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Learning How to Learn
For
Perfect Understanding
Isaac Olakanmi Abimbola
Copyright © Isaac Olakanmi Abimbola 2015
First Published: 2015
Second Edition\: 2023
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, scanning or
otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright
owner. This book may not be lent, resold or hired out or
otherwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding
or cover other than that in which it is published, without the
prior consent of the copyright owner.
ISBN: 978-978-53622-5-1
Printed in Nigeria by
BAMITEX PRINTING & PUBLISHING
+234-803-209-6947; +234-805-532-5175
PREFACE
The main purpose of writing this book is to introduce
learners and instructors to the basic principles and strategies
of Study Technology. Study Technology is a research-based
meta-cognitive system of learning how to acquire knowledge,
which includes basic principles and workable methods for
application in the field of study. Also, it is to provide a self-
instructional study material for learners and instructors to help
them in achieving perfect understanding in their learning.
Based on my extensive teaching experience at all
levels of education, spanning over 45 years, and my
specialized training in Study Technology, I try to assist
learners to become next generation learners by learning how
to learn for their own benefits and for the benefit of all with
whom they come in contact. Also, I try to assist Instructors,
too, to become next generation Instructors by training them to
learn how to learn with the aim of acquiring knowledge by
themselves for the benefit of themselves and their students.
The book starts out by providing rationales for learning
how to learn and teaching how to learn to provide a basis for
the book.
Three chapters each are provided for a detailed
treatment of the three major barriers to study and learning.
The three barriers are: (1) lack of mass, (2) too steep a
gradient or skipped gradient, and (3) the misunderstood word.
Chapters Two, Three and Four are devoted to the first
barrier of lack of mass. Chapter Two describes and discusses
the concept of lack of mass about the object of instruction and
learning. Chapter Three lists and describes learners’ reactions
to the phenomenon of lack of mass to enable instructors and
learners identify them by themselves. Chapter Four describes
and discusses the remedies for lack of mass.
Chapters Five, Six and Seven treat the second major
barrier to study and learning—too steep a gradient or skipped
gradient, which makes learning difficult to achieve. Chapter
Six treats learners’ reactions to too steep a gradient or
skipped gradient to enable Instructors and learners to identify
them in an instructional setting. Chapter Seven provides
information on the remedies for too steep a gradient or
skipped gradient.
The third and most important barrier to study and
learning is in Chapters Eight, Nine and Ten. Chapter Eight
discusses the meaning and nature of the misunderstood word.
Chapter Nine treats learners’ reactions to the misunderstood
word. Chapter 10 treats the remedies for the misunderstood
word.
Chapter 11 is for the preparation and use of course
guides for instruction, which are an important ingredient of
Study Technology.
Chapter 12 provides guidelines to Instructors on how to
manage a material-based instruction.
Chapter 13 is for equipping instructors and learners
with the necessary skills to know how to communicate in an
instructional setting.
Finally, Chapter 14 provides revision exercises for
instructors and learners to make for perfect understanding
and easy application of knowledge.
Isaac Olakanmi Abimbola, Ph.D.
First Published: 1 April 2015
Second Edition\; 10 July 2023
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Copyright Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
Chapter 1: Rationale for learning how to learn
and teaching how to learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Chapter 2: First barrier to study—Lack of mass. . . . . . . 10
Chapter 3: Learners’ reactions to lack of mass. . . . . . . . 18
Chapter 4: Remedies for lack of mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 5: Second barrier to study—too steep
a gradient or skipped gradient. . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 6: Learners’ reactions to too steep a
gradient or skipped gradient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter 7: Remedies for too steep a gradient
or skipped gradient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Chapter 8: Third barrier to study—the
misunderstood word. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Chapter 9: Learners’ reactions to the
misunderstood word. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter10: Remedies for the misunderstood word. . . . ..49
Chapter 11: Preparation and use of Course guides
for instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Chapter 12: Management of a material-based
Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 13: Communication skills for instructors. . . . . . . . 69
Chapter14: Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 78
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
CHAPTER 1
RATIONALE FOR LEARNING HOW
TO LEARN AND TEACHING HOW
TO LEARN
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Rationale for Learning How to Learn
1.0 Introduction
L. Ron Hubbard introduced the idea of study
technology in the United States in 1972. Study technology is
today in use worldwide, including the developing countries of
The Gambia, Ghana, Sudan, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.
The idea was introduced to Nigeria in 2004 by the Applied
Scholastics International through the Education Trust Fund
(now Tertiary Education Trust Fund, TETFund). Study
technology is a research-based system of learning how to
acquire knowledge, which includes basic principles and
workable methods for application in the field of study
(Slaughter, 2006). Technology here does not refer to
“Educational Technology.” In addition, it does not relate to the
use of computers and other digital technologies in schools.
“Technology,” according to Dictionary.com (2011), is “the
practical application of knowledge”. This is the type of
technology of interest in this book.
Study technology teaches learners how to learn. On
the part of learners, study technology involves identification of
barriers to learning and acquisition of techniques and
understanding, which will enable them to empower
themselves by being able to take responsibility for and control
of their own learning process, because they will know what to
do about their learning and how to do it.
Learning is a process of conceptual change, which
involves understanding new things and getting better ways to
do things. Study is the activity of learning about a particular
thing by closely observing it, asking questions about it and
reading about it so as to apply it.
Teaching technology is the act of applying the
principles of study technology in instruction. It involves the
ability of instructors to be able to identify learning barriers of
students, their reactions and how to assist them to remove the
learning barriers by themselves. It also includes how
instructors will structure the learning environment to assist
learners to learn effectively by themselves in a material-based
instructional setting. In this environment, feedback is provided
to the learner promptly and regularly, so the learner is aware
of how much progress is being made. Several areas of
Nigerian higher education require rehabilitation by any good
method of teaching and learning.
2.0 Objectives
● State the rationale for learning how to learn;
● Describe how you as a learner study;
● Describe how your undergraduate students study;
● State the rationale for teaching how to learn; and
● Apply the rationale to underscore the need for students
to know how to learn.
3.0 Rationale
3.1 Rationale for Learning How to Learn
This section of the Chapter provides a general
overview of the rationale for learning how to learn. The
rationale would be built around the following problem areas:
● knowing how to study;
● knowing how to apply knowledge;
● Causes of incomplete understanding by students;
● Learners’ attendance at lectures;
● Paying attention to earlier missed lectures by students
to the detriment of current lectures, and
● Learners’ self-control.
Knowing how to study. A major problem of higher
education in Nigeria is undergraduates’ lack of knowledge of
how to study. They do not know that they are supposed to be
studying on a daily basis. Most undergraduates wait until
examination time before they start preparing. They usually
think, erroneously, that receiving lectures is work, and it is
synonymous with studying. This is in spite of the General
Studies Courses that include methods of how to study. In
addition, this is in spite of the existence of continuous
assessment tests that are designed to encourage students to
study on a continuing basis.
Knowing how to apply knowledge. In some cases,
undergraduates could study and pass well in their courses, an
additional problem is that of knowing how to apply the
knowledge to novel situations or practical situations beyond
what the book or the course note says that is the expression
of the subject contents into the reality of the application. It is
the primary duty of students to construct their knowledge in a
way that is meaningful to them. If the study technique is faulty,
the tendency is then high for students to resort to rote
memorization of materials without adequate understanding.
Causes of incomplete understanding by students.
Students in higher institutions usually exhibit incomplete
understanding of contents. The wrong impression is that
learning materials are not to be known completely before one
can pass! The examination systems also reinforce this wrong
notion. This may be due to lack of ability to read or interest in
reading because of other distractions. Some of the
distractions that do not allow students to understand lecture
materials fully are: watching television or movies too much,
and remaining permanently plugged to a music source.
Learners’ attendance at lectures. Many
undergraduates have record of poor attendance in lectures. In
most large classes, it is usually when it is time for continuous
assessment tests that most students attend in larger numbers,
to the surprise of the course instructor, who might have been
experiencing low attendance at lectures and had prepared just
enough question papers to take care of the assumed number
of registered students in the class. Online registration for
courses is assisting instructors to know how many students to
expect in a course. It is a mystery to know where students go
during the week when they do not attend classes!
Paying attention to earlier missed lectures by
students to the detriment of current lectures. Some
students usually pay attention to the materials of the lectures
they missed earlier, during ongoing lectures, without paying
much attention to the ongoing lecture, and the cycle
continues. In some cases, missing lectures is not completely
the fault of students in that authorities of some higher
institutions have not really computerized their time table
system. Where they do, cooperating faculties usually flout
their agreements earlier reached by the Time Table
Committee. Eventually, it is the students that suffer.
At the lower levels of education, some students are
permanently being taught by one teacher or the other, almost
throughout the day that there is no time left for the students to
personally internalize what the teachers have been teaching.
There are numerous other home factors that prevent students
from having time for their studies, thereby leading to rushing
to understand learning materials just before examinations.
Learners’ self-control. For learners, to benefit from
any instruction, they must exhibit the capacity for self-control.
Self-control is one’s ability to control one’s negative emotions,
behaviours, and desires, in the face of competing positive
ones, which may prevent one from achieving desired goals.
This is sometimes referred to as self-regulation. This may
have an important role to play in self-learning of instructional
materials. It is self-control that makes it easy for learners to
deliberately pay attention to an instruction, in the face of
competing distracting forces. Most of the strategies used in
study technology are aimed at assisting students to pay
attention to their study in the face of other distractions in a
learning situation.
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Which of the following is NOT a good reason for
students’ lack of knowledge of how to study?
a. Attending lectures regularly
b. General Studies Courses teach about studying
c. Receiving lectures is studying
d. Studying is better during examinations
(ii) State five rationales that make it necessary for students
to learn how to learn
(iii) Describe how you study and share your findings with a
colleague on this programme.
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Interview ten of your fellow students and report your
findings on their description of their typical days. What
can you learn about their study habit?
(ii) Describe, in writing, five rationales, which make it
necessary for students to learn how to learn.
(iii) List the things that distract your attention most in an
instructional situation.
(iv) List the factors that distract your attention when you are
studying and what should you do about them?
(v) Write a page describing how your fellow students study
when there are no examinations in sight.
3.2 Rationale for Teaching How to Learn
This section of the Chapter provides a general
overview of the rationale for teaching how to learn. The
rationale would be built around the following problem areas:
● Instructors’ attitude to students’ complete
understanding;
● Nature of lecture materials;
● Nature of lecture facilities;
● Nature of teaching methods; and
● Availability of feedback to learners
Instructors’ attitude to students’ complete
understanding. Most times, Instructors do not usually assess
students’ full understanding of materials when assessment
does not cover all course contents. Measurement and
evaluation theories are usually not fully implemented in the
Nigerian educational system. The normal practice in testing is
to ask all examinees to answer all questions set by the
instructor. However, in Nigeria, we usually require students to
answer, for example, three questions from five. This leads to
not testing the same knowledge of content mastered by
students. Instructors should test their students on all contents
taught to improve their preparations and ultimately, their
understanding of the contents taught.
Nature of lecture materials. There are inadequate
and outdated lecture materials in several universities in
Nigeria. The culture of set or recommended textbooks for
courses is yet to take root. While some universities encourage
undergraduates to buy and own textbooks, others do not
encourage students to own books, under the guise of
protecting them from exploitation. Most university libraries lack
up-to-date books. Hence, it becomes imperative for
Instructors to continually update their lecture materials using
available internet resources.
Nature of lecture facilities. Lecture facilities in some
universities are inadequate and outdated. Some universities
still use blackboards whereas interactive white boards are
now in vogue. Where some universities use plain white
boards, maintaining them is a problem. Most universities do
not have symposia or projection equipment such as
multimedia projectors in lecture rooms. E-libraries are just
springing up in some universities. Instructors should
endeavour to use modern facilities in their teaching.
Nature of teaching methods. Lectures in universities
are still largely dominated by instructors who use mainly the
lecture method in their teaching. The lecture method has been
thoroughly abused in Nigerian Universities, where it is used to
rush lectures to be able to cover lost grounds, especially when
examinations are approaching. Young instructors abuse the
method with impunity because of lack of supervision and
mentoring, in some cases, or because of sheer knowledge
gap about what to do. Experienced university instructors, in
most cases, think they are instructors and not teachers.
Instructors should regularly source for innovative strategies for
their instruction.
Availability of feedback to learners. There is lack of
feedback from instructors to students in Nigerian higher
institutions. Students hardly receive immediate feedback from
instructors on their performance in tests, especially
continuous assessment tests, before the semester
examinations. Part of the reasons may be because the
number of students per course may outstrip the available
human and material resources. The culture of university
education system may also be changing whereby
undergraduates may now not be interested in having positive
feedback from their instructors. Instructors should provide
regular feedback to their students to enable them study well
and learn.
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) State five rationales for why instructors have to teach
students how to learn.
(ii) How do you impress it on your students that they need
to learn how to learn?
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Interview ten of your undergraduate students and
report your findings on their description of their typical
days. What can you learn about their study habit?
(ii) Sample ten of your colleagues to know how they teach
their own undergraduate classes. What can you learn
about the way they teach that can affect the way
students learn?
(iii) Identify factors, which normally distract learners from
paying attention during instruction.
(iv) Describe strategies to use in assisting learners to pay
attention during instruction.
(v) Describe, in writing, five rationales, which make it
necessary for students to learn how to learn.
(vi) Write a page describing how your students study when
there are no examinations in sight.
6.0 Summary
By now you ought to be able to:
• describe how your students study;
• state the rationale for teaching how to learn;
• state the rationale for learning how to learn; and
• apply the rationale to underscore the need for students
to know how to learn.
Figure 1: Rationale for learning how to learn and teaching how
to learn
CHAPTER 2
FIRST BARRIER TO STUDY—LACK OF
MASS
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● First Barrier to Study--Lack of Mass
1.0 Introduction
Three major barriers affect students in the field of study
as identified by the Applied Scholastics International (2005).
They are: lack of mass, too steep a gradient, and the
misunderstood word. A barrier is something, which blocks the
way. It is something, in this context, which blocks studying by
students thereby preventing them from learning.
“Mass” is the actual physical object of the subject
matter under treatment in a teaching-learning situation. A
gradient is a way of doing things level by level and step by
step. A steep gradient is a way of doing things, which does
not follow this systematic order by jumping steps. A
misunderstood word is a word that is not understood at all or
wrongly understood. A word that is not understood at all is
also called a misconception. A word that is wrongly
understood is called an alternative conception.
Figure 2: Three Major Barriers to Study
The barrier under treatment in this Chapter is “lack of mass”
(See Figure 3)
2.0 Objectives
● Define “barrier, “
● Give examples of a barrier,
● Give non-examples of a barrier,
● Identify the three major barriers that affect students’
study,
● Define “mass,”
● Use “mass” in several sentences,
● Give examples of “mass,” and
● Give non-examples of “mass
3.0 What is “Mass”?
“Mass” is the actual physical object of the subject
matter under treatment in a teaching-learning situation.
Instructors are expected to provide students with the “mass”
they need during lectures. If biology students are being taught
about animals, they should be provided real examples of
animals as are found in a zoo or in the community. When an
instructor intends to teach a topic, the first thing to think about
is how to find a real physical thing or object to use to illustrate
the topic.
3.1 Lack of Mass
Figure 3: Three Major Barriers to Study—Lack of Mass
In a situation where it is extremely difficult to find the
real physical object, the following are reasonable
examples of what can be used as substitutes:
(i) Picture,
(ii) Movie,
(iii) Demonstration,
(iv) Demonstration (demo) kit,
(v) Clay demonstration, and
(vi) Sketching.
(i) Picture
A picture is a photograph, painting or drawing, and so
forth, which shows a person, place or thing.
(ii) Movie
A movie is a series of moving pictures with sound that
tells a story, in a film format, usually shown on a big screen in
a cinema. Technology has made movies possible to be
watched on home television sets, especially when recorded,
in compact discs (CDs) and replayed in Digital Video Disc
(DVD) player connected to a television set
(iii) Demonstration
A demonstration is an act of showing something, or to
show or describe and explain how it works. Demonstration is
a good way to show learners something and how it works.
Thus, in a teaching-learning situation, demonstration is about
showing learners beyond the theory or abstraction, the way
something works.
(iv) Demonstration (demo) kit
A demonstration kit is composed of different objects
collected together and used to carry out demonstrations.
Examples are bottle caps, pen covers, rubber bands, paper
clips, phone recharge cards, and other similar objects that are
easily available everywhere.
Figure 4: A demonstration kit
(v) Clay demonstration
Clay demonstration is another way to show something
and how it works or how it is put together. Clay is a type of
soil. It is a soft, earthy material, which is usually flexible, when
it is wet. It is used to make pots and bricks. Plasticine is the
brand name of a form of artificial clay used in schools for
modeling things. Clay can also be made, for instructional
purposes, using dough from flour.
Figure 5: Clay demonstration in progress
(vi) Sketching
A sketch is a quick, simple drawing of something.
Sketching is the act of drawing a quick, simple picture of
something with minimal details. Sketching is a good way to
demonstrate something to the learner.
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) What is a barrier?
(ii) Give five examples of a barrier.
(iii) Give five non-examples of a barrier.
(iv) Write down the definitions of the three major barriers to
students’ study
(v) Write down the definition of “mass.”
(vi) Use “mass” in five sentences
(vii) In an extreme situation where it may not be easy to find
an appropriate concrete object for use in teaching a
concept, write down a list of six alternatives you can
use to teach the concept.
(viii) Select five concepts from your teaching subject and list
one thing you can use to teach each of the concepts
that will provide appropriate mass for your students.
(ix) Select one abstract concept from your teaching subject
that may appear difficult to find mass for and state
which of the alternatives for mass you can use for
teaching the concept.
(x) Make sure you apply the above assignment (vii) to all
the alternatives for mass.
(xi) Mention one non-example of each of the alternatives
for mass
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Define barrier.
(ii) Give two examples of a barrier.
(iii) Give two non-examples of a barrier.
(iv) Make five sentences using the term barrier.
(v) Identify three major barriers to students’ study.
(vi) Make five sentences with each of the three major
barriers.
(vii) Define mass.
(viii) Give two examples of a mass.
(ix) Give two non-examples of a mass.
(x) Make five sentences with the term mass. Select a
concept suitable for teaching in your area of
specialization, list five examples of things you can use
to provide mass for its teaching.
(xi) Using the same concept, provide five non-examples of
things you cannot use as mass for its teaching.
6.0 Summary
The summary of this chapter is provided for in Table 1
Table 1
Summary of Chapter 2
● A barrier is something which block the way
● Three major barriers to students’ study are:
(a) lack of mass,
(b) too steep a gradient or skipped gradient, and
(c) the misunderstood word
● Mass is the actual physical object of study
● A gradient is a way of doing things level by level
and step by step
● A steep gradient is a way of doing things, which
does not follow a systematic order
● A misunderstood word is a word that is not
understood at all or wrongly understood
● Lack of mass is a major barrier to study and also
learning.
● Instructors should provide real physical object as
mass for instruction
● The following are reasonable examples of what
can be used as substitutes for real physical
objects:
(i) Picture,
(ii) Movie,
(iii) Demonstration,
(iv) Demonstration (demo) kit,
(v) Clay demonstration, and
(vi) Sketching.
CHAPTER 3
STUDENTS’ REACTIONS TO LACK OF
MASS
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Students’ Reactions to Lack of Mass
1.0 Introduction
Lack of mass as a barrier produces the most distinct
and recognizable reactions of all the study barriers. Instructors
should be on the lookout for these reactions to enable them
identify them in students and adjust instruction immediately by
providing appropriate mass (actual physical object of study).
There is the need for the instructor to understudy how to
detect these reactions so as to be able to identify them in
students. Instructors need to make conscious efforts to
provide mass for all contents, which they teach because it is
not the entire time one may be conscious of this.
2.0 Objectives
● List all students’ reactions to lack of mass;
● Demonstrate each reaction to lack of mass;
● Identify, in students, all reactions to lack of mass; and
● Identify and describe situations when you experienced
lack of mass.
3.0 Students’ Reactions to Lack of Mass
Instructors should provide mass for all the contents that
they teach their students. If mass is not provided to students
in any lecture, the students will exhibit the following reactions
in Table 2 unconsciously. The meaning of each reaction has
been provided for clarity:
Table 2
Students’ Reactions to Lack of Mass
S/N
Reaction
Meaning
i
Feeling
squashed
The act of feeling crushed
ii
Face
squashed
The act of showing one’s face in a
seemingly crushed manner, which
may be a result of frowning
iii
Bent
The act of having the top part of
the body forward and hung down
iv
Sort of
spinning
The process whereby someone’s
head appears to be experiencing
a feeling of rapid rotation
v
Somewhat
dead
A feeling as if one is no longer
alive or feeling extremely inactive
S/N
Reaction
Meaning
vi
Bored
A feeling of dullness occasioned
by tiredness or restlessness
vii
Angry
A feeling of being full of anger as
a result of an action from
someone else or something,
which hurts or upsets one
viii
Stomach
feeling
funny
A strange feeling in the stomach
ix
Headache
A feeling of pain in the upper part
of the head
x
Eyes
hurting
frequently
The act of feeling pain in the eyes
frequently
xi
Dizzy
Having a feeling of going round
and round as if one would fall
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Write down all the students’ reactions to lack of mass.
You may wish to invent a mnemonic for this to aid your
memory. A mnemonic device is something that aids the
memory to recall information
(ii) Demonstrate to a partner each of the students’
reactions to lack of mass
(iii) Record a classroom session taught by another
instructor and see if you can identify these students’
reactions to lack of mass in the class.
(iv) Take note of how many of those reactions you would
identify in your own class and describe what you would
do about them.
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Identify five students’ reactions to lack of mass and
describe what each one means.
(ii) Think of two times when some of your students
experienced lack of mass and describe what you
observed and did in each case.
(iii) Identify two situations when you experienced lack of
mass. Describe, in writing, what you observed in each
case.
6.0 Summary
Discussions in this chapter have been summarized in
Table 3.
Table 3
Summary of Students’ Reactions to Lack of Mass
____________________________________
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Feeling squashed
Angry
Face squashed
Stomach feeling funny
Bent
(vi) Headache
Summary of Students’ Reactions to Lack
of Mass (Contd.)
(vii)
Sort of spinning
(viii)
Eyes hurting frequently
(ix)
Sort of dead
(x)
Dizzy
(xi)
Bored
CHAPTER 4
REMEDIES FOR LACK OF MASS
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Remedies for Lack of Mass
1.0 Introduction
A remedy is something that cures or alleviates. The
real remedy for lack of mass is to provide the actual object of
study. Hence, the focus of this chapter is to x-ray available
means to remedy lack of mass, being one of the major
barriers to study.
2.0 Objectives
● Define remedy;
● List the remedies for lack of mass;
● Describe each of the remedies for lack of mass;
● Give examples for each of the remedies for lack of
Mass;
● Give non-examples for each of the remedies for lack of
mass; and
● Practice each of the remedies for lack of mass.
3.0 Remedies for Lack of Mass
The only remedy for the barrier of lack of mass during
instruction is to provide the mass for the content being taught
by the instructor. That is, never teach any content to learners
without providing them the actual object for the content or, at
worst, the appropriate alternatives for the mass for the
content.
You have already studied the details of lack of mass in
Chapter 2. The remedies are the same as examples of lack of
mass. The following, therefore, are the remedies for the
barrier of lack of mass:
(i) Actual object being studied
(ii) Picture,
(iii) Movie,
(iv) Demonstration,
(v) Demonstration (demo) kit,
(vi) Clay demonstration, and
(vii) Sketching.
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
Mention an appropriate topic in your teaching subject.
(i) List five concepts related to the topic
(ii) List corresponding masses for each of the five
concepts
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) You are required to teach the following concepts with
appropriate masses: Complete the table below by
suggesting appropriate masses.
Concept
Mass
Glass
__________
Rectangle
__________
Water
__________
Computer
__________
Book
__________
(ii) Mention four situations in your teaching subject where
you could use each of the following:
(a) a demonstration kit
(b) a sketch
(c) a clay demonstration, and
(d) a film
6.0 Summary
Table 4 presents the summary of available remedies
for lack of mass as discussed in this Chapter.
Table 4
Summary of Remedies for Lack of Mass
CHAPTER 5
SECOND BARRIER TO STUDY—TOO
STEEP A GRADIENT OR
SKIPPED GRADIENT
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Second Barrier to Study—Too Steep A Gradient or
Skipped Gradient
1.0 Introduction
Learners easily understand instructions, which are
systematically presented to them. The onus is therefore on
instructors to present instructions to their students in a
systematic manner. This requires a lot of planning time from
instructors and adequate understanding of the subject matter
contents. Instructions, which are not presented in this
systematic order, usually lead to a problem called “too steep a
gradient or skipped gradient.” A gradient is a way of doing
something systematically, level by level and step by step. This
problem usually leads to reactions from students, which do
not allow them to learn well.
● Actual object being studies
● Picture,
● Movie,
● Demonstration,
● Demonstration (demo) kit,
● Clay demonstration
● Sketching
2.0 Objectives
● Define gradient,
● Use gradient in several sentences,
● Give examples and non-examples of gradient,
● Define steep,
● Use steep in several sentences,
● Give examples and non-examples of steep,
● Use steep gradient in several sentences,
● Give examples and non-examples of steep gradient,
● Define and describe abstractness,
● Form several sentences with abstractness,
● Define and describe complexity,
● Form several sentences with complexity,
● Define and describe sophistication,
● Form several sentences with sophistication,
● Give examples and non-examples of abstractness,
● Give examples and non-examples of complexity,
● Give examples and non-examples of sophistication.
3.0 Too Steep a Gradient or Skipped Gradient
The second barrier to study is too steep a gradient or
skipped gradient (See Fig. 4). A gradient is a systematic way
of doing something, level by level and step by step to make
studying and learning easy to do. A gradient can be easy or
difficult. If it is easy, the levels and steps can be done easily. If
it is difficult, it means the levels and steps cannot be done
easily. It is when the gradient is steep or skipped that the
levels and steps will not be done easily. A steep or skipped
gradient means that some levels and steps are missing or left
out. Skipped levels or steps leave steep gradient, which
makes learning difficult to do.
Figure 6: Three Major Barriers to Study—Too Steep a
Gradient
Examples of things that are in gradient are: ladder,
staircase and so forth. If these examples are properly graded,
they will be easy to climb. Otherwise, they will be difficult to
climb. For example, a staircase with a steep gradient will not
be easy to climb without looking at each step, whereas, if it is
not steep, one may be able to ascend or descend quickly on
the staircase. The phenomenon of too steep a gradient or
skipped gradient is most recognizable in the field of action,
i.e., when doing things but it also affects learners’
understanding of learned materials.
The following (See Table 5) are the meanings of the
terms related to gradient:
Table 5
Meanings of Terms Related to Gradient
S/N
Term
Meaning
(i)
Gradient
A way of doing something, level by level
and step by step
(ii)
Steep
Sloping sharply or rapidly
(iii)
Skipped
To omit or leave out
Another way to view the gradient of materials in a
teaching-learning situation is through the structure of
knowledge. The way concepts are structured for learning
purposes makes them easy or difficult to learn. The structure
of concepts will be explained using the concept difficulty
matrix (See Figs. 5 & 6). A matrix is a model of something. A
concept has three dimensions—abstractness, complexity, and
sophistication. The matrix can be expressed in a three-
dimensional form or a two-dimensional form.
Abstractness is the quality of being theoretical, or
unobservable. It is in a continuum, which varies from concrete
to abstract. A concrete thing refers to an actual thing or a
class of real things. We can make abstract concepts
accessible to learners if we use alternatives to real objects,
e.g., pictures, movies, sketches, demonstrations, and so forth.
On the other hand, a complex concept is one that has
parts, which are complicated or intricately related. It exists in a
continuum and varies from simple to complex. A complex
concept is most difficult to learn and requires a proper
gradient for it to be easily learned.
The third dimension, which is the sophistication of a
concept, refers to the change from the natural character or
simplicity of a concept to the process of becoming more
developed or subtle. It exists in a continuum, too, by varying
from descriptive, through comparative, to quantitative. In a
descriptive concept, words are used to describe such
concepts independently. In a comparative concept, we use
two or more concepts, which are compared together, using
relational concepts, such as: greater than, lesser than, less,
more, equal to, and so forth. A quantitative concept is one that
uses numbers and symbols to estimate its quantity or amount.
It is the highest level of sophistication for any concept. It does
not necessarily make concept learning difficult, in fact,
sophistication is supposed to simplify concept learning.
Table 6
Examples and Non-examples of Terms Related to
Gradient
S/N
Term
Example
Non-example
(i)
Abstractness
Electron,
Absolute zero,
etc.
Chair, yam, etc.
(ii)
Complexity
Genetics,
Society,
House
Cell wall, Son,
Block
(iii)
Sophistication
∞
Infinity
≤
Equal to or less
than
√
Square root
O2 + 2H2 = 2H2O
One molecule of
Oxygen reacts with
two molecules of
Hydrogen to
produce two
molecules of water
Quantitative
Comparative SOPHISTICATION
Descriptive
Abstract
ABSTRACTNESS
Concrete
Simple Complex
COMPLEXITY
Figure 7: Concept Difficulty Matrix (3D)
Complex Abstract Quantitative
Comparative
Simple Concrete Descriptive
Figure 8: Concept difficulty matrix (2D)
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Climb and descend from three staircases one after the
other. Classify them according to the ease or difficulty
of climbing and descending them.
(ii) From your teaching subject, give two examples and
two non-examples of an abstract concept. Show these
to a colleague.
(iii) Using your teaching subject, give two examples and
two non-examples of a complex concept. Show these
to a colleague.
(iv) Using your teaching subject, give two examples and
two non-examples of a sophisticated concept. Show
these to a colleague.
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Construct a statement using a concept from your
teaching subject, which properties are simple, concrete
and descriptive.
(ii) Construct a statement using a concept from your
teaching subject , which properties are simple,
concrete and comparative
(iii) Construct a statement using a concept from your
teaching subject, which properties are complex,
abstract and quantitative.
6.0 Summary
(i) The complexity of a concept varies from simple to
complex
Figure 9: Complexity dimension of concept difficulty
(ii) The abstractness of a concept varies from concrete to
abstract
Figure 10: Abstractness dimension of concept difficulty
(iii) The sophistication of a concept varies from descriptive
through comparative to quantitative
Figure 11: Sophistication dimension of concept difficulty
CHAPTER 6
LEARNERS’ REACTIONS TO TOO STEEP
A GRADIENT OR SKIPPED GRADIENT
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Learners’ Reactions to Too Steep a Gradient or
Skipped Gradient
1.0 Introduction
The normal progression in carrying out a learning task
is to learn each part and then proceed to the parts level by
level and step by step without omitting any step. This is also
the progression by which instruction should be carried out in
any class. When this is not the case, it means the instructor or
the learner has skipped a step. Then, learners exhibit some
reactions, which instructors should learn to detect to enable
them adjust instructions appropriately. Learners’ main
reactions to a skipped gradient are a feeling of reelingness
and confusion.
2.0 Objectives
● Define the terms—reeling and confused
● Use the terms—reeling and confused in several
sentences, and;
● Demonstrate the terms—reeling and confused
3.0 Learners’ Reactions to Too Steep a Gradient
or Skipped Gradient
Learners are supposed to learn a new thing gradually
and systematically, level by level and step by step. They are
supposed to first learn the components of the task before
proceeding to do the task step by step. For instance, learners
are expected to learn the first step, and then do it well before
proceeding to the next step. This next step is learned well and
done well before combining all the steps. This method will
ensure that the whole process will be done well. Learning
something step by step is what is usually referred to as
learning on a gradient.
When learning is not done on a gradient, learners exhibit
some reactions known as reeling and looking confused. When
learners are reeling and confused, no learning will take place.
Table 7 illustrates the reactions of learners to too steep a
gradient or skipped gradient.
Table 7
Learners’ Reactions to Too Steep A Gradient or Skipped
Gradient
S/N
Reaction
Meaning
(i)
Reelingness
A whirling sensation
(ii)
Confused
A feeling of being
unclear about what is
happening
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Try to share with a colleague the story of an incident
when you tried to learn something unsuccessfully and
how you felt.
(ii) Narrate to a colleague an incident where you did
something successfully. State the steps you took and
how you felt when you did it successfully.
(iii) Select a task, which involves a series of step to carry it
out. Select a learner who you intend to teach the steps
to and watch him carry out the steps and watch his or
her reactions.
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Write down the meaning of each of the following terms:
a. reeling
b. confused
(ii) Make one sentence with each of the following words:
a. reeling
b. confused
(iii) Draw the picture of a confused learner
(iv) Think of two instances when you experienced too steep
a gradient. Describe how you felt in each instance.
6.0 Summary
Learners who do not learn on a gradient will skip
gradient. They react to this situation by reeling or looking
confused.
Figure 12: Learners’ reactions to too steep a gradient or
skipped gradient
CHAPTER 7
REMEDY FOR TOO STEEP A GRADIENT
OR SKIPPED GRADIENT
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Remedy for Too Steep a Gradient or Skipped Gradient
1.0 Introduction
It is important for learners to be able to understand
what steps of a task they do well, otherwise, it is the duty of
the instructor to assist them to identify the step done well, by
themselves, before getting confused. The learners’ trouble is
usually at the end of the step they thought they understood
well. Find out at what step they got confused. Usually, the
step before the one where they got confused is usually not
well understood. They just thought they understood it well. Let
them understand that step well and apply the method to the
other steps and they will no longer be confused.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this Chapter, you should be able to:
● Get learners to identify the step in the learning process,
which they thought they did well;
● Get learners to identify the step in a learning process,
where they thought they got confused;
● Assist learners to identify the step in a learning
process, which they did not really understand well; and
● Assist learners to retrace their steps and learn well,
step by step
3.0 Remedy for Too Steep a Gradient or Skipped
Gradient
The remedy for the barrier of, too steep a gradient or
skipped gradient, is to cut back on the amount of activity
undertaken or steps learned or done. The instructor should
find out what actions the learners thought they did well just
before getting confused. Find out what actions they wanted to
carry out and were confused about. Get them to repeat the
action they thought they understood well. It would be found
out that they did not really understand that step well. So, this
is the starting point for the re-teaching exercise. Get them to
do the lower steps well before moving to the next step where
they got confused. They are likely to be able to do the new
step well without exhibiting any confusion or reelingness.
Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Observe learners while carrying out a task and doing it
well. Find out what they thought they did well
(ii) Give out an assignment to your students and observe
the way they would carry it out. Look out for students
exhibiting signs of confusion and find out from them if
they would be able to identify where they got confused
4.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Think of two times when you experienced too steep a
gradient or skipped gradient. Describe in writing how
you felt in each case.
(ii) Describe how you would instruct your students to
practice how to learn on a gradient
5.0 Summary
Table 8 contains a summary of the remedy for too
steep a gradient or skipped gradient.
Table 8
Remedy for Too Steep a Gradient or Skipped Gradient
● The learners’ trouble is at the end of the step they
thought they understood well
● Find out what they thought they understood well just
before they got confused
● The instructor will find out they did not really
understand that step well
● Get them to understand this step well, and they will
be able to do the next step
● The gradient is no longer too steep or skipped
CHAPTER 8
THIRD BARRIER TO STUDY—THE
MISUNDERSTOOD WORD
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Third barrier to study—the misunderstood word
1.0 Introduction
The third and most important barrier to study, and
therefore, learning is “The Misunderstood Word” (Figure 11).
It is the most important barrier because it is capable of
causing drop out among learners.
”Mis” means not or wrongly. A misunderstood word,
therefore, means a word, which is not understood at all or
understood wrongly. A word that is not understood at all is
also called, a “misconception.” A word that is wrongly
understood is called, an “alternative conception.”
Examples of things that can be misunderstood are
words, concepts, symbol or situations.
2.0 Objectives
● Define, the Misunderstood Word;
● Use, The Misunderstood Word in several sentences;
● Give examples of the misunderstood word;
● Give non-examples of the misunderstood word
3.0 The Misunderstood Word
The three barriers to study are (1) lack of mass; (2) too
steep a gradient or skipped gradient, and (3) the
misunderstood word. The third barrier to study is the
misunderstood word. A misunderstood word, concept, symbol,
or situation is a word, concept, symbol, or situation, which is
not understood, or a word, concept, symbol, or situation, that
is wrongly understood.
The third barrier to study (Figure 11) is the most
important barrier because it is capable of making learners quit
what they are studying about or drop out of school completely.
It is what human relations are made of because the
misunderstood word creates communication problems and
hence, human relations problems. It affects our thinking
processes. It is the makeup of the subjects we talk, discuss,
or study about. It determines if one has natural skills and
abilities. It is the definitions of words. It is a major factor in
knowing if one is stupid or not. The other barriers do not have
effects that are as serious as the above ones.
A misunderstood word can be a big word, e.g.,
“monopoly,” or a small word, e.g., “it.” It can also be a written
word or spoken word, which is heard by another person.
Figure 13: Three Major Barriers to Study—the
Misunderstood Word
Some examples of the misunderstood word are
presented below:
(i) In the sentence, “The bat flew away,” what is meant is
an animal that looks like a mouse or bird that flies at
night. A person could mistake the “bat” in the sentence
for a piece of wood with handle used for playing games
such as table tennis, cricket and baseball. If this
misunderstanding occurs, no good communication will
take place.
(ii) Consider “The boy may drive me crazy” to be mistaken
for the boy actually driving a car to a crazy point. The
correct message has not been communicated and
understood in this case.
(iii) I once had a Space Wagon car. Each time I travelled
with it and as I was approaching a Police Check Point,
the Police used to stop me vigorously as they would
stop a commercial bus driver. The problem in this case
was that they used to mistake the space bus for a
“danfo” commercial bus. In actual fact, the two types of
vehicles do not really look alike, but if we consider the
educational level of some of the Policemen, the
misunderstanding would be understandable!
Some non-examples of The Misunderstood Word are
presented below:
(i) In a communication situation where one party did not
really hear what the other person said, no
misunderstood word or situation has taken place
(ii) If two persons who are friends are interacting and one
person is communicating with the other one while the
other one deliberately pretends as if he heard him or
her wrongly. This is not a case of misunderstanding!
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Define: The Misunderstood Word”
(ii) Make three sentences with “The Misunderstood Word”
(iii) Recall three situations when you had a misunderstood
word. Describe to a colleague how it affected what you
were doing at that time and any other reaction you
exhibited.
(iv) Recall three situations when you observed someone
else who had misunderstood words or symbols.
Describe your observations to a colleague
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Describe, in your own words, what you understand by
“The Misunderstood Word”
(ii) Give two examples of a misunderstood word
(iii) Give two non-examples of a misunderstood word
(iv) Describe one situation in which you had a
misunderstood word and what happened thereafter
(v) Describe one situation in which someone else had a
misunderstood word; describe the other circumstances
surrounding the incident
6.0 Summary
Table 9 presents the summary of the third barrier to
study—the misunderstood word:
Table 9
The Third Barrier to Study — the Misunderstood Word
●
“Mis” means not or wrongly
●
The misunderstood word means a word not
understood or understood wrongly
●
The things that can be misunderstood are words,
concepts, symbols, and situations
●
The misunderstood word is the most important
barrier to study because it is capable of making
learners quit what they are studying about
CHAPTER 9
LEARNERS’ REACTIONS TO THE
MISUNDERSTOOD WORD
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Learners’ reactions to the misunderstood word
1.0 Introduction
In a teaching-learning situation, learners are expected
to learn all that the instructor intends for them to learn. This
could be through written materials or verbal instructions. In a
study technology environment, to ensure that learners learn
very well, no verbal instruction takes place.
When learners, during an instruction, encounter words
whose meanings they do not understand, they tend to react in
some ways unconsciously as listed in Table 10.
2.0 Objectives
● List learners’ reactions to the misunderstood word;
● Demonstrate learners’ reactions to the misunderstood
word;
● Identify each of the reactions when learners exhibit
them;
● Assist learners to identify their own reactions to the
misunderstood word; and
● Use clay to mold learners exhibiting reactions to the
misunderstood word.
3.0 Learners’ Reactions to the Misunderstood Word
Table 10 shows learners’ reactions to the misunderstood word
and the meaning of each of the terms.
Table 10
Learners’ Reactions to the Misunderstood Word
S/N
Reaction
Meaning
(i)
Blank
The act of showing no evidence of
interest, expression, or
understanding
(ii)
Washed out
feeling
Pale, tired looking
(iii)
Nervous
hysteria
A feeling of extreme emotional
outburst leading to laughter, crying,
etc.
(iv)
Worried
A feeling of being anxious about
something
(v)
Not there
A feeling of not being in or at a
place—a kind of absentmindedness
(vi)
May do
wrong thing
Mistakes are possible when no
proper understanding takes place
S/N
Reaction
Meaning (Contd.)
(vii)
May stop
doing what
you are
studying
about
This may be a temporary stoppage
of work
(viii)
May cause
blow
Blow is an unauthorized departure
from a study area
(ix)
Doodling
The act of drawing or scribbling
something idly, especially when
thinking about something else
(x)
Daydreamin
g
The act of thinking idly about
pleasant things and forgetting the
present
(xi)
Yawning
The act of indicating by yawns one’s
weariness or indifference
(xii)
May make
you stay
long on
what you
are studying
This is the act of staying long on
what one is studying without being
aware of it for some time
(xiii)
May not
remember
what you
read on
page
Having gone through a whole page,
if one does not remember the
contents of the page, it is an
indication of the presence of
misunderstood words before and/on
the page
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Read the list of the learners’ reactions to the
misunderstood word one by one, until you can read all
of them off hand.
(ii) Write down all the learners’ reactions to the
misunderstood word, until you can do this without
looking at the list.
(iii) Practice demonstrating each of the learners’ reactions
to the misunderstood word in front of a colleague.
(iv) Assist learners to identify and agree to their own
reactions to the misunderstood, word, concept, or
symbol.
(v) Practice using clay to mould each posture of learners’
reactions to the misunderstood word.
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Draw five different pictures of a person with a
misunderstood word, who is exhibiting the following
feelings:
a. Blank
b. Yawning
c. Tired
d. Not there
e. Worried and upset
(ii) Write down the advantages and disadvantages of a
material-based instruction in reducing the incidence of
the misunderstood word among learners
6.0 Summary
Table 11 presents the summary of Chapter 9.
Table 11
Summary of Learners’ Reactions to the Misunderstood
Word
●
Blank
●
May cause blow
●
Washed out feeling
●
Doodling
●
Nervous hysteria
●
Daydreaming
●
Worried
●
Yawning
●
Not there
●
May make you stay long
on what you are studying
●
May do wrong thing
●
May not remember what
you read on page
●
May stop doing what you
are
studying about
CHAPTER 10
REMEDY FOR THE MISUNDERSTOOD
WORD
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Remedy for the Misunderstood Word
1.0 Introduction
There is no doubt that there will be misunderstood
words in the field of study, especially where a material-based
instruction is employed. The duty of instructors is to assist
learners to be able to remedy the situation by themselves;
otherwise, the instructor would have to be doing this over and
over, with several learners. What instructors need to do is to
assist the learners to find the word, concept, or symbol, which
is misunderstood and get it defined and used in sentences
until they really understand what the word, concept or symbol
means. The learners need to use the word, concept, or
symbol in several sentences until it is properly understood.
When learners understand things fully, it shows in their
countenance!
2.0 Objectives
● Possess the ability to use a dictionary to find meanings
for misunderstood words;
● Make several sentences with the meanings of words,
concepts, or symbols;
● Assist learners to learn how to use standard
dictionaries to find meanings for their misunderstood
words, concepts, or symbols;
● Practice with learners how to make several sentences
with their misunderstood words to achieve full
understanding; and
● Assist learners to recognize when they have achieved
full understanding.
3.0 Remedy for the Misunderstood Word
The first step in remedying a misunderstood word
encountered by a learner when reading a piece of material,
which meaning he or she does not know, is to “clear” the
word. According to the Hornby (2010), to “clear” means to
“clear up a mystery, difficulty, of misunderstanding” (p. 261),
so that complete understanding of the word can be achieved.
The meaning of the word has to be understood in all its
ramifications. The procedure used by learners to locate and
clear up misunderstood words is called, “Word Clearing.” A
standard or subject dictionary is used in word clearing for
proper understanding. Specialized dictionaries may also be
used for the same purpose, e.g., a small word dictionary or a
reference dictionary could be used as appropriate. The
method of word clearing recommended for learners is what
instructors are also to use by themselves.
The following are the main steps involved in clearing
any word or symbol, which learners may not understand
during reading or studying:
(i) The learner needs to search for the misunderstood
word from the earlier part of the reading material
(ii) Look up the word in a standard dictionary
(iii) Quickly read through all the definitions and find the one
that fits
(iv) Read out the definition that fits
(v) Make several sentences with the definition until proper
understanding of the meaning of the word is achieved.
(vi) Learn each of the remaining definitions of the same
word the same way
(vii) The learner re-reads the passage from where the
earliest misunderstood word was found
(viii) Reading should normally proceed well if all the
misunderstood words had been identified, otherwise,
other misunderstood words are searched and cleared
using a standard dictionary
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Select a word at random and use a standard dictionary
to check for the definition of the word
(ii) Select a word from your area of specialization and use
your subject dictionary to find the meaning of the word
(iii) Select a word from your teaching subject; ask your
students to check the word up from a standard or
subject dictionary or dictionary on their phones,
computers, etc.
(iv) Describe how you usually feel when you have cleared
a word, which you did not understand?
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Find out the definition of “education” from a standard
dictionary
(ii) Use the first meaning of “education” in ten sentences
(iii) How many other definitions of “education” can you
find?
(iv) Make five sentences with each of the other definitions
6.0 Summary
Please find the summary of Chapter 10 in Table 12:
Table 12
Remedy for the Misunderstood Word
●
Find the word or symbol, which is misunderstood
●
Define the word or symbol using a standard dictionary
●
Use the word in several sentences until fully
understood
●
Learn the other definitions of the same word
●
Use each of them in several sentences until fully
understood
CHAPTER 11
PREPARATION AND USE OF COURSE
GUIDES FOR INSTRUCTION
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Preparation and Use of Course guides for Instruction
1.0 Introduction
The use of course guides is an important component of
study technology. According to the L. Ron Hubbard Library
(2003), “a course guide is a form, which sets out the exact
sequence of items to be studied or done by a student, in
order, item by item, on a course”(p.65). It is a type of course
guide, protocol or procedure, which learners follow to
complete a course. It includes the contents of the course,
which are progressively assigned to the learners to be studied
in a measured manner. The contents of the course could be
the theory, practical, and drills, all done in a proper sequence.
Learners are expected to follow the exact order of the course
guide, without jumping back and forth from one section to the
other. All major strategies associated with study technology
are laid out and utilized in a typical course guide. These
include: word clearing, real objects, pictures, movies,
demonstration, Chinese school, sketching, demonstration kit,
and clay demonstration.
2.0 Objectives
● State the definition of course guide;
● Describe the components of a course guide
● Design a course guide on aspects of your teaching
subject; and
● Use a course guide for instruction to verify its validity.
3.0 Preparation and Use of Course Guides for
Instruction
A course guide has three major sections, namely, the
word list, the reading assignments and the activity section.
The word list contains a list of key words, which meanings the
learners need to master in a course book. The reading
assignments include the contents of the whole course book,
which have been divided based on some criteria and gradient
for learners to cover within a given time. The activity section
includes tasks, which are meant to reinforce the learning of
the individual. This is where all relevant learning resources
are used to enable learners to understand and be able to
apply what has been learned. A course guide can be prepared
for any subject of the school curriculum and all the sections of
the course guide will be based on the subject.
A proper mastery of the meanings of all the words in
this list prevents learners from encountering misunderstood
words when studying the course book. The learner takes
these words one by one and looks for their meanings from a
standard dictionary, to clear the words. When the appropriate
meanings have been found, the learner uses each word in
several sentences until the meaning is properly understood.
When the learner is satisfied that the meaning of the word has
been understood, he or she puts his or her initials against the
word to attest to his or her understanding. He or she further
demonstrates this understanding to a Twin; the Twin puts his
or her initials against the word, too, to show agreement that
the learner understands. This called a twin checkout. A
checkout is the act of finding out if a learner actually
understands what has been studied. A twin checkout is when
this act is performed by the learner’s twin, who is also a
student. At the end of the long list of words, the Instructor is
expected to check out the learner on a sample of the words to
assess the learner’s understanding. When the Instructor is
satisfied that there is evidence of proper understanding, he or
she initials the bottom of the list of words, thereby approving
that the learner moves to the next stage of the Course guide.
This act is called an Instructor checkout. The instructor
ensures that the learner has fully understood every aspect of
the content and is able to apply the knowledge gained. If the
Instructor is not satisfied with the learner’s demonstration of
knowledge, he or she could ask the learner to re-study the
definitions. The Twin, too, is asked to do the same because
failure of understanding on the part of the learner is also
assumed to be a failure of understanding on the part of the
Twin who attested earlier to the understanding of the learner
through his or her initials. The following is a sample word list:
Word List
Cell
--------------
--------------
Tissue
--------------
Organ
--------------
--------------
Organ System
--------------
--------------
Reproduction
--------------
--------------
Asexual
--------------
--------------
Reproduction
Budding
--------------
--------------
Cloning
--------------
--------------
Fission
--------------
--------------
Sexual Reproduction
--------------
--------------
Mitosis
--------------
--------------
Meiosis
--------------
--------------
Flower
--------------
--------------
ETC.
--------------
--------------
Instructor ______________________
The reading assignments come up step by step to
ensure that learners master them properly. In assigning a
reading task, the course book would have been divided in
learnable chunks, which are assigned to learners one after the
other. The title of the course book needs to be mentioned and
the inclusive page numbers need to be stated to guide the
learner on how far he or she needs to go. Whatever key
words may be in the assigned reading would have been taken
care of in the word list. An example is:
Read “College Chemistry by A. Jaiyeoba,
pages 1-10. ____ _____
The learner studies these pages and when he or she is
satisfied that there is proper understanding of the assigned
reading, he or she appends his or her initials, in readiness for
the twin’s verification. The twin then spot-checks when he or
she is ready, and if there is satisfaction that the other twin
properly understands the assigned reading, he or she
appends his or her initials at the second slot. To spot check
means to sample some words in the assigned reading and
request the twin to define them and use them in sentences
until the other twin is satisfied. An application question could
also be asked in lieu of spot checking. In some cases, one
twin may not be ready to verify a piece of work because he or
she was busy on his or own work, the other twin must wait for
him or her, by continuing to be busy on the reading
assignment.
The assignments that could come under “drills” involve
the use of learning resources. These are progressively
assigned as they are relevant to the reading assignment
preceding them. Therefore, various aspects of the reading
assignment could be sketched, demonstrated with demo kits
or clay, or drawn as pictures. These may require an Instructor
to check out the learner because the twin’s knowledge may be
limited. It is referred to as a star-rated check out, if it is the
Instructor that is required to check the learner out.
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Working closely with a twin, select a course book used
by you or your students. Sample the key words in the
book and compile them into a word list
(ii) Divide the contents of the book into learnable sections
based on the time required to cover the material.
Prepare reading assignments from them
(iii) Based on the contents of each reading assignment,
assign appropriate drills to match them
(iv) Attempt to use the course guide, which you have
prepared to teach your students and share your
experience with your twin
5.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Submit self-assessment exercise (i) to the Course
Instructor for grading
(ii) Submit self-assessment exercise (ii) to the Course
Instructor for grading
(iii) Submit self-assessment exercise (iii) to the Course
Instructor for grading
(iv) Share your experience of using a course guide for
instruction with your Course Instructor
6.0 Summary
The following is a summary of Chapter 11:
● A course guide is a kind of manual, which sets out the
exact sequence of items to be studied or done by a
student, in order, and item by item.
● A course guide has three major sections, namely, the
word list, the reading assignments and the activity
section
● A check out is a strategy used to find out how much a
learner knows from an assigned work.
● A twin check out occurs when it is carried out by the
learner’s twin
● An instructor check out occurs when it is carried out by
the course instructor
● A star-rated check out occurs when it is carried out by
a course instructor during the course of using a course
guide.
● The course guide contains all student-centred
instructional strategies and resources, for which study
technology is noted
CHAPTER 12
MANAGEMENT OF A MATERIAL-BASED
INSTRUCTION
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Management of A Material-Based Instruction
1.0 Introduction
A major component of Study Technology is the sole
use of course materials for executing a course. All the
materials needed for the course must be available. All
learners must have their own materials. That is, all the
materials must go round all the learners. A material-based
instruction is one in which the instruction is solely from the
material already prepared for this purpose and the learners
use the materials solely for their guide, without any direct
verbal instruction from the instructor. A material-based
instruction necessarily uses an individualized learning
mode. To enhance discipline during the course, strict
schedules are maintained by all concerned. All learners
start work at the same time, they go on breaks at the same
time and must return from breaks at the same time. The
Instructor, too, also observes the same schedules
faithfully.
The Instructor must focus on the task of instructing
only. He or she must not engage in nonprofessional duties,
such as administration or clerical duties. Instructors
involved in the use of study technology must never teach
by using verbal information or by directly providing
information to learners’ enquiries. They are only expected
to refer them to the sources of where learners can find
information they need to answer their questions.
Instructors are in the classroom to provide assistance to
the learners. They do this through the use of a two-way
communication system involving the Instructor and the
Learner in a back and forth system, depending on who
initiated the communication. They are not supposed to
bother a learner who is concentrating very well on his or
her work.
Also, they are expected to ward off any intruder into the
class who may wish to disturb the peace of hardworking
learners. In a material-based instructional setting, the
Instructors are expected to use several study technology
tools or strategies in implementing their instruction. They
are also expected to use as many varieties of materials as
possible. A material-based instruction is learner focused. It
runs on courses. The recommended number of learners
per instructor is 18 to ensure proper supervision.
2.0 Objectives
• List the requirements for a material-based instruction;
• Describe the setting for a material-based instruction;
• Describe the role of the learner in a material-based
instruction;
• Describe the role of the Instructor as an Instructor in a
material-based instruction; and
• Implement a material-based instruction.
3.0 Material-based Instruction
3.1 Requirements for a Material-based Instruction
Study technology uses a material-based instructional
system. It is a form of self-learning and independent approach
to instruction. Various materials are used in a material-based
instruction guided by the tenets of Study Technology. These
include: the course book, course guide or course guide, roll
book, student files, pink sheet, routing forms, and success
story form. A course book is a book recommended for the
course on which the course guide or course guide is based.
“A course guide is a form, which sets out the exact sequence
of items to be studied or done by a student, in order, item by
item, on a course”(L. Ron Hubbard Library, 2003, p.65).
A roll book is the master record book containing the list
of all students enrolled for the course from where rolls are
called at the beginning of every session or at the end of every
break to be sure that attendance is 100%. Absences must be
formally sought and authorized ahead of time. It should
contain students’ addresses, date of enrollment and departure
or completion.
Student files contain all the records of the students,
including forms, examination records, permissions, and so
forth. These are usually kept in a filing cabinet for safe
keeping.
A pink sheet is a pink coloured sheet of paper
containing a study assignment given to a student who has
missed something, which should have been learned earlier.
The student is usually requested to restudy a piece of material
and get it checked out. It is a quick and precise way to remedy
the incidence of misunderstood words. Table 13 represents a
good example of a pink sheet:
Routing forms are used for directing the student to the
next stage of the course after successfully completing a
previous stage.
Success story is a statement of benefit or gains or wins
freely made by a student after successfully completing a
course. This is a course evaluation form from an individual
learner’s point of view and experience, which usually provides
feedback to the organizers of a material-based instruction.
This is usually kept in a student’s file. In some cases, it could
be read out to other students anonymously during a
completion ceremony. The student could also be asked to
come and share it with the other students during graduation
ceremonies.
Table 13
An Example of a Pink Sheet
Theory
and
Practical
Assignme
nt
Coach
Instructor
Observations
Clear the
word,
“beatitude
” and star-
rate
Student was found
doodling
A quick check showed
that he did not
understand the meaning
of the word, “beatitude”
He was verbally asked to
clear the word
On a second check,
there was no evidence
that he did anything
about it.
3.1.1 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) List all the items, which you can find in the course room
of a material-based instruction
(ii) Describe verbally to a partner what each of the items is
used for
(iii) Now write down what each item is used for and show it
to your study partner
3.2 The Typical Setting for a Material-Based Instruction
A typical setting for the implementation of a material-
based instruction uses a face-to-face format involving only 18
students per instructor. The regular list of personnel for
implementing the instruction includes: the Instructor who is a
trained person in study technology; Course Administrator who
is in charge of course materials and records; Quality Control
Officers who are in charge of the Quality Control Division of
the Applied Scholastics International where students are
examined, and receive special assistance on learning or
where they are awarded completions and certificates; and the
Ethics Officer who implements ethics policies of the Applied
Scholastics International to prevent upsets and distractions.
These different personnel stay in different sections of the
Course Room.
In addition to the personnel, there is always present, a
projection equipment with a screen for use in doing Chinese
School. A Chinese School is a strategy similar to the Qur’anic
School strategy, which is used to help students memorize
important contents in the course. The Instructor reads
materials to be memorized one by one and the students
repeat after the Instructor. The Instructor then reads
everything together at once and the students repeat all at
once. At each study table, students sit in pairs, and face to
face, with their twins. We have on each table: standard
dictionaries, one per student; demonstration kit, at least one
per twin; course books, course guides and other materials.
Reference dictionaries are kept on a table in another
accessible section of the room. These dictionaries are
available for consultation for all students.
Another section in the room is for Clay Table Training.
Here, clay work given as an assignment in the course guide is
done on the table and prepared for check out by an Instructor.
3.2.1 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) List all the sections you can find in a material-based
instructional course room
(ii) Use the Chinese School strategy to learn the list of
sections in the course room
(iii) List all the items you can find on a typical study table
used by a pair of students
(iv) Use the Chinese School strategy to learn the list of all
the items normally found on a typical table used by
learners
(v) Draw and label the plan of a typical course room for a
material-based instruction, including all the sections
3.3 The Role of the Learner in a Material-based
Instruction
The learner needs to obey the set rules for the smooth
running of a material-based instruction. The learner must
observe punctuality in arriving for class and in doing all
assignments. The learner must have all recommended books
for instruction to proceed normally. The learner must work
hard during class periods and during out-of-class activities.
All learners must ensure that they get sufficient food,
especially breakfast, and sleep while undergoing a face-to-
face material-based instruction. Learners should not allow any
unknown information pass them by without asking an
Instructor, but not a fellow learner who may not know or who
will provide information unnecessarily, which does not
contribute to proper learning.
Learners are enjoined to maintain general discipline
while in class; correct entrances must be used for coming in
and leaving the room. All personal instructional materials and
other possessions are to be kept in the appropriate places. All
additional rules, usually pasted on the bulletin board by the
Instructor, must be obeyed.
3.3.1 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Describe to your partner the things expected of
learners in a material-based instructional setting
(ii) Write down a list of things, which a learner is
supposed to do in a material-based instruction
(iii) Use the Chinese School strategy to learn the list of
things
3.4 The Role of the Lecturer as an Instructor in a
Material-based Instruction
In a face-to-face material-based instruction, it is the
duty of the higher institution Lecturer to serve as an Instructor
in doing the following:
(i) muster the learners so that they can come to class
punctually.
(ii) call rolls.
(iii) introduce new students or those coming from the
Examiner after completing a section of the work, at the
appropriate time, especially immediately after roll call in
the morning and after breaks, at other times
(iv) attend to all questions from learners
(v) instruct the course properly and not teach the course!
(vi) ensure that space and equipment are available
(vii) stick to all schedules expected of learners and
instructors
(viii) ensure general cleanliness of the class environment
(ix) ensure that nobody interrupts the class
3.4.1 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Use the Chinese School strategy to learn all the roles
of the Instructor in a material-based instruction
(ii) Write down the list of things expected of an Instructor in
a material-based instruction
(iii) Share with your Twin the list of the things that an
Instructor is supposed to do in a material-based
instructional setting
4.0 Revision Exercises
(i) Identify and describe all the instructional materials that
could be found in the course room of a material-based
instruction
(ii) Draw and label the typical twins at work on their table
showing all the instructional materials on the table
(iii) Write down a list of things, which a learner is
supposed to do in a material-based instruction
(iv) List 10 duties of a Lecturer who is serving as an
Instructor in a material-based instruction
(v) Based on what you have learned about a material-
based instruction, implement it in your class and share
your experience, in writing, with your Instructor.
(vi) List all the items you can find in the course room of a
material-based instruction.
(vii) Describe, in writing, what each item is used for.
(viii) Write down a list of things that a learner is expected to
do in a material-based instruction.
(ix) List all the items you can find on a typical study table
used by a pair of students
5.0 Summary
The following is a summary of Chapter 12:
● Study technology uses a material-based instructional
system. It is a self-learning and independent learning
format.
● The instructional materials needed in a material-based
instruction are: the course book, student files, pink
sheet, routing forms, and success story form.
● A typical classroom for a material-based instruction has
only 18 students per Instructor
● the list of personnel includes: the Instructor, Course
Administrator, Quality Control Officer, and Ethics
Officer
● The following are also present in a course room:
projection equipment, tables, on which are placed:
standard dictionaries, demonstration kits, course
books, and course guides. Reference dictionaries are
placed in an accessible location in the room. A section
is also created for clay work.
● The duty of the learner in a material-based instructional
setting is to work hard and concentrate on his/her in-
class and out-of-class activities and obey the rules set
for the class to facilitate learning through working
closely with the twins and the Instructor
● The duty of the Instructor is to attend to the learners’
instructional needs and protect them from external
disturbance and other environmental factors capable of
disturbing learning.
CHAPTER 13
COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR
INSTRUCTORS
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Communication Skills for Instructors
1.0 Introduction
Communication is an important ingredient of life and
living. Communication is the action of conveying information.
Thus, it is at the heart of any formal or informal teaching-
learning process. Teaching involves a lot of communication.
Good teachers are therefore always good communicators.
Good students are also good participants in the information
cycle by being good receivers and responders. It is therefore
important that teachers and students should learn the art,
science and technology of good communication.
The term, “communication”, is derived from the Latin
word “communis,” meaning “common,” i.e., to share. It is a
two-way process between the sender and the receiver, which
requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient (See
Figs. 12 & 13). Communication requires that the two parties
should have something in common concerning the subject of
the communication. In addition, communication can occur
across long distances in time and space because the receiver
does not need to be present or aware of the sender’s intention
to communicate at the specific time. However, for the
communication process to be complete, the receiver needs to
understand the message and be able to respond effectively to
the message (See Fig. 13).
2.0 Objectives
● Define communication;
● Identify the components of the communication process;
● Describe the communication process;
● Illustrate the communication process in a classroom
situation;
● Identify facilitators and barriers of the communication
process;
● Describe facilitators and barriers of the communication
process;
● List types of communication;
● Describe types of communication; and
● Apply each type of communication in instruction
3.0 Meaning of Communication
Communication has been defined by experts in
different ways. For instance, Dale (1969) defined it as the
sharing of ideas and feelings in a mood of mutuality. Similarly,
Mangal and Mangal (2009) defined communication as:
a process of sharing or exchanging experiences,
information, ideas, opinions, sentiments,
thoughts,
feelings, etc. between the sources of
communication and receiver through some
mutually agreeable or known media (verbal or
non-verbal) (p.307)
In addition, The L. Ron Hubbard Library defined
communication as
the consideration and the action of impelling
an impulse or particle from source-point
across a distance to receipt-point, with
the intention of bringing into being at the
receipt-point duplication and understanding
of that, which emanated from the source-point
(p. 19). (See Figs.14 & 15).
The three definitions tried to define communication,
bearing in mind the factors, which make effective
communication possible, or conditions under which effective
communication takes place.
Figure14: Initiation of a Communication
Figure 15: Response to a Communication
The initiator of the communication sends it over a
distance to the receiver of the initial communication. This
requires that the receiver of the initial communication correctly
interprets the communication to be able to understand it and
know how to respond to it. In Figure 13, the receiver of the
initial communication who is now the initiator of return
information responds to the information based on his/her
understanding for the original initiator of the earlier
communication to now receive the return communication with
understanding, too. This is an example of one cycle of
complete communication that is very useful in the classroom
situation. For it to be a two-way communication cycle, the
receiver of the initial communication has to initiate his or her
own communication, which will go through another complete
cycle to qualify for a two-way communication.
3.1.1 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) What is your own definition of communication?
(ii) Select one partner. Attempt to initiate a communication
with him or her with the intention for him or her to
receive the information
(iii) Initiate a communication with the same partner but
without you having the intention for him or her to
receive the information
(iv) Request your partner to, in turn, initiate a
communication with you with the intention for you to
receive the communication
(v) Now request your partner to communicate with you
without any intention on his or her part to let you
receive the information
3.2 Components of the Communication Process
According Mangal, S. and Mangal, U. (2009), the
communication process, in general, contains six main
components:
(i) source of communication;
(ii) contents of communication;
(iii) media of communication;
(iv) receiver of communication;
(v) contents of response; and
(vi) facilitators or barriers of communication
Figure 16 is a diagrammatic representation of the
communication Process adapted from Mangal, S. and
Mangal, U. (2009). In the teaching-learning situation, teachers
are mainly the source or sender of communication. They
should always do this deliberately with the intention that the
learners would receive the communication. This requires that
the sender of the information is interested in the receiver
receiving the information. In addition, this requires that
learners pay attention to the communication before it can be
received. If there is a shared understanding between the
sender and the receiver, the receiver should be able to
duplicate the communication exactly as the sender sent it. In a
higher institution setting, instructors should always ensure that
they are systematic in their communication, making sure that
learners understand what is being communicated.
The contents of instructors’ communication should be
logically connected by moving gradually from simple to
complex, concrete to abstract, and descriptive, through
comparative to quantitative contents. This would ensure that
the learners are carried along.
Figure 16: The Communication Process
The media of communication in a study technology
format is structured. Instructors are expected to use a two-
way communication mode to find out how the learner is doing
and learners who are busy with their work are usually not
disturbed at all. Since study technology is a material-based
strategy, verbal communication between the instructor and
learners is limited. Learners are usually directed to study
information directly after the instructor has directed them to
the source of information. Several media of communication
are to be provided in the classroom to appeal to as many
sense organs of the learners as possible, and to ensure
reinforcement of learning.
Whoever are the receivers of communication would
continue with the flow of communication as long as they
continue to show interest in the communication and they
continue to pay attention to the source of communication and
its contents.
The contents of the response must be effective and of
good quality for them to be received by the originator of the
initial communication. They must share the meanings of the
contents of the response. The contents of communication
should not include misunderstood words or symbols.
Various factors can serve as facilitators and barriers to
communication. They could be intrinsic factors such as
physical health, previous knowledge, psychological conditions
and cognitive styles of participants in communication, which
could facilitate or hinder effective communication. Presence or
absence of some external factors could facilitate or hinder
effective communication. These factors include: noise,
environmental pollution, invisibility, quality of media of
communication, cooperation between participants, and
motivation of participants.
3.2.1 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Copy the diagram on Figure 14 on a piece of paper,
while looking at the diagram
(ii) Draw the diagram on Figure 14 offhand, without looking
at it
RECEIVER OF
COMMUNICATION
SOURCE OF
COMMUNICATION
MEDIA OF
RESPONSE
COMMUNICATION
MEDIA OF INITIAL
COMMUNICATION
Facilitators or Barriers
of Communication
Contents of Response
Facilitators or Barriers
of Communication
Contents of
Communication
3.3 Types of Communication
Classroom communication can be grouped into two
major types: verbal and non-verbal communication. Examples
of verbal communication include oral and written
communication, and a combination of both. Examples of non-
verbal communication include facial expression, language of
the eye, body language, sound symbols, and symbolic code
language.
Verbal communication uses language as a vehicle.
Language consists of words and sentences guided by
grammatical rules. Oral communication conveys feelings,
thoughts, intentions, beliefs, and so forth through speaking
and listening. Written communication conveys the same
feelings, thoughts, intentions, beliefs, and so forth in writing,
using pencil, paper, chalk, pen, phone, and other print media.
Instructors combine the two in a regular classroom situation
by orally explaining materials written on the chalkboard,
whiteboard, projected material, and so forth or by illustrating
things said orally by writing on the chalkboard, whiteboard,
projected material and so forth.
In non-verbal communication, if Instructors study the
facial expressions (e.g., a wink), language of the eye (e.g.,
eye dilation), body language (e.g., simultaneously raised
shoulders), sound symbols (e.g., yeah!), symbolic code
languages (e.g., teen slang on the internet, “lol” for “laugh out
loud”) of learners, they can be used to gauge what learners
are communicating to the Instructor or communicating among
themselves. In turn, the Instructor can communicate back his
or her approval, disapproval and so forth to the understanding
of both parties, without uttering words.
3.3.1 Self-Assessment Exercise
(i) Practice oral communication, written communication,
and a combination of the two with a chosen partner.
(ii) Demonstrate to a chosen partner one example each of
facial expression, language of the eye, body language,
sound symbols, and symbolic code language.
4.0 Revision Exercises
(i) What is your own definition of “communication”?
(ii) Give an example of a complete communication cycle
(iii) Give an example of a complete two-way
communication cycle
(iv) List the four major components of the communication
process.
(v) List the factors that determine the success or failure of
the communication process
(vi) Give one example each of situations in your classroom
instruction where you can use oral communication,
written communication and a combination of the two
types of verbal communication.
(vii) State one example each of non-verbal communication
of the following types:
a. facial expression;
b. language of the eye;
c. body language;
d. sound symbols; and
e. symbolic code language
5.0 Summary
The following is a summary of Chapter 13:
● Communication is an important ingredient of life and
living.
● The term, “communication,” is derived from the Latin
word, “communis,” i.e., to share.
● Communication is a two-way process between the
sender and the receiver, which requires a sender, a
message and an intended recipient
● The communication process has for major
components:
(i) Source of communication
(ii) Media of initial communication
(iii) Receiver of communication
(iv) Media of response communication
● The communication process has the following
moderating factors:
(i) Contents of initial communication
(ii) Contents of response
(iii) Facilitators of communication
(iv) Barriers of communication
● Classroom communication exists in verbal and non-
verbal forms
● Examples of verbal communication include oral
communication, written communication and a
combination of written and oral communication
● Examples of non-verbal communication include facial
expression, language of the eye, body language, sound
symbols, and symbolic code language
CHAPTER 14
REVISION
Content Outline
● Introduction
● Objectives
● Revision Exercises
● Summary
1.0 Introduction
The purpose of this Chapter is to provide an
opportunity for the learners to revise the whole course through
appropriate questions. If learners have been faithfully
following all the assignments and exercises, they should find
the questions in this Chapter easy to answer.
2.0 Objectives
● Give reasons why learners have to learn how to
learn;
● Give reasons why instructors have to instruct
learners how to learn;
● Identify and describe learners’ barriers to study;
● Identify learners’ reactions to barriers to study;
● Provide remedies to learners’ barriers to study;
● Prepare and use course guides for instruction;
● Manage effectively and efficiently, a material-
based instruction; and
● Use communications skills effectively in
instruction.
3.0 Revision Exercises
(i) State five rationales that make it necessary for students
to learn how to learn
(ii) State five rationales for why instructors have to instruct
students on how to learn
(iii) Identify and define the three major barriers to students’
study
(iv) In an extreme situation where it may not be easy to find
an appropriate concrete object for use in teaching a
concept, what are six alternatives you can use to teach
the concept?
(v) Identify 11 students’ reactions to lack of mass and
describe what each one means
(vi) Draw the diagram of a concept difficulty matrix showing
the three dimensions and how they vary
(vii) What will happen to a student who does not wish to
learn on a gradient?
(viii) Describe, in your own words, what you understand by
“The Misunderstood Words.”
(ix) Identify 13 students’ reactions to the misunderstood
word and describe what each one means
(x) Describe the steps involved in clearing a word to
facilitate its proper understanding
(xi) Describe, in detail, how you will prepare and use a
Course guide for instruction in your teaching subject
(xii) List all the items, which you can find in the course room
where a material-based instruction is in use
(xiii) List all the items expected to be found on a typical
study table used by a pair of students in a study
technology course room
(xiv) Write down a list of things, which a learner is supposed
to do in a material-based instruction
(xv) List 10 duties of an Instructor in a material-based
instruction
(xvi) What is your own definition of communication?
(xvii) List the four major components of the communication
process
(xviii) List five factors that determine the success or failure of
the communication process. Describe how each of the
factors can play the roles
4.0 Summary
4.1 Summary of Chapter 1
Figure 1: Rationale for learning how to learn and teaching how
to learn.
4.2 Summary of Chapter 2
Table 1
Summary of Chapter 2
● A barrier is something which blocks the way
● Three major barriers to students’ study are:
(a) lack of mass,
(b) too steep a gadient or skipped gradient, and
(c) the misunderstood word
● Mass is the actual physical object of study
● A gradient is a way of doing things level by level
and step by step
● A steep gradient is a way of doing things, which
does not follow a systematic order
● A misunderstood word is a word that is not
understood at all or wrongly understood
● Lack of mass is a major barrier to study and also
learning.
● Instructors should provide real physical object as
mass for instruction
● The following are reasonable examples of what can
be used as substitutes for real physical objects:
(i) Picture,
(ii) Movie,
(iii) Demonstration
(iv) Demonstation (demo) kit,
(v) Clay demonstration, and
(vi) Sketching.
4.3 Summary of Chapter 3
Table 2
Summary of Students’ Reactions to Lack of Mass
(i)
Feeling squashed
(ii)
Angry
(iii)
Face squashed
(iv)
Stomach feeling funny
(v)
Bent
(vi)
Headache
(vii)
Sort of spinning
(viii)
Eyes hurting frequently
(ix)
Sort of dead
(x)
Dizzy
(xi)
Bored
4.4 Summary of Chapter 4
Table 4
Summary of Remedies for Lack of Mass
● Actual object being studied
● Picture
● Movie
● Demonstration
● Demonstration (demo) kit
● Clay demonstration
● Sketching
4.5 Summary of Chapter 5
(i) The complexity of a concept varies from simple to
complex concept.
(ii) The abstractness of a concept varies from concrete
to abstract concept.
(iii) The sophistication of a concept varies from
descriptive through comparative to quantitative
concept.
4.6 Summary of Chapter 6
Learners who do not learn on a gradient will skip
gradient. They react to this situation by reeling or looking
confused.
Figure 10: Learners’ reactions to too steep a gradient or
skipped gradient
4.7 Summary of Chapter 7
Table 8 contains a summary of the remedy for too
steep a gradient or skipped gradient.
Table 8
Remedy for Too Steep a Gradient or Skipped Gradient
● The learners’ trouble is at the end of the step they thought
they understood well
● Find out what they thought they understood well just
before they got confused
● The instructor will find out they did not really understand
that step well
● Get them to understand this step well, and they will be
able to do the next step
● The gradient is no longer too steep or skipped
4.8 Summary of Chapter 8
Table 9 presents the summary of the third barrier to
study—the misunderstood word:
Table 9
The Third Barrier to Study — the Misunderstood Word
●
“Mis” means not or wrongly
●
The misunderstood word means a word not
understood or understood wrongly
●
The things that can be misunderstood are words,
concepts, symbols, and situations
●
The misunderstood word is the most important
barrier to study because it is capable of making
learners quit what they are studying about
4.9 Summary of Chapter 9
Table 11 presents the summary of Chapter 9
Table 11
Summary of Learners’ Reactions to the Misunderstood
Word
●
Blank
●
May cause blow
●
Washed out feeling
●
Doodling
●
Nervous hysteria
●
Daydreaming
●
Worried
●
Yawning
●
Not there
●
May make you stay
long on what you are
studying
●
May do wrong thing
●
May not remember what
you read on page
●
May stop doing what you
are
studying about
4.10 Summary of Chapter 10
Please find the summary of Chapter 10 in Table 12:
Table 12
Remedy for the Misunderstood Word
●
Find the word or symbol, which is misunderstood
●
Define the word or symbol using a standard dictionary
●
Use the word in several sentences until fully
understood
●
Learn the other definitions of the same word
●
Use each of them in several sentences until fully
understood
4.11 Summary of Chapter 11
The following is a summary of Chapter 11:
● A course guide is a kind of manual, which sets out the
exact sequence of items to be studied or done by a
student, in order, and item by item.
● A course guide has three major sections, namely, the
word list, the reading assignments and the activity
section
● A check out is a strategy used to find out how much a
learner knows from an assigned work.
● A twin check out occurs when it is carried out by the
learner’s twin
● An instructor check out occurs when it is carried out by
the course instructor
● A star-rated check out occurs when it is carried out by
a course instructor during the course of using a course
guide.
● The course guide contains all student-centred
instructional strategies and resources, for which study
technology is noted
4.12 Summary of Chapter 12
The following is a summary of Chapter 12:
● Study technology uses a material-based instructional
system. It is a self-learning and independent learning
format.
● The instructional materials needed in a material-based
instruction are: the course book, student files, pink
sheet, routing forms, and success story form.
● A typical classroom for a material-based instruction has
only 18 students per Instructor
● the list of personnel includes: the Instructor, Course
Administrator, Quality Control Officer, and Ethics
Officer
● The following are also present in a course room:
projection equipment, tables, on which are placed:
standard dictionaries, demonstration kits, course
books, and course guides. Reference dictionaries are
placed in an accessible location in the room. A section
is also created for clay work.
● The duty of the learner in a material-based instructional
setting is to work hard and concentrate on his/her in-
class and out-of-class activities and obey the rules set
for the class to facilitate learning through working
closely with the twins and the Instructor
● The duty of the Instructor is to attend to the learners’
instructional needs and protect them from external
disturbance and other environmental factors capable of
disturbing learning.
4.13 Summary of Chapter 13
The following is a summary of Chapter 13:
● Communication is an important ingredient of life and
living.
● The term, “communication,” is derived from the Latin
word, “communis,” i.e., to share.
● Communication is a two-way process between the
sender and the receiver, which requires a sender, a
message and an intended recipient
● The communication process has for major
components:
(i) Source of communication
(ii) Media of initial communication
(iii) Receiver of communication
(iv) Media of response communication
● The communication process has the following
moderating factors:
(i) Contents of initial communication
(ii) Contents of response
(iii) Facilitators of communication
(iv) Barriers of communication
● Classroom communication exists in verbal and non-
verbal forms
● Examples of verbal communication include oral
communication, written communication and a
combination of written and oral communication
● Examples of non-verbal communication include facial
expression, language of the eye, body language, sound
symbols, and symbolic code language
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