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Methodological features of studying gender norms, practices and processes in public administration
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В статье рассматривается проблема баланса работы и семьи у женщин-инженеров ракетно-космической отрасли. Эмпирическую базу исследования составили 20 полуформализованных интервью с женщинами-инженерами. Половина респонденток имеет несовершеннолетних детей. В фокусе исследования были различные аспекты, которые, по мнению женщин-инженеров, способствуют или препятствуют балансу между работой и семьей: лояльность начальства, вовлеченность супруга в вопросы быта и воспитания ребенка, наличие мер социальной политики на предприятиях и их роль в гармонизации рабочей и семейной сфер, наличие или отсутствие «карьерных барьеров» на работе. Уделяется внимание специфике работы инженеров в отрасли. Кроме этого, в статье рассматривается отношение женщин к таким явлениям, как «стеклянный потолок», «мужские клубы», и их влияние на карьеру женщин в отрасли. По результатам исследования удалось сделать вывод, что сотрудников-женщин воспринимают как профессионалов, способных качественно выполнять монотонную работу, в то время как мужчины значительно чаще вовлечены в руководство проектом в целом, что позволяет им «быть на виду», решать более сложные ответственные задачи и быстрее подняться по карьерной лестнице.
Предприятия отрасли, с одной стороны, благодаря социальной политике и режиму работы способствуют соблюдению баланса между рабочей и семейной сферой, а с другой — препятствуют, ведь отсутствие равных возможностей для карьерного роста вызывают у женщин непонимание и чувство дисбаланса между работой и семьей. Поэтому работа на рассматриваемых предприятиях привлекательна в первую очередь для тех женщин, которые заинтересованы в «удобной» работе, а не в карьерном росте и высоком заработке.
This research explores social network site interaction through digital and gendered labor. Due to enhanced interaction possibilities as well as mining and analytic techniques, all digital interaction is labor, at both the social and institutional level. Responses to a survey (N = 455) suggest that digital labor varies depending on the most-used social network site. In addition, women test higher in agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism, and contribute statistically more emotional labor online through liking and commenting. Women describe intricate processes of deciding whether they can or should socially interact, often fearing interpersonal conflict or being told they are stupid. Men, on the other hand, view social network sites as places for entertainment and base their emotional labor on some judged entertainment value. As such, this study illuminates how social network sites function as extensions of the home. Instead of being invited to contribute new cultural products, women are frequently led to support only those that already exist, arguably creating data that contain less use value and even more exchange and surplus value than other forms of digital labor. Hidden behind the curtain of an "empowering" Internet exist the fruits of social network site (SNS) labor. In the ever-evolving digital environment, user-generated content proliferates, and methods of collecting and commoditizing these data grow as well. Against this backdrop, it is vital to recognize that SNS interactions are always labor. SNSs promote themselves as companies that care about human connection and sharing, but human tendencies to create use value through sociality are exploited to generate exchange and surplus value. Profitable interactions vastly comprise emotional labor, the expectation of which is disproportionately placed on women. As such, this study explores SNS labor and how it has created a new site of "women's work." Responses to a survey (N = 455) reveal that women are more likely to like and comment on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat content, providing valuable data. Much like traditional notions of women's work, SNSs rely on women to support their capitalistic goals. Unlike traditional notions, however,
Despite the increasing number of women in the workforce, the norms surrounding division of labor in the domestic sphere and work/life balance have not changed. Structural theory predicts that balancing work and family demands will improve as the proportion of women reaches critical mass, because women will advocate on behalf of such changes. But work/life balance remains elusive. Gendered organizations theory predicts that norms and practices based on stereotyped male and female workers will persist, regardless of the composition of the workforce. Employing an explicitly transformative framework, we argue that human resources management (HRM) practices produce and reproduce outdated gender norms and frustrate the efforts of all workers to achieve work/life balance. No amount of flextime or on-site daycare programs will produce workplace equity without addressing the underlying reasons why organizations are gendered. We submit several propositions to guide further research and conclude with a call for public administrationists to interrogate purportedly neutral HRM practices like presenteeism from a feminist perspective.
The paper aims to discuss the results of the experimental research into the correlation between the influence of language (the gender of the noun) and speech (frequency of using words in speech) on the referential choice of a metaphorical name of a person. As a result, we prove a significant influence of grammatical gender on solving the problem of figurative reference to the name of a man or woman.The interaction between linguistic factors (the grammatical gender) and speech (frequency) is manifested in the fact that the frequency factor is significant in functionally weak areas where there is a conflict between the problem being solved and grammatical gender of the word (for example, the problem to determine the reference of feminine words to a male).
Studying gendered norms, practices, and processes represents the future of research on gender in public management, not tracking numbers over time. Gendered norms are rules governing behaviour that are institutionalized in organizational practices and processes, and are produced and reproduced through repeated interpersonal interactions. Theories of gendered norms have been developed in sociology, but it must be public administrationists who refine them for public-sector organizations, because the government context is unique, and equity is the third pillar upon which public administration rests. We conclude with a discussion of research projects taking a gendered-organizations approach and propose topics for further inquiry.
According to the theory of representative bureaucracy, passive representation among public employees will lead to active representation in bureaucratic outputs. Existing research demonstrates that the link between passive and active representation exists for race but not for sex. Past research on this topic has not, however, taken into account the contextual environment that affects whether sex will translate into gender and lead to active representation in the bureaucracy. In this paper, we create a framework that specifies the conditions that affect whether passive representation results in active representation for sex and then test this framework using the case of education. We find that passive representation of women in education leads to active representation and that the institutional context affects the extent to which this link between passive and active representation occurs.
A significant body of evidence suggests that bureaucratized organizations provide greater career rewards to women than do less bureaucratized organizations. Beyond career rewards, are there ways that bureaucracy can benefit organizational women? This study explores potential answers to this question by examining perceptions of bureaucracy held by public employees. Analyzing qualitative and quantitative data collected from the employees of four cities in a Midwestern state, the study detects pronounced gender differences in perceptions of bureaucracy, particularly with regards to legitimacy, efficiency, equity and control. These results suggest ways that bureaucracy can empower the participation of women in organizations.
Both economists and sociologists have documented the association between gender and career outcomes. The challenge for both disciplines lies not in showing that gender is linked to employment outcomes, but in explaining the associations.
School and daycare closures due to the COVID‐19 pandemic have increased caregiving responsibilities for working parents. As a result, many have changed their work hours to meet these growing demands. In this study, we use panel data from the U.S. Current Population Survey to examine changes in mothers’ and fathers’ work hours from February through April, 2020, the period of time prior to the widespread COVID‐19 outbreak in the U.S. and through its first peak. Using person‐level fixed effects models, we find that mothers with young children have reduced their work hours four to five times more than fathers. Consequently, the gender gap in work hours has grown by 20 to 50 percent. These findings indicate yet another negative consequence of the COVID‐19 pandemic, highlighting the challenges it poses to women's work hours and employment.
Does the coronavirus pandemic level the gender inequality curve? Or does the economic downturn following the coronavirus pandemic enhance gender inequality? To answer these questions, we collected data on Israeli men and women who were employed in the first week of March prior to the lockdown of the economy, and again in the last week of April (after the economy was shut down, but before it was reopened). We find that the consequences of the economic downturn following the coronavirus for gender equality are harsh, with women’s employment and income more severely affected than men’s.
This study examines the variations among empirical findings of gender effects on the performance of public organizations; and identifies avenues for future efforts in the scholarship of gender and public administration. The meta-analysis using 72 studies published between 1999 and 2017 demonstrates that studies reporting statistical significance of female leadership and gender representation in the workforce tend to find a positive impact on performance. Study characteristics such as policy types/areas, time scopes, geographical context consistently affect the findings of gender effects, while the variance in measurement strategies and publication status do not make a difference in empirical evidence.
There is a substantial and growing critical and pro/feminist literature examining the interrelated topics of the discursive construction of masculinities, gender relations and gender inequality. However, despite discourse theory generally promoting an anti-essentialist view of gender and a turn to the text, there is a tendency towards focusing research on a particular biological sex - for example, research on 'men and masculinity' and how men maintain their privileged position. This implies that only men construct masculinities, and that only men maintain their position of power (or only men are of interest), which absents women's voice and neglects women's contributions to the maintenance of an oppressive status quo. This article goes some way towards addressing this trend. A critical discourse analysis was performed on data obtained from five group discussions with female and male undergraduate psychology students. Three repertoires were identified: 'equality as imminent/achieved', 'women as oppressors/men as victims' and 'women as manipulators'. These repertoires are read as serving the common ideological function of 'balancing power' through painting a picture of equality between the sexes.
This paper traces the workplace practices within which mid-career women faculty in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) carry out their careers. Findings from this case study of 25 faculty at one research university revealed three institutional processes that constrained their careers: (a) access to and integration into career networks; (b) distribution of labor in the department and institution; and (c) promotion and leadership. Using Acker's (1990, 2012) theory of gendered organizations and subtexts I uncovered systemic inequities that could compromise professional advancement for midcareer women faculty in STEM. Implications for these findings; Acker's theory; and recommendations for policy, practice, and future research are included.
The purpose of this study is to understand the extent to which Acker’s (1990) concept of gendered organizations frames extant scholarship and to explore the implications of using this framework to address gender inequities in organizational life, and particularly in academe. Through a systematic analysis of articles, we found that while Acker’s work is highly cited, few studies use Acker’s theory as it was originally intended. We also identified limitations of Acker’s theory as well as the ways in which scholars have applied it in their own work. We argue the need for scholars who are informed by Acker to engage with all aspects of her theory and push it in new directions. We also challenge scholars of gender and organizations to integrate multiple, and perhaps more complicated, frameworks in order to understand academe in more nuanced ways and to generate new ideas to enhance social justice.
Gender discrimination and wage inequity remain problems worldwide. In the United States and Canada, where equal rights and protective legislation have been in place for nearly 40 years, glaring disparities in salaries and job opportunities remain. Similar problems have been studied in the United Kingdom, leading to enactment of the 1975 Sex Discrimination Act1 and the Equal Pay Act.2 Paradoxically, data from the 2000 U.S. Census show that the more education women achieve, the worse the salary gap becomes, especially for women with advanced degrees. Legislation that has increased educational opportunity, funding, and access for women such as Title IX 3 is coming under attack as being biased against males. This attack is occurring even though Title IX has not yet accomplished the equitable treatment it was intended to achieve. Strategies to address pay equity include support of new legislation, such as comparable worth measures like those that have been implemented in the United Kingdom, and support and strengthening of existing legislation (Title IX, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Equal Pay Act of 1963). 4 Tools that empower women to address these problems and urge employers to correct inequities in employment from points of first access, preparation for pursuit of merit awards, to pursuit of promotion, and internal and external networking are highlighted in this article.
Informal workplace interactions are powerful organizational processes producing inequalities in male-dominated work, where sexuality is frequently employed as a means of control over women. The article considers whether women can derive support from interactions with male and female colleagues, drawing on qualitative research with women working in the UK construction and transport sectors. The article contributes an empirical application of McCall's intercategorical intersectional approach, examining gender, sexuality and occupational group. It highlights the benefits and challenges of extending McCall's multi-group method to qualitative analysis. Stereotypical associations of lesbians with ‘masculine’ work are challenged, showing how gendered and heterosexual norms constrain workplace interactions for both heterosexual women and lesbians. Therefore organizational measures should address not only formal workplace processes, but the informal interactions affecting women's survival in male-dominated work.
Studies across diverse national contexts reliably show that married men earn more than unmarried men, but the mechanisms responsible for this are still disputed. This article explores the male marriage wage premium from a new perspective, using longitudinal qualitative data from Russia (N = 94). Qualitative research is particularly suited to identifying underlying processes and, by analyzing men's accounts of the influence of their marital trajectories on their work, the authors were able to reexamine existing hypotheses and develop new ones. They propose 4 mechanisms that they hypothesize can influence men's work motivation and performance: premarital planning, 2 distinct “breadwinner” effects using expectancy and self determination theory, and monitoring by wives. They integrate these mechanisms within gender theory, arguing that the treatment aspect of the male marriage wage premium is an outcome of the “coproduction” of masculinity within marriage. Their recontextualization of existing theory also enables them to reveal weaknesses in the specialization hypothesis.
This study aims to gain in-depth understanding on whether and how asynchronous computer mediated communication (CMC), exemplified by advice giving in web-based discussion forums, is instrumental in the construction of gender identities and can thus be taken to reflect gendered discursive practices. While there is a growing body of literature on this topic, this paper extends the discussion into a less explored issue in the area of gender and advice, namely, the potential effect that the sex of the recipient may have on the linguistic structure of the message. Unlike advice-givers, advice-seekers unambiguously reveal their sex in their posts, while typically omitting other personal information or identifying features. Sex is thus the only identifiable variable. This study therefore examined how men and women are given advice – not just on how they produce advice – in terms of directness, politeness considerations and affect display. The picture that emerges is complex and points to potential changing discursive practices and gender role expectations.
This article uses Acker's theory of gendered organizations to frame an analysis of the ways in which policies and practices in a men's and a women's prison reflect and reproduce gendered inequalities. The article offers a working definition of one of Acker's key theoretical concepts, the notion of “gendered organizational logic.” Then, using interview data collected from correctional officers in a men's and a women's prison, the article examines the ways in which officer training and assignments, although designed to be nominally generic, assume a male worker and disproportionately benefit male officers working in men's institutions. These findings imply that the perspective could more usefully be conceived as a theory of “masculinized” organizations.
In spite of feminist recognition that hierarchical organizations are an important location of male dominance, most feminists writing about organizations assume that organizational structure is gender neutral. This article argues that organizational structure is not gender neutral; on the contrary, assumptions about gender underlie the documents and contracts used to construct organizations and to provide the commonsense ground for theorizing about them. Their gendered nature is partly masked through obscuring the embodied nature of work. Abstract jobs and hierarchies, common concepts in organizational thinking, assume a disembodies and universal worker. This worker is actually a man; men's bodies, sexuality, and relationships to procreation and paid work are subsumed in the image of the worker. Images of men's bodies and masculinity pervade organizational processes, marginalizing women and contributing to the maintenance of gender segregation in organizations. The positing of gender-neutral and disembodied organizational structures and work relations is part of the larger strategy of control in industrial capitalist societies, which, at least partly, are built upon a deeply embedded substructure of gender difference.
Ridgeway argues that we can increase our understanding of the creation and perpetuation of gender inequality in the workplace by applying micro-level theories of social psychological processes that operate in such settings. We go beyond her arguments to propose that the degree of mixed-sex interaction in the workplace be viewed as a factor that produces differences in gender workplace inequalities. Specifically, we hypothesize that when the collective task-directed behavior in a work group involves face-to-face mixed-sex interaction, gender workplace inequalities will be greater than in settings where such behavior involves women and men working largely independently of each other This hypothesis is supported strongly by natural-setting data that compare gender work-place inequalities in agricultural research teams, where face-to-face interaction is present, with the same inequalities in agricultural extension settings, where there is little face-to-face interaction.
Purpose
The notion of organizations as gendered is not new yet critical gaps in the understanding of the processes responsible for the creation and maintenance of these gendered organizations still exist. Within the existing breadth and depth of feminist organizational scholarship an increasing number of researchers have been drawn to Joan Acker's notion of the “gendered substructure” as one of the more promising frameworks for analysis of the gendering of organizations. In this paper the authors seek to develop an analysis of Acker's gendered substructure through, and reflection on, its application.
Design/methodology/approach
Acker's framework of gendering processes is explored through a case study of the gendering of a single organization over time – Pan American World Airways (Pan Am). The authors' “reading” of the archival materials was informed by a combination of feminist poststructuralism, critical discourse analysis and critical hermeneutics.
Findings
Through an exploration of the roots of Acker's framework and its application to a case study of a single organization over time (Pan Am), the paper contends that its greatest potential lies in examining the four process sets – division of labor, workplace culture, social interactions and (self) reflection – through a fifth process of “organizational logic” that is seen as temporal and contextual. Drawing on poststructuralist feminist theory, it argues that organizational logic can be viewed through analyses of organizational, and organizationally based, discourses.
Originality/value
The paper argues that the (widely recognized) heuristic value of Joan Acker's “gendered substructure” has not been realized due to inconsistencies in its interpretation and application. This study engages Acker's framework in its entirety, as gendering processes do not exist in silos and are likely more interdependent than typically credited. The paper looks at the dynamics of, and between the five sets of, gendering processes.
This article (re)introduces readers to the meanings of terms like sex, gender, and feminism in public administration (PA) scholarship. It asks how far public administration scholarship has come in its understandings of sex, gender, and feminism, offers a typology for published articles in public administration; and asks how far we have come in apprehending the gender of public administration. *The question posed in the title of this article is taken from McIntosh, P. Interactive Phases of Curricular Revision: A Feminist Perspective; Working Paper No. 124; Wellesley College Center for Research on Women: Boston, MA, 1983.
Potential causes of gender differences in perceived and reported verbal irony use are investigated. The study first presented written scenarios of speakers with indeterminate gender who made sarcastic comments. These speakers are judged to be more likely male than female, by both male and female participants. In a separate task, male participants also report a greater likelihood of using verbal irony relative to female participants. The study then investigated potential explanations of this gender difference. The results revealed support for an explanation based on a match between the generally greater riskiness of males over females, and a relatively greater risk of miscomprehension of verbal irony, rather than an explanation that males use verbal irony because its pragmatic functions fit better with their discourse goals versus those reported by females. A discussion of other potential underpinnings to gender differences in verbal irony use and a call for further research are presented.
This Article provides a new perspective on Title VII caselaw concerning employer-mandated, sex-specific dress codes. With few exceptions, courts have held that employer dress codes do not constitute sex discrimination even when they expressly differentiate based solely on an employee's sex. In other contexts, courts readily acknowledge that facially sex-based practices and policies are presumptively unlawful under Title VII. When it comes to dress codes, however, nearly the opposite is true. Courts generally presume a sex-based dress code to be permissible, and the burden falls heavily on the employee to show, beyond the mere fact of differential treatment, some additional disparity or harm, such as that the particular requirements at issue are more burdensome for women than for men or that they perpetuate stereotyped views of women as inferior or as sexual objects. This pervasive attitude of judicial laissez-faire toward sex-based dress codes is increasingly anomalous in the wider context of sex discrimination caselaw, and yet shows no signs of abating. This Article argues that this doctrinal blind spot is an unintended-and unfortunate-by-product of "second generation" equality theory, which downplays formal equality and focuses on anti-subordination principles as the purpose of equality law. While affirming the continuing importance and viability of second generation equality theory in the areas of affirmative action and disparate impact, the Author argues that an over-emphasis on anti-subordination theories has skewed dress code caselaw and prevented courts from seeing the discriminatory harms caused by sex-specific dress requirements. Prescriptively, the Article suggests ways for litigants to refocus courts on first generation principles in dress code cases. This includes strategies for identifying the harm caused by the formal labeling of difference, a harm ignored in cases of sex discrimination but well understood for race. Such a litigation strategy would be more effective than pursuing the currently popular sex stereotyping theory, which has largely failed to expose the detrimental impact of sex-based dress codes on employees.
The Ninth Circuit's recent decision in Jespersen v. Harrah's Operating Co., Inc. reflects the blinders on many contemporary courts regarding the impact of sex-differentiated dress requirements on female employees. Although some courts have acknowledged the impermissibility of imposing sexually exploitive dress requirements, they have done so only at the extreme outer limits, ignoring the concrete harms experienced by women (and men) who are forced to conform to externally imposed gender norms. On the other hand, some transgender litigants have recently succeeded in challenging sex-differentiated dress requirements. This success is due in part to their incorporation of disability claims based on the health condition associated with each litigant's transgender identity. Such an approach has allowed transgender litigants to introduce evidence of the essentialism of gender identity and its inelasticity for a specific individual. In combining disability claims with sex discrimination claims, transgender litigants have advanced a broader agenda of challenging normative beliefs about gender for all persons, transgender and non-transgender alike. Part I of this Article explores at least one root of the problem influencing courts that hear dress code challenges-something this Article will refer to as "the collective hunch theory," which others have referred to as "normative stereotypes." Part II advocates bringing disability claims where available for transgender plaintiffs and responds to some of the criticisms against doing so. Finally, Part III offers suggestions for framing and litigating future dress code challenges pursued on behalf of non-transgender litigants.
In the United States, women are increasingly praised for having excellent skills for leadership and, in fact, women, more than men, manifest leadership styles associated with effective performance as leaders. Nevertheless, more people prefer male than female bosses, and it is more difficult for women than men to become leaders and to succeed in male-dominated leadership roles. This mix of apparent advantage and disadvantage that women leaders experience reflects the considerable progress toward gender equality that has taken place in both attitudes and behavior, coupled with the lack of complete attainment of this goal.
Scholars of public organizations have begun to emphasize emotional labor in studies of gender in the workplace, finding that the skills women bring to organizations are often overlooked and undercompensated even though they play a vital role in the organization. Emotional labor is an individual’s effort to present emotions in a way that is desired by the organization. The authors hypothesize that employers with greater emotional labor expectations of their employees will have more effective interactions with clients, better internal relationships, and superior program performance. This article tests the effects of emotional labor in a bureaucratic workforce over time. Multiple regression results show that organizations with more women at the street level have higher overall organizational performance. Additionally, emotional labor contributes to organizational productivity over and above its role in employee turnover and client satisfaction.
Job segregation—the tendency for men and women to work in different occupations—is often cited as the reason that women's wages lag men's. But this begs the question: What is it about women's jobs that causes them to pay less? We argue that emotional labor offers the missing link in the explanation. Tasks that require the emotive work thought natural for women, such as caring, negotiating, empathizing, smoothing troubled relationships, and working behind the scenes to enable cooperation, are required components of many women's jobs. Excluded from job descriptions and performance evaluations, the work is invisible and uncompensated. Public service relies heavily on such skills, yet civil service systems, which are designed on the assumptions of a bygone era, fail to acknowledge and compensate emotional labor.
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