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Received: 9 September 2022
-
Revised: 8 February 2023
-
Accepted: 14 February 2023
DOI: 10.1002/moda.2
REVIEW ARTICLE
Selenium in modern agriculture
Jia‐Qiang Huang
1
|Zhao‐Hui Wang
1
|Lv‐Hui Sun
2
|Le‐Li Wang
3
|
Yu‐Long Yin
3
1
Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food
Quality, Department of Nutrition and Health,
China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
2
Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, College of
Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong
Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
3
Key Laboratory of Agro‐Ecological Processes
in Subtropical Region, Hunan Research Center
of Livestock & Poultry Sciences, South‐Central
Experimental Station of Animal Nutrition and
Feed Science in Ministry of Agriculture,
Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, the Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
Correspondence
Jia‐Qiang Huang and Yu‐Long Yin.
Email: jqhuang@cau.edu.cn and
yinyulong@isa.ac.cn
Funding information
Chinese National Natural Science Foundation
of China, Grant/Award Numbers: 32002216,
32172772; National Key R&D Program of
China, Grant/Award Numbers:
2022YFD1300400, 2022YFD2101003
Abstract
Selenium (Se) is a micronutrient necessary in small amounts for the proper
organism functioning. Se‐rich agriculture, also known as special agriculture,
has the potential to improve agricultural production and produce beneficial
agricultural products. This review discusses the various applications of Se in
agriculture, including animal husbandry, crop production and aquaculture. It
covers Se metabolites, the function and regulation of selenogenomes and
selenoproteomes of human and animal food and the recycling of Se in food
systems and ecosystems. Finally, the review identifies research needs that will
support the basic science and practical applications of dietary Se in modern
agriculture.
KEYWORDS
aquaculture, cultivation, livestock industry, modern agriculture, selenium
Key points
�Selenium is an essential element becoming increasingly insufficient in food
crops.
�Selenium is a necessary trace element in animal and human diets and plays
indispensable roles in various physiological processes.
INTRODUCTION
Modern agriculture is based on the development and
application of agricultural science and technology
which relies on modern natural science to improve
agricultural production techniques and expand the
scope of agricultural applications.
1
Selenium (Se) is a
key element in modern agriculture and is used in three
main sectors: pre‐production, production and post‐
production. Pre‐production includes seed and feed,
production includes planting and farming and post‐
production includes processing and distributing prod-
ucts. Despite being rare in the earth's crust,
2
Se is
essential for animals and humans due to its role in
antioxidant enzymes and selenoproteins, which help to
regulate redox balance in the body and improve animal
immunity.
3
As a result, Se is widely used in poultry,
livestock husbandry and aquaculture. Additionally, Se
can extend the shelf life of agricultural products,
counteract heavy metals and boost the metabolism of
antibiotics in the body.
4
In the pre‐production sector, Se is mixed with other
substances to feed poultry, livestock and aquatic
products; in the mid‐production sector, plants and mi-
croorganisms absorb Se from the soil and use it to form
Se‐containing organic matter, which promotes the
growth and development of organisms and in the post‐
production sector, the addition of Se can improve the
quality of certain food products, such as improving
water retention in Se‐enriched broilers.
5
Therefore, the
effective development and use of Se is critical for
agricultural performance.
In this review article, we provide an overview of Se
through three key aspects: the mechanism of absorp-
tion and metabolism of Se; the functions of Se in soils
and environment, plant growth, livestock industry and
aquaculture and the application of Se in storage and
transportation.
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
© 2023 The Authors. Modern Agriculture published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.
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Modern Agriculture. 2023;1:34–42. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/moda
FUNCTIONS AND METABOLISM OF
SELENIUM
Se is a metalloid trace element existing in the envi-
ronment in both inorganic and organic forms. There are
four different inorganic chemical forms: selenide (Se
2−
),
elemental state selenium (Se
0
), selenite (Se
4+
) and
selenate (Se
6+
). The organic forms of Se include sel-
enocysteine (SeCys) and selenomethionine (SeMet),
which are formed through competition with sulphur (S)
in the S‐containing amino acids, cysteine (Cys), and
methionine (Met).
4
In general, plants tend to absorb
inorganic forms of Se more efficiently, while organic
forms are more easily absorbed by mammals. In
mammals, the absorption of Se occurs mainly in the
duodenum, where it is actively transported through a
sodium pump. Se absorption can also occur in the in-
testine, and the method of uptake varies depending on
the chemical form of Se. Selenite is absorbed by simple
diffusion and selenate is absorbed through a cotrans-
port of sodium selenate and exchange selenate/OH
−6
and organic forms (i.e., SeMet and SeCys) follow the
same way as amino acid uptake. For example, the
SeMet is actively carried via intestinal Met transporters
and enters the Met pool of the body.
7
SeMet can also
be metabolised in the liver through the Met cycle and
transsulphuration pathways, yielding SeCys as a tran-
sient form, which is promptly converted into selenide,
which in turn, is used for selenoprotein synthesis.
8
SeCys‐containing selenoprotein is the primary form
through which Se exercises its functions in humans and
animals.
4
Due to the essential role in maintaining cell
and tissue function, SeCys is considered to be the 21st
amino acid.
9
Selenoproteins are involved in regulating
various physiological and biochemical processes,
including the activation and inactivation of thyroid hor-
mones, the removal of glutathione‐dependent hydro-
peroxide, the reduction of thioredoxins, the synthesis of
selenophosphate, the repair of oxidised methionine
residues and the folding and degradation of endo-
plasmic reticulum‐associated proteins among others.
10
Twenty‐five selenoprotein genes have been found in
humans and animals, including the iodothyronine dei-
odinase family (DIO1, DIO2 and DIO3), the glutathione
peroxidase family (GPX1, GPX2, GPX3, GPX4 and
GPX5), the thioredoxin reductase family (TXNRD1,
TXNRD2 and TXNRD3), MSRB1 (methionine‐R‐sulf-
oxide reductase 1), SELENOF, SELENOH, SELENOI,
SELENOK, SELENOM, SELENON, SELENOO,
SELENOP, SELENOS, SELENOT, SELENOV, SELE-
NOW and SPS2 (Table 1).
11
The presence of seleno-
protein genes varies in different organisms (Table 1),
with 41 selenoprotein genes found in fish, in contrast to
the lower gene copies in humans and animals (Ta-
ble 1).
12
In addition, SELENOP is composed of two
structural domains, with the larger N‐terminal domain
responsible for maintaining the intracellular redox po-
tential and the smaller C‐terminal domain responsible
for mediating Se translocation.
13
It is considered a
marker of Se concentration in vivo and plays an
important role in the transport of Se in tissues and in
maintaining homoeostasis in vivo.
Se has been shown to play a role in the prevention
and management of various human diseases, such as
cancer, cardiovascular disease, cognitive decline and
thyroid dysfunction.
13
As a component of selenopro-
teins, Se is essential for proper immune function and
play a role in preventing oxidative damage to cells.
14
Deficiency in Se can result in several health problems,
including hypothyroidism, muscle weakness and a
weakened immune system.
15
It is important to note that
while adequate Se intake is important for overall health,
excessive intake can also lead to health problems.
Excessive intake of Se through supplements can lead
to a condition called selenosis, which is characterised
by a range of symptoms, including hair and nail brit-
tleness, skin rashes, nausea, diarrhoea, fatigue and
nervous system disorders.
4
The tolerable upper limit for
Se intake is 400 μg per day for adults.
16
It is recom-
mended to have an adequate intake of Se through a
TABLE 1Comparison among selenoproteins found in the
food of humans and animals.
Selenoprotein
a
Human Cow Goat Pig Chick Fish
SELENOE 0 0 0 0 0 1
SELENOF 1 1 1 1 1 1
SELENOH 1 1 1 1 1 1
SELENOI 1 1 1 1 1 1
SELENOJ 0 0 0 0 0 2
SELENOK 1 1 1 1 1 1
SELENOL 0 0 0 0 0 1
SELENOM 1 1 1 1 1 1
SELENON 1 1 1 1 1 1
SELENOO 1 1 1 1 1 2
SELENOP 1 1 1 1 2 2
SELENOS 1 1 1 1 1 1
SELENOT 1 1 1 1 1 3
SELENOU 0 0 0 0 1 3
SELENOV 1 1 1 1 0 0
SELENOW 1 1 1 1 1 4
DIOs 3 3 3 3 3 4
GPXs 5 5 5 5 4 7
TXNRDs 3 3 3 3 3 2
SPS2 1 1 1 1 ? (1) 1
MsrB 1 1 1 1 1 2
Total 25 25 25 25 24 (25)
b
41
a
SELENOE, Selenoprotein E; SELENOF, Selenoprotein F; SELENOH,
Selenoprotein H; SELENOI, Selenoprotein I; SELENOJ, Selenoprotein J;
SELENOK, Selenoprotein K; SELENOL, Selenoprotein L; SELENOM,
Selenoprotein M; SELENON, Selenoprotein N; SELENOO, Selenoprotein O;
SELENOP, Selenoprotein P; SELENOS, Selenoprotein S; SELENOT,
Selenoprotein T; SELENOU, Selenoprotein U; SELENOV, Selenoprotein V;
SELENOW, Selenoprotein W; DIOs, Iodothyronine deiodinase; GPXs,
Glutathione peroxidase; TXNRDs, Thioredoxin reductase; SPS2,
Selenophosphate synthetase; and MsrB, Methionine‐R‐sulfoxide reductase.
b
The total number can be 25 or 24 upon the inclusion or exclusion of
selenophosphate synthetase 2.
MODERN AGRICULTURE
-
35
balanced diet, as excessive supplementation can lead
to selenosis and other health problems.
SELENIUM IN THE SOIL
Soils are the source of our food and therefore many of our
nutrients. In general, the soil will be considered as Se
deficient if the Se content is lower than 0.5 mg/kg; on the
contrary, it will be considered as Se‐rich soil if the Se
content is higher than 4 mg/kg. Although there are parts
of the world with high Se content in the soil, such as Enshi
(Se >100 mg/kg, Hubei Province, China), northwest
India (Se >4 mg/kg) and northern California (Se~30 mg/
kg). A significant portion of the world's soil is deficient in
Se. In China, there are 40 counties with Se‐deficient soil,
particularly in the northeastern region, the Loess
Plateau, and the eastern region of the Tibetan Plateau,
4
where the Se content is below 0.2 mg/kg. Deficient Se‐
soils also exist in countries, such as Qatar (0.12–
0.77 mg/kg) and Saudi Arabia (0.1–0.11 mg/kg).
17
In
these regions, inadequate intake of Se usually leads to
Keshan and Kaschin‐Beck diseases.
18
To address this
issue, people have developed Se‐rich soils. The fugitive
forms of Se in soil can be mainly classified into groups,
including residual Se (RES‐Se), Se bound to organic
matters (OM‐Se), acid soluble Se (FMO‐Se), water sol-
uble Se (SOL‐Se), exchangeable Se and Se bound to
carbonate (EX‐Se). Se
4+
and Se
6+
make up 73%–76%
of total soil Se.
19
These forms of Se in the soil are subject
to interconversion.
20
Plants readily take up Se from the
soil and use Se‐assimilating enzymes to incorporate it
into organic compounds. Because of the chemical simi-
larity between Se and sulphur (S), Se is usually incor-
porated into plants by substituting S to form S‐containing
amino acids, mainly SeMet.
4
Humans and animals
consume Se through the consumption of Se‐rich plants,
such as apples and black bean. A portion of Se is
excreted in faeces, which is again decomposed and uti-
lised by microorganisms, and finally recycled back to the
soil. This is the ecological cycle of Se (Figure 1).
SELENIUM IN PLANTS
Se is also important for plant growth and development.
Moderate application of Se can enhance photosynthesis
of plants, resulting in increased yield and increased
resistance to stress and antioxidant capacity.
21
However, high concentration of Se plays a side effect.
This is exemplified in Se hyperaccumulators where
SeMet biosynthesis is limited by the conversion of the
precursor SeCys into non‐protein amino acids like
Se‐methylselenocysteine (MeSeCys), γ‐glut‐amyl‐Se‐
methylselenocysteine (GGMeSeCys) and selenocysta-
thionine. The sequestration of Se into these metabolites
FIGURE 1 The ecological cycle of selenium. Se is absorbed directly by plants from the soil. Once absorbed by plant roots, inorganic Se is
converted into SeMet and other forms of Se chemicals through the plant sulphur assimilation pathway. In animals, Se is absorbed into the
bloodstream mainly through the stomach and intestines. It binds to αand βglobulins in the blood and is transported into the tissues via the
plasma. Inorganic Se is passively diffused through the intestinal wall, and once absorbed, is converted into hydrogen selenide (H
2
Se) by the
action of reduced coenzyme II, coenzyme A, adenosine‐50‐triphosphate and magnesium. It is then synthesised as SeCys to form selenocyte‐
containing proteins or metabolised products for excretion. Organic Se is converted to seleno‐substituted amino acids in the small intestine and
are actively transferred as monomeric amino acids through the mucosal epithelium into the bloodstream. These amino acids are transported
to the liver to bind with selenoproteins or directly to the tissues to bind with tissue proteins. After uptake of selenide by microorganisms,
selenate or selenite can be reduced to monomeric Se. Finally, monomeric Se re‐enters the ecological cycle.
36
-
MODERN AGRICULTURE
reduces or completely circumvents the integration of
SeCys and SeMet into proteins.
4
The biosynthesis of
most Se compounds may depend on the enzymes
involved in the S assimilation pathway. The concentra-
tion of Se also affects plant growth, with low concen-
trations promoting plant growth and high concentrations
inhibit it.
22
For example, lower concentrations of selenite
solution can promote the germination of many buck-
wheat seeds, while high concentrations (Se ≥3 mg/L)
can be detrimental to the seeds. Studies have shown
that sodium selenite is unlikely to affect the biomass of
grown chard at peak bioconcentrations less than 10 mg/
kg.
20
By growing cabbage shoots hydroponically in an
Se‐nutrient solution, when the concentration of Se is
less than 1.0 mg/L, it promotes the growth of cabbage
shoots and the biomass gradually increases, while when
the concentration of Se‐nutrient solution is more than
2.5 mg/L, it inhibits growth and reduces biomass.
23
Se
may affect photosynthesis in plants in two different
ways: by directly affecting the accumulation of ROS and
regulating the enzyme activities required for photosyn-
thesis
24
or by directly affecting the electron transfer
process necessary for photosynthesis by inhibiting of
Fe‐S haemoglobin synthesis.
25
Some studies have
shown that Se application to rice that starts composting
at an early stage could significantly increase the rate of
multi net photosynthesis in rice, accelerating photosyn-
thesis and resulting in an increase in photosynthetic
yield.
26
SELENIUM IN LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY
Application of selenium in feed
Poultry and livestock feed are primarily plant‐based with
added nutrient supplements. Trace element nutrition,
such as Se, is crucial for animal growth, health and
reproductive performance.
20
In the poultry industry, it is
common to supplement diets with various forms of Se,
such as selenate, sodium selenite and organic forms,
namely OH‐SeMet, SeMet and Zine‐SeMet, to improve
the immunity and overall health of the animals.
27
Compared to inorganic Se, organic Se has been shown
to produce a stronger immune response and result in
higher Se concentrations in tissues.
8
An increase in
dietary Se intake of poultry and livestock leads to a
corresponding increase in Se content in eggs and meat.
Se is a key component in antioxidant enzymes, such as
GPX, SOD and catalase, which are important for avian
growth and development. An increase in Se content
increases GPX activity in birds.
28
To improve antioxi-
dant homoeostasis and development in laying birds, Se
supplementation in the form of sodium selenite, Se
nanoparticles (SeNPs) or Se yeast is commonly used to
increase GPX4 levels.
29
Studies have shown that su-
pplementation with Bacillus Se‐rich bacteria increased
the levels of T‐AOC, T‐SOD and GPX in the pectoral
muscle of chicks.
30
Selenoprotein genes that are sen-
sitive to changes in Se levels in chickens include GPX1,
GPX3, GPX4, SELENOM, SELENOP1 and SELENOU
but genes such as DIO1, DIO2, DIO3, GPX2,
SELENOP2 and TXNRD2 are not affected.
31
Dietary
addition of Se increases ATPase activity and antioxidant
levels in poultry arteries and veins.
32
Additionally,
different forms of Se (e.g., sodium selenite and Se
yeast) have similar effects in promoting antioxidant ca-
pacity in laying hens.
33
Earthworm meal supplemented
with 1 mg/kg Se increased serum levels of GPX, SOD,
IgG and IL‐2, thereby improving antioxidant levels and
immune function in laying hens.
34
Furthermore, dietary
supplementation with SeNPs improved intestinal func-
tion and the development of broiler chickens.
35
These
studies demonstrate the importance of Se in avian
growth and development. In pigs, elevating dietary Se
from 0.3 mg/kg to 3 mg/kg enhanced GPX activities in
the liver, muscle, and thyroid.
36,37
Compared with
0.17 mg Se/kg, 0.5 mg Se/kg enhanced GPX1 activity in
the porcine muscle.
38
The 3 mg/kg Se diet elevated
SELENOP in the muscle
39
and thyroid,
40
and SELE-
NOS in the thyroid.
40
Plasma GPX3 activity of pigs was
decreased by dietary Se deficiency, but remained un-
changed at week 8
41
or was elevated at week 16 after
the treatment of the high Se diet.
40
Selenium and reproduction
Previous studies have established a relationship be-
tween Se deficiency and reproductive problems in an-
imals.
42
In mammals, Se deficiency can lead to
placental retention in dairy cattle, reduced fertilisation
rates in beef cattle
43
and decreased conception rates in
sheep.
44
Previous reports have also shown that Se
deficiency in chickens can lead to a reduction in body
weight.
45
Supplementing broiler diets with Se‐yeast has
been shown to improve the primary immune response
46
and the hatching rate of fertilised eggs in hens.
47
Se is also important for the reproductive capacity of
boars. Boar sperm are particularly sensitive to lipid
peroxidation,
48
As they contain a high proportion of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the phospholipid
fraction of their membranes.
49
This allows for easy
sperm motility and fusion with the egg, but also makes
them vulnerable to free radical attack and lipid peroxi-
dation. Therefore, antioxidant protection is an important
determinant of boar semen quality.
Se is vital for boars and has a similar impact on
sows as well. Organic Se has a greater effect on sows
than inorganic Se, and the addition of inorganic Se to
the diet of sows during gestation can increase Se levels
in sow serum (7.7%), colostrum (44.8%) and milk
(69.5%).
50
Gestation is a period of sustained oxidative
stress
51
and sows experience increased DNA damage
and reduced antioxidant protection.
52
At around
60 days postpartum, GPX activity decreases with a
decrease in serum Se.
53
Se levels in the body are also
positively correlated with the production of certain an-
tioxidants. One study showed that sows supplemented
with organic Se produced piglets with serum Se con-
centrations and GPX activity that were 29.44% and
6.4% higher, respectively, compared to piglets pro-
duced by sows supplemented with inorganic Se.
Moreover, organic Se not only increased the weaning
MODERN AGRICULTURE
-
37
weight of piglets (6.93%), but also improved the ability
of piglets to adapt to intestinal infections and adverse
environments during early growth.
54
Overall, Se plays a key role in the growth, repro-
duction and survival of females.
Selenium and growth performance
Se plays a crucial role in animal production, mainly by
participating in the synthesis of antioxidant enzymes
associated with selenoproteins. One of the most stud-
ied enzymes is GPX, which is the earliest and high level
of selenoprotein‐involved enzymes found in mammals.
GPX enzymatic reactions protect cells from oxidative
damage by scavenging hydrogen peroxide and lipid
peroxides, derivatives of superoxide anion radicals,
thus maintaining normal structure and function.
55
The
antioxidant enzymes involved in the synthesis of sele-
noproteins together create an antioxidant barrier for the
animal organism. Additionally, Se has been found to
affect the metabolism of nonenzymatic antioxidants by
binding to cell membranes, acting against free radicals
and protecting cell membrane.
55
Regarding the effect of Se on animal performance,
most studies have shown that Se has a positive effect
on promoting animal growth and development, and the
effect of organic Se is superior. Chicks fed the Se‐
deficient diet developed NPA, along with poor growth,
poor feathering and mortality as early as on day 18.
56
Huang et al. also showed that chicks fed the Se‐
deficient diet manifested typical clinical signs of
exudative diathesis and showed poor growth perfor-
mance, decreased plasma concentrations of Se and ɑ‐
tocopherol and low plasma GPX activity and liver and
muscle GPX activities.
31
The final body weight and
overall average daily gains (ADG) of chicks were
additively decreased by dietary Se (34%–38%) and
vitamin E (7%–10%) deficiencies. Average daily feed
intake (ADFI) and gain/feed efficiency were decreased
(20%) by dietary Se deficiency.
31
A study comparing
the effects of Se methionine and sodium selenite on
growth performance in Xianju chickens found that the
body weight gain and feed conversion ratio of the
organic Se group were higher than those of the inor-
ganic Se group with significant differences. The results
showed that yeast Se improved the ADG and ADFI of
piglets and reduced the feed‐to‐weight ratio and diar-
rhoea rate, with significant improvement in ADFI and
reduction of diarrhoea rate (p<0.05).
57
Research has
also found that the weaning litter weight, weight gain
per litter and average daily weight gain of piglets were
significantly higher than those of sodium selenate in the
experimental group with 0.5 mg/kg yeast Se in the
diet.
58
In an experiment conducted in China, the effect
of organic Se in the form of Se‐Yeast on growth per-
formance and diarrhoea incidence of weaning piglets
from days 21 through 42 was investigated.
59
When di-
etary sodium selenite (0.2 mg/kg) was replaced by the
same amount of organic Se in the form of Se‐Yeast, the
following advantages were seen: ADG significantly
increased (290.9 vs. 274.1 g/day) and decreased
incidence of diarrhoea (1.32% vs. 1.72%) decreased
the feed cost/kg weight gain by 11%.
59
Selenium and meat quality improvement
Se is also essential for the meat quality of livestock
products.
60
A typical disease that occurs in chickens
with Se deficiency is nutritional muscle atrophy,
31
highlighting Se's irreplaceable role in the composition
and integrity of muscle.
61
Many reports have shown
that Triiodothryonine (T
3
) controls animal growth by
controlling the assimilation of energy and protein in the
body. 50deiodinase is the key enzyme for the synthesis
of triiodo adenine (T
3
) and that Se is a cofactor and
activator of 50deiodinase.
62
It has been reported that
increasing Se levels from 0.10 mg/kg to 0.25 mg/kg can
improve body weight in broilers,
63
indicating that Se is
readily absorbed by broilers. Se can enhance the ac-
tivity of serum GPX in animals, improve the oxidative
capacity of the body, prevent the oxidation of myoglobin
or oxy‐myoglobin, improve meat colour, meat quality
and muscle water retention.
64
SELENIUM IN AQUACULTURE
Application of selenium in aqua feeds
The addition of different ingredients to fish feed may
cause changes in various biochemical parameters in
the organism. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate
aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase
(ALT) activities can indicate liver damage in fish and the
health status of the organism. It has been shown that
the addition of SeNPs to the diets of Nile tilapia, carp,
Caspian roach and grass carp reduced serum levels of
AST, ALT and ALP,
60
suggesting that SeNPs have a
protective effect on the liver and other organs of fish.
Elevated AST and ALT activity in serum may be asso-
ciated with liver damage or dysfunction in fish. Although
an increase in transaminases can lead to organismal
organ damage, a decrease in transaminase levels may
improve these problems in fish. Increases in glutathione
and ghrelin levels may indicate stress conditions in fish.
Selenium and growth performance of
aquatic animals
Se is an important component of the enzyme deiodi-
nase and plays a role in the secretion of pituitary growth
hormone.
65
Adding Se to fish feed can promote
increased activity of thyroid hormones, which in turn
promotes growth and development. Se is also involved
in the composition of enzymes for digestive enzyme
synthesis and can induce the release of more nutrients
from the intestinal epithelium that improve food diges-
tion.
66
SeNPs can increase the intracellular protein
content of the intestinal epithelial cells of carp (Car-
assius auratus gibelio), which may lead to improved
feed utilisation and growth performance.
67
38
-
MODERN AGRICULTURE
Selenium and quality enhancement of
aquatic products
The addition of a specific concentration of Se glucos-
amine can promote the growth of South American white
shrimp, increase the Se and amino acid contents and
improve the diversity of intestinal flora, thus enhancing
the quality of the shrimp culture. Supplementing grass
carp bait with 2–4 mg/kg of yeast Se has been shown to
significantly improve the weight gain rate, end‐of‐test
weight and feed conversion rate of grass carp.
Studies on the effects of different levels of Se on the
growth performance and antioxidant function of juvenile
carp have revealed that while different levels of Se did
not have a positive effect on the growth performance of
juvenile carp, they did significantly enhance its antiox-
idant function.
68
Research on the effects of different Se
sources and levels on the growth performance and
immune enzyme activity of juvenile slanted grouper has
found that the optimum level of Se addition in the bait
for juvenile slanted grouper was sodium selenite
0.98 mg/kg and SeMet 1.01 mg/kg. Juvenile slanted
grouper showed the best growth performance under
these conditions.
67
These findings suggest that the selection of an
appropriate Se source and level of addition in aquatic
fish bait can improve the growth performance of fish
organisms, which may be related to the strong antiox-
idant function of Se, and its ability to improve the anti‐
stress capacity of fish.
APPLICATION OF SELENIUM IN
STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
The application of Se during the growth of fruit trees can
enhance the storage resistance of the fruit. This is due
to its positive impact on a range of intrinsic qualities,
including flesh hardness and soluble solids content.
Additionally, increased antioxidant enzyme activity and
cell membrane integrity further improve the storage
tolerance of the fruit. Foliar application of Se was found
to be effective in improving the Se content and nutri-
tional properties of ‘Red Star’ apples, slowing down the
rate of ethylene biosynthesis, maintaining fruit hard-
ness and delaying fruit ripening, thus positively
affecting fruit storability.
68
The same holds true for
grapes, where Se application increased the Se content,
delayed fruit ripening, and improved the nutritional
quality of the fruit, allowing for better post‐harvest
quality preservation and mature stage sales with less
quality loss.
68
These findings suggest that pre‐harvest
Se treatment is an effective way to improve the stor-
ability of fruits and other horticultural crops.
RISK OF EXCESSIVE SELENIUM
APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE
Inappropriate Se application can pose several risks to
crops, soil organisms and the wider environment. One
of the main risks is toxicity. Excessive Se application
can lead to toxicity in crops, livestock and aquatic or-
ganisms, which can result in decreased growth,
decreased productivity and even death.
69
Additionally,
excessive Se application can lead to toxicity in soil or-
ganisms, including beneficial microorganisms, which
can have a negative impact on soil health and fertility.
70
Another risk associated with Se application in agricul-
ture is interaction with other essential nutrients in the
soil and/or diets, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium.
71
Inappropriate Se application can result in
imbalances in soil nutrient status, which can be harmful
to other species and the wider ecosystem.
It is important to consider these risks for optimal
application of Se in agriculture. Careful dosing, using
organic Se sources, regular monitoring of Se concen-
trations in agricultural environment and exploring
alternative strategies for improving Se status in various
conditions can help to minimise the risks associated
with Se supplementation and ensure its safe and
effective application in agriculture.
INDUSTRIALISATION OF SELENIUM
APPLICATION
Despite the risks, the industrialisation of Se is in
strong demand. It involves the production and com-
mercialisation of Se‐enriched food and probiotics, the
establishment of Se industrial demonstration ba-
ses and the creation of Se branding strategies. To
produce Se‐enriched food and probiotics, various
methods can be employed such as soil amendment
with Se‐enriched fertilisers, foliar application of Se
and the addition of Se to animal feed for meat and
dairy products. Additionally, the use of Se‐enriched
yeast as a probiotic supplement has also been
explored.
4
The establishment of Se industrial demonstration
bases can help to showcase the benefits of Se and its
potential applications in modern agriculture. These
demonstration bases can also serve as training centres
for farmers and other stakeholders, providing practical
information on Se application methods and the benefits
of Se‐enriched crops and livestock. Finally, creating a
strong Se branding strategy can help to raise aware-
ness about the benefits of Se and increase demand for
Se‐enriched food and probiotics. This can be done
through targeted marketing campaigns, partnerships
with relevant organisations and the creation of a rec-
ognisable Se brand.
In summary, the industrialisation of Se involves a
combination of production, demonstration and branding
efforts to promote the benefits of Se and increase its
utilisation in agriculture and related industries.
CONCLUSION
Se is known to have a strong antioxidant and anti‐
inflammatory capacity as well as potential antimicro-
bial properties. As a result, various forms of inorganic
and organic Se are widely used in food fortification and
MODERN AGRICULTURE
-
39
animal feed production. However, there are some
challenges associated with Se use in these applica-
tions. In particular, the optimal dose for different forms
of organic Se is currently unknown. This means that
there is a risk of toxicity if high doses of organic Se are
consumed. Inorganic forms of Se, on the other hand,
are easy to get or cheap but can be less effective in
providing the desired health benefits compared to
organic forms.
72
Therefore, it is important to carefully
consider the type and dose of Se used in food fortifi-
cation and animal feed production in order to ensure
safety and effectiveness. Further research is needed to
determine the optimal dose and form of Se for different
applications and to fully understand its potential health
benefits.
To promote a robust, healthy and sustainable
development of the Se industry, it is critical to establish
standards and regulations for Se‐enriched agricultural
products and foods. Currently, there are various tools
and methods available for evaluating the total Se status
in individuals, including both organic and inorganic
forms of Se. These methods typically involve analysis
of blood, urine or hair samples to determine Se levels.
73
However, while these tools are useful for assessing
overall Se status, they may not provide a comprehen-
sive picture of the organic Se status, which is thought to
be the most biologically active form of Se. As a result,
there is a growing interest in developing more
advanced technologies for assessing organic Se. This
is important because improved methods for organic Se
assessment could provide a more comprehensive un-
derstanding of Se status and its impact on health.
Additionally, the development of a rapid Se detection kit
is in high demand to monitor dietary Se intake and in
vivo Se dynamics.
The rapid Se detection kit can be a handheld device
or a point‐of‐care test that can quickly and easily
measure Se levels in biological and environmental
samples. The device would likely use a variety of
analytical techniques, including spectrophotometry,
immunoassay or mass spectrometry, to determine Se
levels in a sample. The tool will be very useful for
monitoring Se status and greatly enhance our under-
standing of Se and its impacts on agriculture, environ-
ment and human health.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Jia‐Qiang Huang, Zhao‐Hui Wang, Le‐Li Wang and Lv‐
Hui Sun wrote and edited the paper; Yu‐Long Yin and
Jia‐Qiang Huang were primarily responsible for the final
content and all authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (32172772 and 32002216)
and the project was supported by the National Key R&D
Program of China (Grant Nos. 2022YFD1300400 and
2022YFD2101003).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets
were generated or analysed during the current study.
ORCID
Jia‐Qiang Huang
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6501-
3086
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How to cite this article: Huang J‐Q, Wang Z‐H,
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