ca. 5700 cal. yrs BP associated with Pteridophytes dominance, followed by the development of a mire environment after ca. 3700 cal. yrs BP associated with Cyperaceae dominance. The environmental and vegetation changes are hypothesised to have occurred in response to a shift from cold to warmer conditions. Colder environments may have occurred again between 800 until <600 cal. yrs BP, probably associated with the Little Ice Age. Tephra inputs are evidenced in the record from 1200 years BP onwards. However, the results do not show any conclusive evidence about the impact of volcanism in the dynamics of the wetland. High Amaranthaceae proportions would evidence human activities in the high-altitude valleys of the southern Andes, probably for the last 250 cal. yrs BP. This work permitted us to infer the evolution of the El Peñón wetland under multiple concurrent forcing factors from the Mid- Holocene onwards at different temporal scales, i.e. climate during the last 5700 yrs, and volcanism and anthropogenic impacts during the last millennium.
This paper reevaluates the significance of plants and animals in Late Holocene human diets of northwestern Patagonia. The area was occupied by hunter-gatherers who, despite the presence of nearby agricultural populations, did not abandon their emphasis on the exploitation of wild resources. Combining new and previously published stable isotope data from human bone collagen (13C, 15N; n = 53) and bone carbonate (13C; n = 21) we
use Bayesian mixing models to estimate human trophic levels, the relative proportion of various plant and animal resources in prehistoric diets, and how geographic variation in those values relates to environmental structure. The results of that analysis demonstrate a high reliance on meat rather than plants. Our results call attention to an apparently heavy reliance on small game prehistorically, which differs from all previous analyses. Maize, in
contrast, was non significant. This research highlights the significance of exploring spatially meaningful units of analysis and the need to incorporate a set of ecologically diverse baseline isotope data in order to understand trends and variation in human resource use.
El registro arqueológico de cazadores-recolectores localizado en ambientes de altura ha sido ampliamente debatido en la literatura mundial. Las discusiones se han centrado en su funcionalidad, cronología, complementariedad con ambientes bajos y significado en los procesos de poblamiento de distintas regiones. Los Andes meridionales cuentan con un amplio espacio cordillerano dentro del cual se emplazan una serie de sitios arqueológicos localizados a aproximadamente 3.000 m snm. Las duras condiciones climáticas de estos ambientes, así como la presencia de estructuras habitacionales, despertó el interés de los investigadores en relación con su funcionalidad, tiempo de permanencia y manejo de los recursos locales. En este trabajo se presenta la información zooarqueológica de cuatro sitios de altura localizados en un sector de los Andes meridionales, en el sur de la provincia de Mendoza, Argentina: El Indígeno, Los Peuquenes, Laguna del Diamante S-4 y Risco de los Indios. El material arqueofaunístico analizado es evaluado a la luz de las características ambientales, los costos de transporte y la funcionalidad de estas locaciones en relación con los circuitos de explotación anual. Los resultados muestran un uso de taxones restringido, con un fuerte énfasis en el guanaco, y un escaso transporte de fauna desde y hacia pisos ecológicos localizados a menor altitud. Todo esto sugiere el uso de los sitios de manera residencial y no como lugares de obtención de presas para su procesamiento y traslado hacia localizaciones más bajas.
Bones of recent mammals in the Amboseli Basin, southern Kenya, exhibit distinctive weathering characteristics that can be related to the time since death and to the local conditions of temperature, humidity and soil chemistry. A categorization of weathering characteristics into six stages, recognizable on descriptive criteria, provides a basis for investigation of weathering rates and processes. The time necessary to achieve each successive weathering stage has been calibrated using known-age carcasses. Most bones decompose beyond recognition in 10 to 15 yr. Bones of animals under 100 kg and juveniles appear to weather more rapidly than bones of large animals or adults. Small-scale rather than widespread environmental factors seem to have greatest influence on weathering characteristics and rates. Bone weathering is potentially valuable as evidence for the period of time represented in recent or fossil bone assemblages, including those on archeological sites, and may also be an important tool in censusing populations of animals in modern ecosystems.
The site El Indigeno contains the greatest known concentration of hunter-gatherer residential features in the southern Andes. Located at 3,300 m asl in a meadow in the Cordillera of west-central Argentina, the site is notable for its 133 habitation structures, that when considered along with the other characteristics of the site represent an anomalous but perhaps not entirely unexpected adaptation to the highest altitude environment in the region. Based on radiocarbon dating and artifact typologies, the site was occupied between ca. 800 and 1500 B.P. It consequently represents the latest step in the indigenous colonization of what is arguably the most marginal environment in the region. This chronology suggests that the site was occupied when nearby lowland regions were under their most intensive use and during a time when new resources were incorporated into the high-altitude hunter-gatherer diet. In this article I report on research conducted at El Indigeno and compare the results of these studies to the regional record, ultimately concluding that regional population increase affiliated with the spread of increasingly complex socioeconomic systems most parsimoniously explains the intensive occupation of this large, high-altitude hunter-gatherer site.
Julian Steward's theory of Great Basin cultural ecology and settlement patterns has been subjected to empirical validation. Since the only data available to test this hypothesis are archaeological, it was first necessary to determine the artifactual correlates for the posited ethnographic system. These deductive propositions were determined by the BASIN I computer simulation model. On the basis of data obtained in a regional random sampling project in the Reese Valley of central Nevada, over 75% of the nearly 130 deductive predictions were statistically verified. The rejected propositions probably reflect failure of the computer model rather than shortcomings in Steward's theory. The archaeological manifestation of the Shoshonean pattern is defined as the Reese River Subsistence-Settlement System which operated in the central Great Basin from about 2500 B.C. to historic times.
Chapter 1. How To Calculate Optimal Diet Breadth Chapter 2. Optimal Foraging with Constraints: Linear Programming Chapter 3. Front- and Back-Loaded Resources: Caching Chapter 4. Technological Investment Chapter 5. Field Processing II Appendices
Despite being flanked by the Great Basin and cismontane California, the Sierra Nevada has not played a prominent role in discussions of hunter-gatherer land use in either region. A key reason is the lack of archaeological data from pristine alpine areas, where little archaeological research has occurred. This study investigates high-elevation sites in the southern Sierra Nevada using temperature-adjusted obsidian hydration rates and comparisons to adjoining regions. Two distinct archaeological patterns are identified. The earlier (ca. 3,500 B.P.–1,350 B.P.) use pattern is characterized by dense lithic scatters related to obsidian procurement and logistical hunting forays, most likely by small groups of men. The later (ca. 1,350 B.P.—historic contact) intensive-use pattern is typified by a greater variety of artifact and feature types indicative of a wider range of activities performed by more diverse groups. These broad archaeological patterns are compared to regional cultural developments on either side of the Sierra to investigate how large-scale changes in mobility, subsistence-settlement patterns, and obsidian procurement in core lowland areas influenced prehistoric use of the southern Sierra Nevada alpine zone.
In recent years archaeologists and paleontologists have become increasingly interested in how and why vertebrate animal remains become, or do not become, fossils. Vertebrate Taphonomy introduces interested researchers to the wealth of analytical techniques developed by archaeologists and paleontologists to help them understand why prehistoric animal remains do or do not preserve, and why those that preserve appear the way they do. This book is comprehensive in scope, and will serve as an important work of reference for years to come.