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Dissemination of Climate Information: Insights from a
Case of Rural Small-Scale Farmers in Raymond Mhlaba
Municipality, South Africa
Tineyi Herbert Pindura1[0000-0001-7233-6222], William Tichaona Vambe 1 [0000-0003-0516-1260],
Werner Nel2[0000-0002-3769-4937] and Leocadia Zhou2[0000-0002-0344-4710]
1 University of Fort Hare, Alice, 5700, South Africa, thpindura@gmail.com
1 University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela, 1200, South Africa, vambewilliam@gmail.com
2 University of Fort Hare, Alice, 5700, South Africa, WNel@ufh.ac.za
2 University of Fort Hare, Alice, 5700, South Africa, LZhou@ufh.ac.za
Abstract. Climate change information plays a pivotal role in decision-making on
what crop to plant, what time to water the plant/mulch the field, what type of
fertilizer to apply, and at what time. As such, small-scale rural farmers need to get
climate information in real-time and in their mother language since English is a
barrier. Therefore, this study assessed how climate information is disseminated to
rural small-scale farmers in Raymond Mhlaba municipality, the challenges faced,
and evaluated the effectiveness of the modes of disseminating climate information
used currently. A Participatory Action Research methodology was adopted being
informed by literature review and focus group methods. The data was collected
from thirty farmers, four extension officers, and four climate and weather experts
who acted as key informants. To remove bias, a randomization approach was used.
SPSS software was used to analyze part of the results and draw graphs and pie
charts. Results showed that 90% of the farmers receive climate information from
newspapers, dramas, television, and radio. Only 10% receive information via short
message service on their phones even though all the farmers own a simple
cellphone. Of the 90%, 70% received their climate information through radio
which proved to be widely used for the dissemination of climate information
among rural small-scale farmers. These results served as a basis for a technological
intervention to improve accurate collection and real-time dissemination of climate
information to rural small-scale farmers using mobile phones.
Keywords: Climate change, Climate information dissemination, Mobile phone
technology, Small-scale farmers
1 Introduction
Climate change's effects are experienced in every corner of the world. Between 1901
and 2020, global temperatures rose by around 1.1°C which also directly affected rainfall
patterns (Crespo and Lumsden, 2019). This led to dry spells resulting in impaired farm
output leading to decreased food availability and agricultural revenue. The above claims
were supported by Buhaug et al. (2015) and Diemen et al. (2017), who said, climate
variability and change are the principal causes of changes in global food production,
notably in the semi-arid tropics. The effects of climate change on agriculture have not
spared African countries, as they rely largely on rainfall for their agricultural practice
(Msowoya et al., 2016). Correspondingly, the continent's tropical and subtropical
regions are vulnerable to climate change (Auffhammer and Schlenker, 2014; Amjath-
Babu et al., 2016). As alluded by Kotir (2011), Müller and Cramer (2011) and Amjath-
Babu et al. (2016), climate change and variability are expected to have a greater impact
on dry land agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) than in other parts of the world
43
because the region has lower precipitation rates and higher baseline temperatures than
the rest of the world. Already, food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa has risen in the
past years and this is ascribed to recurrent droughts and floods, indicating the region's
sensitivity to climate change and unpredictability (Msowoya et al., 2016). Higher food
costs in SSA are regarded as one of the climate change warning indicators (Ringler,
2010).
Empirical research among African agriculturists suggests that seasonal forecast
information can help farmers reduce their vulnerability to dry spells and climate
extremes, as well as allow them to capitalize on opportunities when favourable
precipitation conditions are predicted (Batisani and Yarnal, 2010; Kotir, 2011; Waha et
al., 2011; Adamgbe and Ujoh, 2013; Debela et al., 2015; Tiamiyu et al., 2015). Fewer
gains have been attained in assessing the extent and effect of disseminating climate
information, particularly among vulnerable populations such as African rural small-
scale farmers (Madzwamuse, 2010; Turpie and Visser, 2015). When rural small-scale
farmers fail to receive, grasp and interpret climatic information, they experience food
shortages leading to hunger (food insecurity, chronic hunger, and seasonal hunger).
Given that increased unpredictability in precipitation and rising temperatures would
have a substantial impact on farm productivity and the viability of dryland farming (Seo,
2010; Schlenker and Lobell, 2014; Amjath-Babu et al., 2016), rural small-scale farmers
in Africa may face starvation situations (Apata, 2011). It is difficult to explain to a rural
small-scale farmer the consequences of climate change and unpredictability on crop
output (Kiem and Austin, 2013). In recent years, rural small-scale farmers have
employed traditional coping mechanisms and indigenous knowledge to adjust to climate
change and variability (Tall et al., 2014). However, ever climatic variability has made
adaptation harder for rural small-scale farmers (Hansen et al., 2011).
Given that farming is one of the very few areas that benefit Africa as a continent
(Msowoya et al., 2016) and South Africa as a country, it is paramount to improve the
dissemination of climate information to small-scale rural farmers. In the context of South
Africa alone, a population of 32.51% in 2021 stays in rural areas (World Bank, 2021)
and rural small-scale farmers play a pivotal role in feeding this population; in some
cases, feeding the nation when they take their surplus to markets. However, in the last
decade, seemingly, climate change has seriously affected the agricultural sector,
particularly in the Eastern Cape Province (Crespo and Lumsden, 2019). Small-scale
rural farmers are becoming the most affected by climate change (Turpie and Visser,
2015). Preliminary investigations in the Raymond Mhlaba municipality (study area),
pinpointed that some rural small-scale farmers are not very aware of the climate change
Lumsden, 2019). This can be attributed to the fact that some are not receiving climate
change information where they stay due to several reasons which include poor
Crespo and Lumsden, 2019). As a result of the above claims backed by our preliminary
investigations, it is a fact that to communicate effectively and efficiently climate
information using ways and means that small-scale rural farmers can have access to and
understand is very important.
Research Problem
Preliminary investigations findings from the focus groups done in the study area, which
are also backed by a report by Crespo and Lumsden (2019), pinpointed that over the last
decade, rural small-scale farmers in the Raymond Mhlaba municipality area are still
using the same farming practices borrowed from their ancestors and still plant the same
44
crops they used to plant. This has resulted in them having lower harvests when compared
to the previous years. The lower harvests can be attributed to the fact that climate change
conditions are no longer favourable to their farming practices and the crops they are
planting. This calls for a paradigm shift in the crops they plant, and farming practices.
However, such decisions should be informed and centred on understanding climate
change. For the farmers to understand climate change, the right information should be
sent, shared always in real-time, and in some cases, explained to them in their vernacular
language to make it easier to better understand. The challenges faced in disseminating
climate information to rural small-scale farmers in the study area served as a basis for
proposing a technological intervention to improve the accurate collection and real-time
dissemination of climate information to small-scale farmers. To address the above
research problem, this study was guided by the following research questions:
1. What strategies are being used to disseminate climate information to rural small-
scale farmers in the Raymond Mhlaba municipality and what challenges are faced by
farmers to receive information using these strategies?
2. How efficient and effective are the current modes being used for disseminating
climate information to small-scale farmers in the Raymond Mhlaba municipality?
3. How can other technologies be used to accurately collect and improve the
dissemination of climate information to small-scale farmers in real-time and in the
vernacular language they better understand?
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: the literature review will be in
Section 2, followed by the adopted research methodology and methods in Section 3.
Findings, a proposed technological framework, and conclusions will be presented in
Section 4, Section 5, and Section 6, respectively.
2 Literature Review
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2014) as "change in the state of the climate that can be
identified (for instance, by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the
variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
change information to rural small-scale farmers. This is because, climate change is
seriously affecting rural small-
Climate change is one of the most significant factors influencing agricultural production,
as well as the global environment, society, and economy. As evidenced by the report to
the Water commission by Crespo and Lumsden (2019), sudden rainfall and temperature
security.
Dissemination of climate information to rural small-scale farmers since they are the
most affected is of paramount importance as it assists them to move with time and make
the right decisions in choosing the crops they plant (Turpie and Visser, 2015). Since the
stone age, rural communities would communicate and share vital information with
small-scale farmers using several disseminating methods such as blowing the trumpet,
beating drums, through traditional authorities, and gatherings sanctioned by
chiefs/headmen. Apart from the old traditional approaches highlighted above, several
methods have been adopted and used to disseminate information to rural small-scale
45
farmers. These methods include radio, television, workshops (face-to-face meetings),
(Ouédraogo et al., 2018).
As noted by Brandon (2020), a very antiquated technology (radio) is emerging as an
essential communication tool in East Africa. These claims are also supported by
Ofoegbu and New (2021) whose Namibian-based study found that radio is the most
common source of advisory service to communicate climate change to farmers followed
by extension officers. In support, MacÓuma (2
throughout the Global South, radio is one of the most efficient forms of media for
promoting agriculture and rural development. These sentiments were once anchored by
Drechsel and Zimmermann (2005), Ogallo (2010), Mungai and Ugangu (2012), Blum
and Szonyi (2014), Ouédraogo et al. (2018), Brandon, (2020) Ojomo and Dayo Odigie
(2020) and Somanje et al. (2021). Even though radio is regarded as an effective approach
to some extent, researchers Wafula Wamalwa et al. (2016) recommended that radios
should use vernacular languages when communicating information to rural small-scale
farmers to remove language barrier challenges. Contrary, despite radio being a popular
means of disseminating climate change information, we noted that some farmers in our
study area cannot afford to buy one. In addition, in some cases, they experience
challenges with radio signals resulting in them not getting climate change information
which negates the claims that radio is an effective approach. Consequently, not getting
climate change information affects rural small-
crops to plant and farming patterns.
Another approach that is popular as pinpointed by many researchers such as
Ouédraogo et al. (2018), and Ofoegbu and New (2021), is the use of extension officers.
The researchers claimed that if used effectively and efficiently, extension officers can
be of paramount importance in educating and disseminating climate information to rural
small-scale farmers. However, the major cited problem with this approach from the
research done is the shortage of extension officers. It was pinpointed that the ratio of
extension officers to farmers is very low and does not tally. This is also the case in our
study area based on our preliminary investigation. Similar challenges are faced in
different countries as cited by the studies carried out in Zimbabwe by Mugwisi et al.
(2015), Mugwisi (2015) and in the Hhohho region, Eswatini by Simelane et al. (2019).
-smart
effects in Qqumashe c
sentiments. Furthermore, the researchers recommended that a) Extension agents serve
as the information providers to farmers and must conduct targeted training for farmers
to increase awareness about climate change and variability as a subject; b) Extension
agents must regularly visit farmers and provide information on current farming issues,
new technology developments for agriculture and farming, climate change and
variability issues, as well as training about new agricultural techniques to counteract
these issues; and c) Extension agents must aggressively address the acknowledged
demand for market data and storage options.
The work of Chhachhar et al. (2012) in Pakistan extensively discussed the use of
television (TV) in disseminating information to farmers as a means of communication.
Their findings pinpointed that a majority of the farmers in their study preferred watching
agricultural-related television programs to be educated because the programs make
understanding easier. Mutekwa's (2009) research in Zimbabwe also found that channels
such as TV are used more by farmers. These findings are supported by other researchers
such as Elia (2013), Alam et al. (2014), Pius Mtega (2018), and Eta et al. (2022) who
46
also acknowledged the importance of TV and its role in disseminating information to
farmers. However, the major challenge is that TV programs may not be entirely devoted
to topics relating to agriculture, and this may result in farmers only receiving limited
information from the medium regarding topics linked to agriculture such as crop pricing,
weather forecasts, government financial help, and other topics. Moreover, there will
always be issues with using TV to distribute or retrieve information, especially in regions
of a country where there are accessibility (TV signal) issues. TV accessibility issues
were also highlighted in our study area as a major problem to use this mode of
communication in the dissemination of climate change information.
Though not very popular, newspapers, fliers, traditional authorities, and councillors
are also some of the modes being used to disseminate climate information. Findings
from the preliminary investigation in our study area also show that they are not very
effective as most are written in English which is difficult to understand for most rural
small-scale farmers.
Despite mobile phones being a force to reckon with, many studies including the works
of Brandon (2020) noted with concern that this technology is not being used to its fullest
to disseminate climate information to rural small-scale farmers. There is thus a gap that
can be tapped to find out how mobile phones can be used as an effective and efficient
tool. Moreover, social networks (media) have drawn attention and are used together with
mobile phones to get climate information, as is the case with most young farmers. If
used well, social networks can also be beneficial to young farmers in South Africa (SA)
who are technologically skilled and are venturing into farming as informed by our
preliminary investigation findings. With the rate at which the internet is being used in
SA, it can benefit young farmers a lot provided they do not experience network
challenges as with the study area.
Notably from the above literature, it can be concluded that even though technologies
like radio and TV have been used widely, their effectiveness in disseminating climate
information is below what is expected in the context of Africa, specifically in rural areas.
This is due to the major challenge of getting radio and TV signals in those areas where
farmers live. Moreover, very few farmers can afford to buy radios and TVs. These two
challenges were also the case in our study area. Due to the above-mentioned
predicaments, the farmers are just relying on extension officers whom they also
indicated are too few to cater for their needs (if we are to consider the prescribed farmer-
to-extension officer ratio). This leaves farmers in a dilemma in terms of getting reliable
climate information in their vernacular language at their fingertips.
3 Study Area
Nine (9) areas of the Raymond Mhlaba municipality, namely Bedford, Adelaide, Fort
Beaufort, Kat River basin, Tyume basin, Amatola, Alice, Sheshegu, Hogsback, and
Middle Drift were selected for this study as shown in Figure 1 below. Generally, from
1980-2018, the study area's average annual rainfall varies between 36 mm to 110 mm
and average temperatures of a maximum of 28 degrees and a low of 10 degrees Celcius
(South African Weather Service, 2018). The Hogsback area is a high-rainfall
mountainous area and mainly focuses on tourism and forestry, but some cultivation does
occur (Mnukwa, 2013). According to (Manyevere et al., 2014), Alice, Bedford,
Adelaide, and Sheshegu areas are used extensively for grazing due to low rainfall and
poor soil quality though some crop farming happens there. The Amatola area has much
crops potential due to its climate condition, but it is a small, isolated unit surrounded by
high mountains while the Kat River, Tyume River, and Middledrift areas
47
are the locations of the majority of agricultural operations in this municipality (Raymond
Mhlaba Local Municipality, 2017). Of concern, over the last three years in the study
area, temperatures have risen, and rainfall dropped drastically according to the report by
Crespo and Lumsden (2019). These changes have a serious negative impact on small-
scale farmers who are not aware of these changes which directly affect their farming
practices, the type of crops to be planted, and many other farming decisions regarding
these fundamental climatic changes.
Another important point to note in this study area is that of poor road networks, and
poor tv, and radio signals. This makes the municipality an ideal study area because it is
rural, and the area is agriculture-based as classified by Mnukwa (2013).
Fig. 1. Study area: part of Raymond Mhlaba Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
4 Methodology
In this research, whilst being guided by Participatory Action Research (PAR)
methodology, both soft and hard sources of information, that is, an inspection of
scientific climate information documents informed by literature on what to look at, and
focus groups (Nyumba et al., 2018) were used to identify the research problem and get
appropriate methodology for facilitating self-organization and co-learning processes
among rural small-scale farmers and scientific communities, allowing them to utilize
climate information dissemination technologies and improve local institutions centered
on natural resource management (Mapfumo et al., 2013; Barbon et al., 2021; Rice and
Goldberg, 2021; Hernandez et al., 2022). Even though PAR is generally a qualitative
approach, it can also accommodate some quantitative methods we used to deal with
scientific statistics of rainfall and temperature. Furthermore, quantitative methods were
used to analyse and present some of our results.
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To identify the dissemination of the climate information we followed a two-step
process of participatory assessment to understand the context and needs, joint
identification and co-design of the proposed technological framework option, and social
learning between climate scientists' external agencies and rural small-scale farmers
based on PAR processes. The first step in community adaptation is to promote a
knowledge of how climate change impacts local agriculture systems, including threats
or risks of climate change, vulnerabilities, and current coping capacity. This is a critical
stage because it serves as the foundation for identifying viable strategies for resolving
these risks and vulnerabilities. In accordance with the PAR, we employed the
participatory climate risk and vulnerability assessment technique (PCRVA).
The PCRVA is a community involvement process that consists of 2-3 days of
workshops that use a variety of participatory tools such as community mapping, a
seasonal cycle, a timetable for farming, challenge tree analysis, and focus-group
discussions. The PCRVA collects information and analysis on agricultural production
systems (e.g., crops farmed, cropping cycle, challenges and concerns in production),
climate change threats (e.g., changes that affected agriculture output), and lastly the role
of men and women in farming, food security, and nutrition. The focus group was
comprised of 30 farmers (n=30) out of sixty-six (66) small-scale farmers in the study
area, four (4) extension officers, and four (4) climate and weather experts (scientists)
who were key informants from the Raymond Mhlaba municipality. The sample size was
selected using a randomization approach, which essentially helped to remove bias. The
reason for selecting this sample size was guided by previous studies by Takahashi et al.
(2015), Leta et al. (2020), Sudgen et al. (2021) and Sitanggang et al. (2021) who noted
that in agriculture, an average number of 20 to 30 farmers is good when researching
because it helps in gathering much-needed information and also it is easy to manage.
For inclusivity purposes and to cater for all age groups and gender, the sample had four
(4) male individuals between 20-29 years, four (4) and five (5) females aged 30-39 years,
one (1) male and six (6) females in the age group 40-49, five (5) females and four (4)
males in the age group 50-59 and finally one (1) male in the age group over the age of
60. The four (4) extension officers were engaged to highlight the challenges they face in
disseminating information to the farmers in the selected study area. The four (4) climate
and weather experts (scientists) from the University of Cape Town and the University
of Fort Hare were engaged to give their expertise on how climate change can have an
impact on crop yields and give scientific documents with statistics of rainfall and
temperature in the study area. After the data was collected from scientific inspection of
data also informed by literature and focus groups, SPSS software was used to analyze
the statistical data and draw diagrams to make the information easy to visualize. Critical
analysis was also done on qualitative data doing references from existing literature of
studies done before. Finally, step two uses the facts and knowledge gained from
evaluating and testing adaption alternatives to prepare for out-scaling within the
Raymond Mhlaba municipality. The researchers have learnt the necessity of building
proof-of-concept sites, where scale is proven and an evidence base is developed, for the
purposes of or to further assist the uptake of adaptation alternatives at larger sizes
through its work in rural small-scale areas.
To enhance interaction with rural small-scale farmers in the Raymond Mhlaba
municipality and also to get indigenous knowledge whilst disseminating climate change
information, an interactive technological framework and instruments were designed and
proposed. The employment of the proposed technological framework and tools is
consistent with the PAR principles of research that is empowering people to take climate
49
adaptation action. Rural small-scale farmers cannot be given actual resilience; rather,
their mindsets must be instilled with actual resilience. Resilience is generally reflected
in their farming attitudes and methods and this is possible if they get climate change
information in real-time and their vernacular language. This is where social
mobilization, social learning, and organization come into play. Recognizing the
importance of technological components, technologies and practices, as well as on-farm
adaptation activities, are supported by scientists, specialists, and practitioners.
5 Findings
This section presents the findings of this research which also answer the research
questions
Farmers with Knowledge of Climate Information and its Impact on Farming
Most farmers (29 out of 30) acknowledged that they have heard about climate from
mostly radio and extension officers. However, sixteen (16) older farmers that is one (1)
male and six (1) females in the age group 40-49, five (5) females and four (4) males in
the age group 50-59, and finally one (1) male in the age group over 60 pinpointed that
they are not very aware of how it affects the crops they have been planting all these years
which they inherited from their forefathers. Contrariwise, thirteen (13) young farmers,
that is, four (4) male individuals between 20-29 years, nine males (9) and females (5)
aged 30-39 years seem to be well versed in the challenges of climate change as they are
exposed to technologies, social media and some are studying agriculture at the
University of Fort Hare. Because of this understanding, some young farmers have
diversified to drought-resistance crops.
These findings show that timely exposure and constant updates in knowing climate
information are fundamental to knowing climate change information.
Popular Methods for Disseminating Climate Information
Even though there exist several methods of disseminating climate information such as
flyers, short message service (SMS), drama, newspaper, television, and radio, not all are
effective and efficient depending on the area. From Figure 2, it can be noted that all the
farmers have never received climate information on flyers, and only one (1) farmer (3%)
got climate information through drama. Three (3) farmers (10%) receive climate
information via SMS, and the rest 27 farmers (90%) did not receive SMSs, although all
farmers have a simple phone that can receive a general message. About 13 farmers
(43%) have the privilege of getting a newspaper where they obtain updates on climate
change. Twenty-one farmers (70%) receive climate information on TV (though they
don
model where almost 77% of the farmers get climate information updates. It is important
information when
they visit other people with radios. Moreover, they pinpointed that where they stay, both
radio and signals are a problem. Comparatively, TV is the second most common mode
of communication channel when compared to the others. They see these TVs when they
visit their relatives in towns because they cannot afford them, and the signal is not stable
where they stay. It is important to note that some farmers received the information
through one or two modes of these dissemination methods. Fig 2 shows the different
methods of dissemination that can be used to disseminate climate information to rural-
small scale farmers in Raymond Mhlaba Municipality.
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Fig. 2. Methods of disseminating climate change information to rural small-scale farmers in
Raymond Mhlaba Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
Our findings are almost similar to the findings of Brandon (2020) who did his research
in East Africa and concluded that radio was the most used mode of disseminating climate
information, followed by TV, workshops (where they would have been told by extension
officers) and lastly mobile phones.
Microscopically looking at our findings and those of Brandon (2020), some farmers
receive SMSs on their mobile phones. It is important to note that from these two works,
all the farmers own cell phones even though the cell phones are not fully utilized to get
climate information. A conclusion that can be reached is that the network is not an issue
that can hinder rural small-scale farmers from receiving climate information on their
phones since they own phones and use them to communicate other issues with others.
This observation that all farmers own a cell phone is key and must be capitalized as
a tool to disseminate climate information to rural small-scale farmers in real-time and in
their vernacular language.
General Crop Yields
Over the previous season, the rural small-scale farmers in the municipality had crop
yields ranging from poor, average, to good yields after harvesting as shown in Figure 4
below. The data show that 15 farmers (50%) in the study area received poor yields in
the previous seasons, while 38% received average yields. Shockingly, only 13% of the
small-scale farmers established good yields.
Though this research cannot conclusively say that climate change has affected rural
small-
over the last three farming seasons, it can be noted that their yields have drastically
changed as shown in Figure 4. From these results and based on the response from the
51
focus group and supported by extension officers, those who got better harvests are those
who know climate change information and how it affects their crops and who, as a
consequence, diverted and planted draught-resistant crops.
Fig. 4. Yields of previous seasons for rural small-scale farmers in Raymond Mhlaba
Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
General Comments from the Farmers, Extension Officers, and Scientists
Farmers
After being asked about the challenges they face, the rural small-scale farmers
them which results in them not getting enough knowledge about climate change.
Moreover, they pinpointed that they are not always well informed by the radio as, in
some cases, the information is shared in English which sometimes makes it difficult to
comprehend. They noted that even though they get information from radio and TV,
where they stay, radio and TV signals are a challenge. Moreover, not all of them own or
can afford TVs or radios, so they have to rely on those with them to get climate change
information usually through weather report news.
Extension Officers
When asked about the predicament highlighted by the farmers, the extension officers
are understaffed as there are only four (4) of them in an area in which there are more
than sixty-six (66) farmers (study area). As a result, they cannot service all farmers in
time. Moreover, they cited a lack of resources to use and a lack of awareness about other
52
better agricultural technologies that can be used to assist them to disseminate
information to rural small-scale farmers. Extension officers raised the concern of
put some climate change information into the local isiXhosa language. The language
barrier is thus a major problem.
Scientists (climate and weather experts)
Climate and weather experts highlighted that in some cases, the information that is
reported on the weather forecast for these areas is just average for the whole area. The
information might not be the actual temperature and rainfall that will be experienced on
the ground which might mislead also farmers. They suggested that it would be helpful
if community weather stations are established to improve the accuracy of predicting
want to address climate change issues, it is also vital to include indigenous people to
solve climate challenge issues by allowing them to share their indigenous knowledge
(IK) about trees, flowers, and animal behaviour. This approach has proved that it works
well as our grandfathers would tell us what will happen based on what they would have
seen in nature. This information combined with scientific knowledge can go a long way
in addressing challenges faced by rural small-
However, the major challenge they noted was that it is difficult to get this indigenous
knowledge from these farmers in real-time or as soon as they see some changes in nature
which they have used all their years. A fact that was raised by the elder farmer concurred
inherited from their forefathers, the farmers are able to tell whether there will be more
The experts concluded by saying that it is key that meteorologists combine
traditional/indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge to come up with climate
information for a specific area as it is not the same everywhere. Another
recommendation they gave was that it is best to have a localized climate weather station
to get localized climate information. By so doing, it will help in giving exact information
to farmers for their area.
6 A Proposed Technological Framework
Dissemination of climate information to rural small-scale farmers using communication
channels such as newspapers, drama, television, and radio was found not to be very
efficient and effective as evidenced by the response of the farmers.
Extension officers who are supposed to be the bridge to information to rural small-
scale farmers highlighted that they are not well-equipped, and the ratio of farmers to
extension officers is not directly proportional to the farmers in the study area. This
negatively impacted farmers because the people they were looking to for information
could not fulfil their mandate.
An interesting finding from this study shows that only 10% of the small-scale farmers
receive information via SMS on their phones even though all the farmers own a simple
cell phone.
From the analyzed findings of this study, a technological framework to collect and
disseminate climate information to rural small-scale farmers in the Raymond Mhlaba
municipality is proposed to harness the power of mobile phone technology.
53
With the coming of mobile phones, the internet, and the Internet of Things (IoT)
devices (Farooq et al., 2019), technology can play a pivotal role in farming as noted in
most developed countries and of late, in some developing countries. The survey work
oT in rural areas
for weather forecasting to assist farmers. Their work shows that a lot of research has
been done in Zambia and South Africa on using the IoT in precision agriculture.
However, the Eastern Cape rural areas farmers (study area) are still to tap and use this
technology to collect climate change information and use mobile phones to disseminate
climate information in real-time to small-scale farmers.
Proposed Model
The use of technology in agriculture to assist farmers has widely been adopted in several
developed countries and of late, some developing countries as supported by the works
y the
International Institute for Sustainable Development as reported by a World Bank Press
Release, rural small-scale farmers still face major barriers to using technology (Fuglie
et al., 2020). Some barriers are poor technological infrastructure, poor network
connectivity, and a lack of knowledge on how to use technology among other challenges.
With the emergence of technologies such as IoT devices (temperature sensors,
humidity sensors and many more), drones, and artificial intelligence (machine learning
and deep learning) which are now driving smart farming, it is high time that rural small-
scale farmers in Africa use them so that they can fight climate change and improve their
harvest (Fuglie et al., 2020). Therefore, we propose a technological framework (see
Figure 5 below) that will use IoT devices to build community weather stations, use
mobile phones to send and receive SMSs to and from farmers, use analytical algorithms
to predict the weather based on scientific and indigenous knowledge, and natural
language processing algorithms to convert the English language to isiXhosa.
How the proposed technological framework will work.
IoT devices such as temperature sensors, humidity sensors, and other useful
sensors are installed in the communities (
information and send it to the community server machine.
Farmers also send their indigenous knowledge based on the nature (trees,
flowers, and animal behaviour) of changes in their areas with their interpretation of what
these changes mean in terms of rainfall and or temperatures.
Scientists then analyze the data (scientific and indigenous) using predictive
analytic algorithms on the supercomputer (cloud computing) to convert the data to
information.
The information is saved on the community server computer.
Using his/her phone, a farmer can dial the USSD code for example *100# (free
of charge), and select whether they want climate information (option 1) or advice on a
crop to plant (option 2), or both (option 3).
Information is retrieved from the community server computer, translated into
isiXhosa, and sent to the farmer.
After every week or when there are changes in climate information at the
community server, with or without requesting information, the SMS is sent to the farmer
with the climate information.
54
Solars can be installed in rural areas to provide power to both the community
whether station servers or the ICT and IoT devices.
Fig. 5. A technological framework to collect, process and disseminate climate information to
rural small-scale farmers
Additional information that extension offices can also send to farmers via SMS is advice
on the crops farmers can plant, at what time, and what type of fertilizers to apply. This
will be informed by the expected rainfall and temperatures that would have been
analyzed by the supercomputer using predictive analytics algorithms. This information
should be communicated in both English and isiXhosa as shown in Figure 6 below.
The proposed technological framework is envisaged to significantly improve the
dissemination of climate information to rural small-scale farmers using mobile phones.
Moreover, it will complement the efforts of understaffed extension officers. Extension
officers can share important information in real-time to farmers via SMS, thereby saving
them time to travel to all farmers and also cutting travel costs associated with visiting
farmers whilst effectively disseminating both climate information, and any necessary
advice or announcement to farmers. Another envisaged advantage of the framework is
that it will send the climate information in vernacular language regularly and, by so
doing, improve the understanding and knowledge of rural small-scale farmers about
climate change. The ability of this framework to combine traditional (indigenous) and
scientific knowledge will go a long way in addressing climate change effects which are
seriously affecting rural small- genous
knowledge in solving climate change, especially in rural areas. In conclusion, the use of
technology, in particular this framework, in farming can improve productivity, harvest,
55
and create more jobs as supported by Fuglie et al. (2020) in their article titled
the use of technology and the IoT helps in decision-making (Zolkin et al., 2021), and
can transform agriculture in many aspects as highlighted by Chalimov (2020).
Fig. 5. Additional information that extension offices can send to farmers via mobile technological
framework to collect, process and disseminate climate information to rural small-scale farmers
7 Conclusion
In this study, the researchers identified that newspapers, drama, television, extension
officers, and radio are some of the methods being used to disseminate climate
information to rural small-scale farmers. However, these methods have proved to not be
very efficient and effective (in the study area) as they are not allowing farmers to get up-
to-date climate information. Extension officers who are supposed to assist farmers cited
that they are understaffed and under-resourced. As a result, they are not able to be there
and cannot fully help the rural small-scale farmers with adequate climate information.
Having identified the problems confronting the rural small-scale farmers, the
researchers proposed a technological framework to improve the dissemination of climate
information to small-scale farmers using mobile phone technology whilst
complementing the efforts of understaffed extension officers. Moreover, the framework
removes the language barrier problem and also encompasses the indigenous knowledge
of the farmers which is vital in solving climate change in rural areas.
56
The future of this work is to implement the model in the study area and review its
results in terms of efficiency and effectiveness in disseminating climate information.
Based on the findings, the system can be improved when the need arises so that farmers
can get climate information in real-time and in their vernacular language which is
isiXhosa.
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