Assessing preferences and motivations for owning exotic pets: Care matters

Abstract

Understanding drivers of demand for exotic pets may help inform adequate conservation strategies to address unsustainable trade. Here, we used a best-worst scaling approach to understand the variety of preferences and motivations for owning exotic pets. Respondents (316 from 33 countries) preferred exotic pets that were captive-bred, had rare aesthetic features, and were common in the wild and abundant in the market. Species that were at risk of extinction, in short supply, sourced from the wild, and under trade restrictions were the least favoured by respondents. Feelings of care, such as attachment, affection, nurture, as well as curiosity and being passionate about the species, were dominant motivations for pet keepers. Respondents were willing to support the conservation of species in the wild. Our findings highlight that relational dimensions are among the most important aspects influencing decisions to own exotic pets. Certification systems of origin that supports animal welfare and conservation may help consumers support sustainable trade in exotic pet species. However, attention should be paid to challenges throughout the supply chain and not to incentivize consumers' preferences for rare genetic features as this may pose a risk to the conservation of species in the wild. When planning conservation initiatives and policies, considering relational dimensions may provide novel insights to better foster meaningful expressions of care with animals in the wild, as opposed to animals as exotic pets. Fostering care, as a normative human sense of kinship with non-humans, could help channeling "demand for ownership" towards "stewardship re-lations" with nature.

Full text

Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
Available online 21 March 2023
0006-3207/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Assessing preferences and motivations for owning exotic pets: Care matters
Anna Hausmann
a
,
b
,
c
,
*
, Gonzalo Cort´
es-Capano
b
,
c
,
d
, Iain Fraser
e
,
g
, Enrico Di Minin
b
,
c
,
f
a
Department of Biological and Environmental Science, School of Resource Wisdom, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyvaskyla, Finland
b
Helsinki Lab of Interdisciplinary Conservation Science, Department of Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland
c
Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science (HELSUS), University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland
d
Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, School of Resource Wisdom, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyvaskyla, Finland
e
School of Economics, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
f
School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa
g
Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent, Canterbury, CT2 7NR UK
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Wildlife trade
Best-worst scaling
Rarity
Relational values
Ethics of care
Human-nature relations
Certication
ABSTRACT
Understanding drivers of demand for exotic pets may help inform adequate conservation strategies to address
unsustainable trade. Here, we used a best-worst scaling approach to understand the variety of preferences and
motivations for owning exotic pets. Respondents (316 from 33 countries) preferred exotic pets that were captive-
bred, had rare aesthetic features, and were common in the wild and abundant in the market. Species that were at
risk of extinction, in short supply, sourced from the wild, and under trade restrictions were the least favoured by
respondents. Feelings of care, such as attachment, affection, nurture, as well as curiosity and being passionate
about the species, were dominant motivations for pet keepers. Respondents were willing to support the con-
servation of species in the wild. Our ndings highlight that relational dimensions are among the most important
aspects inuencing decisions to own exotic pets. Certication systems of origin that supports animal welfare and
conservation may help consumers support sustainable trade in exotic pet species. However, attention should be
paid to challenges throughout the supply chain and not to incentivize consumers’ preferences for rare genetic
features as this may pose a risk to the conservation of species in the wild. When planning conservation initiatives
and policies, considering relational dimensions may provide novel insights to better foster meaningful expres-
sions of care with animals in the wild, as opposed to animals as exotic pets. Fostering care, as a normative human
sense of kinship with non-humans, could help channeling “demand for ownership” towards “stewardship re-
lations” with nature.
1. Introduction
The illegal and/or unsustainable trade in exotic species (i.e., non-
domesticated) to be kept as pets affects the conservation of many spe-
cies globally (Altherr and Lameter, 2020; Auliya et al., 2016; Nijman
et al., 2018; UNODC, 2016). This trade also raises animal welfare con-
cerns (Peng and Broom, 2021; Sollund, 2011) and helps facilitate in-
vasion of non-native species (Lockwood et al., 2019) and the spread of
emerging zoonotic diseases (Chomel et al., 2007). Assessing drivers of
consumers’ demand for exotic pets remains key to informing effective
conservation decision-making (Challender et al., 2015; Veríssimo et al.,
2020). However, characterizing and measuring consumers’ preferences
and motivations to understand demand remains challenging (Veríssimo
et al., 2020), and is still little understood in the exotic pet trade
(Lockwood et al., 2019).
Rare species appear to be particularly preferred across multiple
wildlife markets (Hall et al., 2008). Consumers may place dispropor-
tionate value on rare species, leading to a process of increasing prices as
a species becomes scarcer, incentivizing overexploitation and increasing
extinction risk (Courchamp et al., 2006; Hall et al., 2008). Rare species
are typically characterized by low population size and/or restricted
geographical distribution due to species intrinsic (e.g., slow life his-
tories, high specialization) and/or due to extrinsic attributes (e.g.,
human pressures) (Flather and Hull Sieg, 2007). Since rarity is a relative
concept, the desirability for rare species can be inuenced by people’s
perspectives, thus varying according to social and cultural dimensions
(Hall et al., 2008). For example, a species can be locally scarce although
abundant elsewhere (e.g., vagrant birds, Brock et al., 2021), or can be
* Corresponding author at: Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyvaskyla, Survontie 9c, 40500 Jyvaskyla, Finland.
E-mail address: anna.a.hausmann@jyu. (A. Hausmann).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Biological Conservation
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biocon
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110007
Received 19 November 2022; Received in revised form 3 February 2023; Accepted 7 March 2023

Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
2
rarely seen in the wild (e.g., elusive, nocturnal species), or can be rare
because it is endangered (e.g., high risk of extinction). In addition, rarity
can be perceived as scarcity in the market, referring to a species limited
availability in relation to demand. Accordingly, besides species’ desir-
able characteristics, consumers’ preferences may be affected by the
accessibility of species or products, as well as the availability of alter-
natives or substitutes (Lockwood Doughty et al., 2021). Hence, any
species may be, or become, scarce when the supply is insufcient to meet
demand, leading to increasing prices (Lynn, 1991). Species that are
scarce in the market might become particularly desirable, due to feelings
of privilege and exclusivity, as it happens with luxury products (Hall
et al., 2008; Kapferer, 2012). In addition, species that are abundant in
the wild can also become articially scarce in the market due to existing
trade restrictions (e.g., trade control on quotas, anti-poaching), which
may increase prices and appeal to consumers. On the other hand, species
that become frequently traded, e.g. because of captive-breeding initia-
tives, can lose their value even if rare in the wild, lowering demand (e.g.,
Krishna et al., 2019). However, it is still unclear how various dimensions
of rarity and scarcity interplay to inuence desirability of exotic pets.
Another crucial, yet mostly overlooked, dimension inuencing con-
sumers’ demand is understanding motivations (Veríssimo et al., 2020).
Uncovering consumers’ motivations may provide crucial insights to
understand their behaviour and the diversity of responses to conserva-
tion strategies (Thomas-Walters et al., 2020a, 2020b). A variety of
reasons ranging from experiential (e.g., desire to full hedonistic plea-
sure) to social (e.g., desire to full social relations), functional (e.g.,
fullment of people’s livelihood), nancial (e.g., to generate prot) and
spiritual (e.g., to full personal beliefs), can explain motivations to
consume wildlife across markets (Thomas-Walters et al., 2020a).
Although some of these motivations are also relevant to exotic pet
owners (Jepson et al., 2011; Marshall et al., 2021; Shukhova and Mac-
Millan, 2020), exotic pet keeping involves living organisms and it en-
compasses relational dimensions (e.g., companionship, attachment),
emerging from human and other-than-human animals interactions and
bonding (Fox, 2006; Midgley, 1998). Relations of care about and for
non-human nature provide opportunities to understand motivations
underpinning human-nature interactions as embedded in eudaimonic
values (e.g., those associated with living a “good life”), beyond instru-
mental (e.g., utility) and intrinsic (e.g., rights) values (Chan et al.,
2016). Caring about and caring for are central dimensions of human
well-being, fostering social cohesion and responsibility (Jax et al.,
2018). According to the Self-determination Theory (Ryan and Deci,
2000), humans may seek such caring relations with other animals as
they foster well-being by fullling basic psychological needs for au-
tonomy, competence, and relatedness (Kanat-Maymon et al., 2016). In
this sense, previous studies have found affection and emotional relations
(e.g. loving, caring, nourishing) as important motivations among exotic
pet keepers (Azevedo et al., 2022; Shukhova and MacMillan, 2020;
Weldon et al., 2021). However, the diversity of motivations, preferences
and practices associated with exotic pet keeping remains poorly
understood.
In order to address these gaps, we set out to understand the variety of
preferences and motivations of exotic pet owners to inform conservation
decision-making. We designed and implemented an online survey using
a best-worst scaling approach (BWS), a stated preference method
(Louviere et al., 2015). Stated preference methods have been used in
different elds of research, including environmental economics and
policy-making (Johnston et al., 2017), as well as in wildlife trade studies
(Hanley et al., 2018; Hinsley et al., 2015; Krishna et al., 2019), to assess
people’s preferences for goods and services in hypothetical markets.
BWS constructs choice scenarios as hypothetical proles of an object of
interest (e.g., an exotic pet for sale), by using experimental designs. In
particular, our objectives were to: (i) assess the most attractive aspects of
rarity overall and according to preferred biodiversity groups (among
birds, reptiles and amphibians, mammals, aquarium shes); (ii) evaluate
the importance of different motivations and characteristics for keeping
and purchasing exotic pets; and (iii) assess the willingness to pay an
extra cost on top of market prices to support the conservation of the
species in the wild, the livelihood of local people living where the spe-
cies occur in the wild, and to both the conservation of species and the
livelihood of local people living where the species occur in the wild
simultaneously. Finally, we discuss the implications of consumers
preferences for rarity, as well as the importance of considering relational
dimensions associated with exotic pet keeping when assessing prefer-
ences, and how these might inform conservation interventions in the
exotic pet trade.
2. Methods
2.1. Survey design
BWS design is a type of discrete choice modeling approach, an
econometric method used to estimate values of non-market goods and
services (Louviere et al., 2015). The appeal of BWS is that is allows re-
spondents to compare multiple items but in an experimental setting that
reduces cognitive demands compared to popular alternatives. For
example, compared to other category rating scales or traditional
conjoint measurement techniques, BWS has the advantage of valuing
items within a random utility framework and of making fewer as-
sumptions about human decision-making, such as how people deal with
the meaning of rating scales and with multiple items having similar high
importance (Marley and Flynn, 2015). BWS overcomes these issues as
the metric of importance is provided by choice frequencies, and the use
of a model with an error theory allows to predict the likelihood an item
may be chosen over any other. Specically, we used a Case 2 (prole
case) design to construct various proles of an exotic pet for sale,
described by a combination of pre-dened attributes represented by
multiple levels, and then asked respondents to select the best and worst
attribute levels in each prole. In our survey, respondents were asked to
indicate the attribute that would inuence the most or the least their
decision to acquire an exotic pet. Selection of attributes and levels fol-
lowed focus group discussions and a pilot survey with different stake-
holders. Participants to the focus groups were selected as to cover a wide
variety of stakeholders related to the exotic pet trade, including exotic
pet owners and experts and non-experts in wildlife trade topics, repre-
senting different countries and languages. Experts included academics
and practitioners (e.g., members of non-governmental organizations)
working in biodiversity conservation topics and specically in wildlife
trade, who were based in different countries. Overall, stakeholders who
agreed to participate included 24 participants from 8 countries (United
Kingdom, Philippines, Uruguay, Italy, Germany, Brazil, Portugal, and
China). The range of stakeholders’ background allowed us to ensure
relevance, feasibility, and clarity of the survey across each of the lan-
guages in which the survey was translated in. Overall, 5 attributes and
13 levels were selected as reecting the complexity of consumers’
preference for rarity in the wild and scarcity in the market of exotic pets
and the scope of the problem of the study. We obtained 16 choice cards
or scenarios, each showing 5 attributes (Fig. 1). To limit respondent’s
fatigue, the choice cards were divided into 2 blocks (8 choice scenarios
in each block) and distributed with a random selection from the same
link to the survey (see Appendix A, for more information about pilot
survey and BWS design). The attributes and levels reected 5 main as-
pects: (i) source of an exotic pet; (ii) species rarity; (iii) market scarcity;
(iv) recent rarity; and (v) recent scarcity (Table 1).
We included source of exotic pets as an attribute to investigate
whether a wild-sourced or a captive-bred origin of exotic pets for sale
would positively or negatively affect respondents’ decision to purchase
it. The origin of exotic pets, whether wild-caught or captive-bred, in fact,
was found to inuence consumers’ preferences for exotic pets (Shairp
et al., 2016). It also affects the conservation of these species in the wild
(e.g., Robinson et al., 2015). Moreover, preference for rarity may lead to
increased pressure on wild species in the context of wildlife trade
A. Hausmann et al.

Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
3
(Courchamp et al., 2006), including in the exotic pet trade (Altherr and
Lameter, 2020; Harrington et al., 2022). We included three levels for
rarity, namely common in the wild, rare, and genetically rare (e.g.,
altered colours and aesthetic features) to assess whether preferences for
rarity would affect decision to purchase (Table 1). Rare species referred
to species with a small number of populations in the wild, occurring at
low abundance of individuals and/or in restricted geographical areas
(Flather and Hull Sieg, 2007; Gaston, 1994). As rarity is a relative
concept, it has also been referred to as a subjective “perception”,
depending on the observer’s position (e.g., species that are difcult to
see because they occur at low densities or have a secretive behaviour). In
order to account for both dimensions of rarity, we described the level
“rarity” as restricted distribution (objective rarity) in block 1 and as
species which are difcult to spot in the wild (subjective rarity) in block
2, as a treatment effect between blocks. In addition, preferences may be
driven by the desire of owning species which may be scarce or unusual in
the market although common in the wild, as to be among the only ones
able to own these species (Harrington et al., 2022). Market “scarcity”
was included as an attribute with three levels, as variations from the
baseline (often found for sale), of (i) general low availability, (ii) tem-
poral scarcity, and (iii) geographical scarcity. In addition, we included
attributes (recent rarity and new market scarcity) to assess whether
emerging rarity and scarcity affect demand, as this can then potentially
increase trade pressure and increase the extinction risk of abundant and
least concern species (Holden and McDonald-Madden, 2017). Recent
rarity included two levels, (i) discovery of new species or morphological
traits (e.g., aesthetic variations), and (ii) increasing rarity in the wild as a
result of increased threats such as overexploitation. Recent scarcity
included two levels, (i) supply shortage of animals available for sale, and
(ii) limited time remaining for legal purchase before trade restrictions
are put in place (time shortage).
The survey was structured in four sections: (i) an introduction page
to explain the scope of the study, the context of the choice problem, and
to obtain informed consent (see Appendix A for ethical considerations),
(ii) the choice scenarios, where each respondent had 8 choice cards, (iii)
the biodiversity group section, where respondents were asked to choose
their primary biodiversity group of interest (i.e., mammals, birds, am-
phibians and reptiles, or aquarium shes) and to rank their preferred
families among a list of 7 of the most targeted groups in the pet trade
(Table S1, Appendix A), and (iv) the personal part, where respondents
were asked to indicate their socio-demographic background, informa-
tion about their owned exotic pets, motivations for owning an exotic pet,
and additional preferred characteristics (e.g. species traits, market type,
maintenance effort), as well as type of contributions to support the
species conservation in the wild, when choosing an exotic pet for sale. In
each choice scenario, respondents were asked to choose the best and the
worst attribute-level of an animal for sale that they would consider when
purchasing the exotic pet. Respondents having multiple preferences
among biodiversity groups were asked to complete the surveys again in
order to cover additional groups.
To assess respondents’ motivations for owning an exotic pet, re-
spondents were asked to indicate their agreement (using a 5 points
Fig. 1. Choice card example and the description of attributes available to the respondents in the survey.
Table 1
Attributes and levels of rarity used in the best-worst scaling design of section 2 of
the surveys. Respondents will be asked to choose the most and least preferred
attribute levels within multiple proles of exotic pets for sale. Each prole will
be represented by all attributes, varying according to different combinations of
their levels.
Attribute Levels Variables
Best-worst scaling
Source Sustainable
source
Captive-bred certied
Wild Wild specimen
Species
rarity
Common in the
wild
Common species (abundant and widespread in
the wild)
Rare Species is rarely encountered in the wild (low
abundance) (Block 1)
Species is found in the wild only in one specic
location of the world (restricted range) (Block
2)
Genetic diversity The individual has unique colors, patterns or
other aesthetic features rarely seen in the
species
Market
scarcity
Abundant in
market
Often found for sale
General
availability
Rarely found available for sale, often sold out
Temporal
scarcity
Available for sale only for 7 days (next
availability in 1 year)
Geographical
scarcity
Rarely found available for sale in your country
Recent
rarity
New species Newly discovered species or morph variety
Extinction risk Wild population is reducing fast
Recent
scarcity
Shortage of
supply
Only one left available for sale (next availability
unknown)
Shortage of time Last chance for sale before trade is prohibited
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Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
4
Likert-scale, Likert, 1932) to 13 statements (Table S2, Appendix A).
Statements were formulated based on the framework by Thomas-Wal-
ters et al. (2020a, 2020b) on motivations underpinning wildlife trade.
We included aspects covering “experiential” (e.g., to full hedonistic
pleasure, such as sensory and entertainment), “social” (e.g., to
strengthen social relationships with others, such as inuence and
reputation), “nancial” (e.g., to obtain prot) and “spiritual” (e.g., to
full cultural and spiritual needs, such as good fortune) motivations. In
addition, to better reect motivations in relation to keeping live animals,
we included other dimensions following Self-determination Theory
(Ryan and Deci, 2000). These included aspects of “autonomy” (i.e.,
feeling in control of personal behaviors), such as being able to express
passion towards the species and to full personal well-being, “related-
ness” (i.e., experience sense of relation with other beings), such as rea-
sons of care and attachment towards the animal, and “competence” (i.e.,
being able to learn and master about different skills to full personal
goals), such as educational reasons and mastery of multiple exotic pet
keeping.
Beyond preferences assessed in the BWS, we also asked respondents
to indicate preferences for additional characteristics of exotic pets for
sale. These included characteristics related to the species traits
(breeding, longevity, daily activity, diet, dimension, sound type) and to
the type of market (where is the animal sold), care effort (maintenance
level) and origin (certication), which were selected according to
literature and expert consultations (as part of focus groups) on conser-
vation relevance and novelty (Table S2, Appendix A). To assess re-
spondents’ actions in relation to trade restrictions, we asked respondents
to indicate whether they would buy their favourite exotic pet before,
during and after hypothetical trade restrictions. Finally, in order to
assess whether respondents were willing to donate part of the pur-
chasing cost to conservation, we asked respondents to indicate how
much (as extra cost in percentage over average purchasing price) they
would be willing to pay for (i) the conservation of species in the wild, (ii)
the support to the livelihood of people living where the species occur,
and (iii) to support both species and people.
2.2. Survey implementation
The target population of the study included owners or potential
future owners of exotic pets, over 18 years of age. The survey was
translated in 6 languages including English, Spanish, Portuguese,
German, Italian and Mandarin. The survey was implemented online, as
it provided opportunities to reach out on a broader target population, a
more diverse set of respondents at a worldwide scale, allowing for
exible timings, platforms and devices used to advertise and to complete
the survey (Wardropper et al., 2021). Overall, we used a snowball
sampling technique (Newing et al., 2011), where initial contacts (i.e.,
exotic pet owners, people in organizations involved with wildlife trade
topics), and then each respondent to the survey, were asked to circulate
the survey within their network including exotic pet owners. This
allowed us to capture an increasing chain of participants beyond re-
searchers’ direct reach. We circulated the survey between June and
December 2021 by using three main channels of initial contact links: i)
experts and non-governmental organizations working in wildlife trade
were asked to help distributing the survey among known exotic pet
owners and groups of owners (external to their organizations), ii) ad-
ministrators and organizers of exotic pet groups and communities were
asked to help distribute the survey through their internal channels and
iii) advertisements on social media. Social media platforms, including
Facebook and Instagram, are becoming a popular venue for trade in
wildlife, especially live animals (Harrington et al., 2019; IFAW, 2018;
Sardari et al., 2022; Siriwat et al., 2019). Although some countries have
denied access to Facebook and Instagram (e.g., China, Iran, North
Korea) the platforms have currently a global distribution and are pop-
ular among users both from Western and non-Western countries
worldwide (Statista, 2022). To integrate preferences from social media
users, we advertised the link in each of the languages (except for the
survey in Mandarin, which was shared through the other distribution
channels) on Facebook and Instagram by using Facebook Ads. The
Facebook Ads application allowed to target users according to their age,
country, and topics of interest (see Appendix A for further information in
social media advertisement). Beyond replying to the survey, users on
social media also chose to write about their favourite exotic pets spon-
taneously and voluntarily using comments to the posts. We recorded all
the comments anonymously and deleted the posts to foster users’ pri-
vacy on the platform. This research was reviewed and approved by the
University of Helsinki Ethical Review Board in the Humanities and So-
cial and Behavioural Sciences and was designed to comply with the
General Data Protection Regulation of the European Union (see Ap-
pendix A for additional ethical considerations).
2.3. Analysis
To analyse responses from the BWS, and reveal respondents’ pref-
erences for levels, we used a counting approach (Louviere et al., 2015).
Given that i is an attribute-level, and n is a respondent, the scores were
calculated by counting the number of times i was selected as the best (B)
and the worst (W) among all the questions for n. A best minus worst
(BW) score is obtained:
BWin =Bin −Win (1)
In order to account for variations of the number of levels in each
attribute, we calculated the standardized BW as:
std.BWin =
BWin
fi
(2)
where fi is the frequency with which level i appears across all questions
according to the design structure. We analysed results both overall and
for each biodiversity group, to assess differences among respondents’
preferences according to the chosen group. In addition, to assess
whether respondents’ choosing different biodiversity groups or with
different socio-demographic background showed differences in other
preferences and motivations, we used non-parametric tests, specically
the Kruskal-Wallis with pairwise comparisons using Dunn’s test. All
analyses were performed in R software (R Core Team, 2022) (see Ap-
pendix A for additional method description). The grouping of countries
into geographical Regions for analytical purposes was done by following
the United Nations “Standard Country or Area Codes for Statistical Use”
(https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/).
3. Results
A total of 1180 potential respondents landed at least on the survey’s
rst page or partially completed the survey. Among these, 316 fully
completed the survey, with an equal share between blocks (50 % each).
Respondents were mostly (63 %) between 18 and 30 years of age, fol-
lowed by respondents in age classes 31–40 years (17 %), 41–50 years (7
%), 51–60 years (6 %) and
3
61 years (5 %). Most respondents took the
survey in English (41 %), Italian (24 %) and German (14 %), followed by
Spanish (10 %), Portuguese (8 %) and Mandarin (3 %). Respondents
were from 33 different countries, mostly from Europe (46.8 %), Asia
(18.4 %), Latin America and the Caribbean (18.0 %), and North America
(13.3 %). Most respondents had completed or attended high school (43
%) or had a Bachelor’s degree (36 %), while 18 % had completed a
Masters, PhD or professional degree program. Most respondents (60 %)
owned exotic pets, followed by exotic pet breeders (22 %), including
rare exotic pet breeders (29 % of pet breeders) (see Appendix A for
additional results).
Species rarity was mostly chosen as best attribute when purchasing
exotic pets, followed by source and market scarcity, while recent rarity
and recent scarcity were mostly chosen as worst attributes (Fig. 2A).
A. Hausmann et al.

Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
5
Within each attribute, best levels of an exotic pet for sale were animals
that were captive-bred (source attribute), had unusual or rare aesthetic
features, were common in the wild (species rarity attributes) and
abundant in the market (market scarcity attribute). Worst levels were
exotic pets at risk of extinction (recent rarity), in supply shortage (recent
scarcity), wild specimens (source), and under trade restrictions (recent
scarcity) (Fig. 2B). Within taxonomic groups, preferences showed sim-
ilarities in overall best and worst attributes, yet also some differences in
levels’ scores and related ranking (Fig. S1, Appendix A). Among these,
while rarity was relatively more positively preferred among mammals, it
appeared negative in the other groups. Geographical scarcity (i.e.,
general low availability of the species in the market in respondents’
country) was slightly positively preferred for birds and aquarium shes,
but the opposite was for mammals and herptiles (reptiles and amphib-
ians). Finally, wild specimens were more negatively considered among
herptiles and birds, while this was neutral among aquarium shes.
Most respondents indicated herptiles as their favourite group (36 %),
followed by birds (27 %), mammals (22 %) and aquarium shes (16 %).
Preferences for herptiles were particularly higher among respondents
who answered the surveys in German (57 %), Italian (38 %) and English
Fig. 2. Best and worst attributes (A) and levels (B) of exotic pets for sale that respondents would consider when purchasing it.
A. Hausmann et al.

Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
6
(32 %), while birds were preferred among respondents who answered
the survey in Portuguese (54 %) and Spanish (39 %) (see Table S1 and
supplementary results in Appendix A for family and species level pref-
erences). Respondents’ age was signicantly different between groups
(chi-squared =15.705, p <0.001), with respondents’ preferring
aquarium shes being signicantly older than those choosing herptiles
(z =3.871, p <0.001) (see Table S3, and Appendix A for additional
results).
In relation to motivations of owning exotic pets, the statements that
received the highest scores were on average those related to caring,
learning and being passionate about the species (Table 2). The state-
ments that received the lowest scores were those related to getting
nancial earnings, cultural reasons, and personal beliefs. Scores differed
among biodiversity groups (Table S3, Appendix A). Scores assigned to
passion, mastery and sensory motivations were statistically different
among taxonomic groups (respectively: chi-squared =12.358, p <
0.001, chi-squared =17.792, p <0.001, chi-squared =22.139, p <
0.0001), with scores for herptiles being higher than for mammals (z =
3.180, z =3.763, z =4.097, p <0.001). Scored for well-being moti-
vations also differed (chi-squared =14.665, p-value =0.0021) and were
lower for aquarium shes compared to birds (z = − 2.816, p <0.05) and
higher for birds compared to mammals (z =3.410, p <0.01). Educa-
tional motivations were higher for herptiles compared to mammals (chi-
squared =9.912, p-value =0.01933; z =2.774, p <0.05). Care moti-
vations were also different among taxonomic groups (chi-squared =
21.551, p <0.0001), with scores aquarium shes being lower than for
birds and herptiles (z = − 4.046, z = − 3.805, p <0.001). Moreover,
scores regarding attachment motivations were also signicantly
different (chi-squared =19.42, p <0.001) with scores for aquarium
shes being lower than for birds and for birds higher than herptiles (z =
−3.938, z =3.486, p <0.01). Financial motivation was higher among
breeders (chi-squared =18.353, p <0.0001).
When choosing their next exotic pet, respondents indicated that
characteristics of certication (16.1 %), market (15.6 %) and mainte-
nance level (14.6 %) were more considered (Table S2, Appendix A).
Among these, respondents were mostly interested in pets that are
certied as captive-bred; sold by a private breeder; and require a me-
dium level of maintenance effort (Fig. 3). However, preferences differed
among groups, with exotic pets sold in a shop and with a diurnal activity
being among the most preferred characteristics for aquarium shes and
birds respectively. In case respondents’ favourite exotic pets were to be
listed as under trade restrictions, the majority (30 %) of respondents said
that they would most likely buy it before restrictions were in place;
would denitely not buy it during restrictions (61 %); and that they
would maybe (31 %) and most likely (44 %) buy it if restrictions were
lifted (Fig. 4A). On top of market prices, the vast majority of respondents
were willing to pay an extra cost to donate only to the conservation of
the species (89.2 %), only to support the livelihood of local people living
where the species occur in the wild (74 %), and to both the conservation
and people’s livelihood (86.4 %) (Fig. 4B). In order to support the
conservation of the species, most respondents (34 %) were willing to pay
up to 10 % more of the market price for their favourite pet (especially 67
% of respondents from Africa and 50 % from Asia; Appendix A, Table
S4), followed by 29 % who were willing to pay >30 % of the price
(especially 30 % of respondents from Latin America and the Caribbean;
Appendix A, Table S4). For the support only to local people’s livelihood,
the majority (43 %) were willing to pay up to 10 % more on top of the
price (especially 48 % of respondents from North America, 47 % from
Asia, and 44 % from Europe; Appendix A, Table S4), followed by 25 %
who were not willing to pay any extra cost (especially all respondents
from Oceania and 67 % from Africa; Appendix A, Table S4). For the
support to both the species and local people’s livelihood, 31 % were
willing to pay >30 % of the price (especially 33 % of respondents from
North America and 32 % from Latin America and the Caribbean; Ap-
pendix A, Table S4), followed by 30 % of respondents were willing to
pay 10 % more (especially 34 % of respondents from Asia and 33 % from
North America; Appendix A, Table S4).
4. Discussion
Our results highlight the fact that survey respondents were con-
cerned about species conservation and preferred captive-bred exotic
pets and/or species that were commonly found in the wild and available
in the market, suggesting that respondents’ preferences may be aligned
at least with some conservation objectives (e.g., sustainable use). While
preference for rarity has been identied as a key threat driving demand
in the wildlife trade (Courchamp et al., 2006; Hall et al., 2008),
including in the exotic pet trade (Altherr and Lameter, 2020; Krishna
et al., 2019; Ribeiro et al., 2019), we found that, among various aspects
of rarity, respondents favoured only aesthetic or morphological rarity,
mostly disregarding other aspects. Furthermore, respondents were least
interested in exotic pets of wild origin, with higher extinction risk, and
under trade restrictions, further suggesting that respondents were aware
and concerned about the conservation status of species and intended not
to harm them. In line with these preferences, we found that the most
important reasons underpinning ownership among respondents were
relational motivations, such as caring about the exotic pet, as well as
learning and being passionate about the species. Most respondents were
willing to contribute to species conservation both by respecting trade
Table 2
Ranked motivations for owning exotic pets according to average Likert scale
scores and standard deviations.
Motivational
category
Sub-
category
Statement Average
score
Standard
deviation
Relatedness Care I enjoy taking care of
it and ensure its well-
being
4.41 1.16
Competence Education It provides me with
opportunities to learn
about the species
4.20 1.22
Autonomy Passion I am passionate about
the species
4.15 1.32
Experiential Sensory I like its appearance
and/or other special
features of it
4.08 1.24
Relatedness Attachment It keeps me company 3.77 1.40
Autonomy Well-being It is important for my
everyday well-being
3.65 1.41
Experiential Recreation I like it for
entertainment and/or
leisure purposes
3.24 1.48
Social Reputation It provides me with
opportunities to
socialize with others
(e.g., pet owner
communities, family,
social media, etc.)
2.87 1.52
Competence Mastery I am passionate about
collecting different
exotic pets
2.52 1.54
Social Social
inuence
I was recommended to
get it by people I trust
(e.g. friends, and
family)
2.33 1.56
Financial Prot It provides me with
the opportunity to
generate an income (e.
g. sell it, breeding,
photographs with
tourists)
2.03 1.50
Spiritual Cultural It is meaningful for my
cultural/family
traditions
2.00 1.46
Spiritual Religion It is important for my
personal beliefs (e.g.,
religion, good
fortune)
1.88 1.45
A. Hausmann et al.

Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
7
restrictions and by paying extra cost to support their conservation on the
ground, although the majority also were likely to buy them before trade
restrictions, potentially leading to trade spikes before protection
(Rivalan et al., 2007). Overall, our results suggest that exotic pet owners
may establish emotional relationships with their exotic pets and may be
concerned by the fact that their interest and care does not impact, but
instead supports the conservation of the species in the wild.
Rare attractive aesthetic features of species were sought after by
consumers, and respondents supported captive breeding of species as a
source for exotic pets. This may suggest that conservation actions could
help reduce pressure on wild caught individuals (e.g., rare colour vari-
eties that are not yet present in the market) by saturating the market
with sustainable captive-bred alternatives of otherwise uncommon
desirable features (Hall et al., 2008). This may, help reduce scarcity, and
thus perceived rarity in the market. On the other hand, the combined
preference for rare aesthetic features and for captive-bred animals may
lead to the deliberate selection of individual animals for breeding pur-
poses based on specic traits through intensive breeding, in which an-
imals are potentially taken from the wild, or articially selected for rare
aesthetics that do not exist in the wild. These large scale intensive and
selective breeding initiatives can have detrimental effects on biodiver-
sity (e.g. decreasing genetic diversity; Haitao et al., 2007; McMillan
et al., 2021) but also raise animal welfare concerns (Bush et al., 2014;
Lyons and Natusch, 2011). For example, the intended or accidental
release of captive-bred animals may cause “genetic pollution” on wild
populations (e.g., potentially associated loss of local adaptations) and
long-term negative effects to their conservation (Auliya et al., 2020).
Developing and implementing reliable certication systems may pro-
vide exotic pet owners with information about the animal welfare and
the biodiversity conservation standards adopted during breeding of the
species (Tensen, 2016). This would facilitate consumers to make
informed choices, inuencing the value of animals and consequently
phasing out unsustainable intensive breeding. Importantly, we found
that respondents to the survey would support this option, as they
showed interest for both captive breeding and sustainable certication
of origin of the animals. However, only implementing a system of cer-
tication of origin would not ensure the sustainability of the trade. For
example, lack of resources for supporting regulation and enforcement
may limit the efcacy of such systems in combatting illegal activities,
such as purchases in black markets or misuse for laundering illegally
bred, or harvested wild-caught animals (Bush et al., 2014; D’Cruze et al.,
2020; Lyons and Natusch, 2011). Our results showing that consumers
would mostly choose to purchase exotic pets from private breeders,
highlights their key role in fostering effective certication systems. The
combined support from both external (e.g. governmental) and internal
(e.g. engagement of stakeholders, including private breeders) actors is
therefore crucial to promote successful certication systems along the
supply-chain (’t Sas-Rolfes et al., 2019).
While other studies highlighted instrumental, spiritual, and personal
motives behind wildlife trade (Dang Vu and Nielsen, 2018; Marshall
et al., 2021; Shukhova and MacMillan, 2020), in this study we found that
feelings of care, such as attachment, affection, nurture, as well as
learning and being passionate about species, were dominant motivations
among respondents. Throughout history both domesticated and wild
animals have been part of human communities (e.g., as farm animals or
family members) and people feel a sense of care and responsibility as
they are seeing them as being of moral relevance (Irvine and Cilia, 2017;
Midgley, 1998). Accordingly, feelings of affection and care towards
exotic pets may resemble relations that people establish with domesti-
cated animals, entailing one of the deepest forms of human non-human
interactions in modern societies (Fox, 2006; Kieswetter, 2017). As 60 %
of the respondents in our sample were from Europe and North America,
our ndings may especially reect preferences of respondents in these
Regions where demand for exotic pets is strong (Altherr and Lameter,
2020; Auliya et al., 2016; Bush et al., 2014; Rhyne et al., 2012). In
addition, we found that care, as key motivation to own exotic pets, was
not limited to respondents from specic regions. Sense of respect and
care are important aspects underpinning relations with nature across
Fig. 3. Preferred characteristics and conditions for purchasing respondents’ next exotic pet. X-axes shows different characteristics of exotic pet for sale. Y-axes shows
the proportion of chosen characteristic (multiple choices were allowed) overall and according to different preferred biodiversity groups.
A. Hausmann et al.

Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
8
both Western and non-Western cultures and ethical approaches (Cort´
es-
Capano et al., 2022; Jax et al., 2018). Thus, our study complements
recent ndings (Azevedo et al., 2022; Shukhova and MacMillan, 2020),
by highlighting the need for further investigating the role of relational
aspects as key motivations for exotic pet ownership, representing po-
tential drivers of demand in the market. Moreover, our ndings provide
a rst understanding that motivations underpinning exotic pet owner-
ship, and especially the role of care, may differ across biodiversity
groups and in relation to owners’ demographic background. By col-
lecting more targeted information, future studies may help further
develop our understanding of the role of contextual factors and their
interplays in driving demand within and across taxonomic groups and
Fig. 4. Proportion of respondents’ intending to buy their favourite exotic pet before, during and after trade restrictions (A), and willing to pay an extra cost (0, 10 %,
30 % and >30 % on top of the selling price of their favourite exotic pet) to support the conservation of the species in the wild, the livelihood of local people living
where the species occur in the wild, and to both the species’ conservation and local people’s livelihood (questions were multiple choice across donation types and
single choice of surplus within each type, see Table S2 in Supplementary Material) (B).
A. Hausmann et al.

Biological Conservation 281 (2023) 110007
9
regions globally.
While respondents showed feelings of care, interest, and re-
sponsibility towards the conservation of exotic pet species, practices of
breeding, trading, keeping and other close contact opportunities (e.g.,
exotic pet cafes, McMillan et al., 2021) present several conservation and
animal welfare challenges (Macdonald et al., 2021), which can poten-
tially threaten both species and people’s well-being (e.g., spread of
zoonotic disease). Rather than essential characteristic of human-ani-
mals’ relations the concept of ‘petness’ can be intended as a social
construct that emerges from how the investment of human emotions into
other-than-humans animals is conceived (Wrye, 2009). In order to
enhance conservation of exotic pet species and people’s well-being,
there is need to explore alternative ways of conceiving and practicing
such emotional investment in human relations with nature. Care, as
embodied and practiced in the context of human-exotic pet relations,
can act as an important motivation for stewardship, supporting con-
servation goals (West et al., 2018). Existing frameworks such as ethics of
care and relational values (Himes and Muraca, 2018; Jax et al., 2018)
may provide normative and descriptive insights to better understand
how to foster meaningful expressions of care with animals in the wild, as
opposed to animals as exotic pets. For example, this might include
developing biodiversity conservation programs that are based on peo-
ple’s relational motivations to care about animals with own resources
and capabilities, helping to foster sense of autonomy and competence to
do so in line with conservation objectives. Designing policies that would
support existing local environmental stewardship (e.g., fostering species
conservation in people’s own lands, gardens and neighbourhoods) with
participatory activities, might contribute to enhance social cohesion and
responsibility towards other-than-human natures, thus satisfying peo-
ple’s needs while contributing to biodiversity conservation goals (Ben-
nett et al., 2018; Cetas and Yasu´
e, 2016). We found that most
respondents were willing to provide monetary support to conservation
actions, creating opportunities to also support actions beyond local
involvement. Exploring the implications of human–exotic pet relations
through a “leverage points” perspective may help identifying deep
points (i.e., points to intervene in a system with higher level of trans-
formative potential) (Fischer and Riechers, 2019; Riechers et al., 2021),
to shift ‘demand for ownership’ towards ‘stewardship relations’
(responsibly caring for the interrelated needs of both humans and non-
humans according to diverse motivations and capacities) (Bennett et al.,
2018; Whyte and Cuomo, 2016).
Potential limitations of our study include the representativeness of
our sample of respondents compared to the unknown characteristics of
the global population of exotic pet owners. While our results could not
be inferred to the entire population, they contribute to the broader un-
derstanding of preferences and motivations driving wildlife trade, and
specically in relation to the demand for exotic pets. Our ndings may
help raise further discussions on the role of owners to support a well-
regulated and sustainable trade in exotic pets. The stated preference
method employed in this study unveils behavioural intentions of re-
spondents which, according to the theory of planned behaviour, act as a
precursor of actual behaviour (Greiner, 2015). However, it is important
to consider that actual behaviour may be inconsistent with stated
behavioural intentions. Consequently, respondents may act differently
in different circumstances according to other factors, such as percep-
tions of access (resources and opportunities available inuencing
behavioural achievement) and ability (behavioural control; Ajzen,
1991). For example, while we found that respondents would overall
prefer buying captive-bred animals, it remains unknown whether they
would act accordingly, especially when the control over their decision is
perceived to be low (e.g., desirable pets are not available as sustainably
bred or sustainability of practices being anyway unknown). Certifying
origin and welfare of exotic pets could help owners choose to support
practices that align with conservation goals and provide a sense of
behavioural control, bridging the gap between intentions and actual
behaviour. However, certication schemes hold important underlying
issues along the supply chain that could undermine a sustainable trade
and the effectiveness of such schemes as a conservation solution. Chal-
lenges include ensuring animal welfare for commercial purposes, as well
as laundering of wild-sourced animals as captive-bred, illicit markets
and corrupted trade networks (D’Cruze et al., 2020; Macdonald et al.,
2021; Tensen, 2016). In addition, market-based instruments, such as
certication schemes, by themselves cannot provide comprehensive
solutions to the plurality of preferences, values and needs driving peo-
ples’ demand for exotic pets.
To conclude, in this article we highlight the importance of consid-
ering relational dimensions to understand motivations driving exotic pet
demand in pet owners. We argue that a Self-determination theory lens
may help understand expressions of care as keepers’ way for fullment
of basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness towards na-
ture. Accordingly, keeping exotic pets may represent a way people ex-
press, and practice, care towards other-than-human natures, which
however may not be aligned with conservation goals. Understanding
people’s needs underpinning exotic pet keeping may help identify deep
leverage points for transformation which could help inform conserva-
tion actions aimed at fostering stewardship and care as normative
human sense of kinship with non-humans.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Anna Hausmann: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal anal-
ysis; Investigation; Methodology; Software; Project administration;
Visualization; Roles/Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing.
Gonzalo Cort´
es-Capano: Conceptualization; Formal analysis; Roles/
Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing. Iain Fraser: Formal
analysis; Methodology; Writing - review & editing. Enrico Di Minin:
Conceptualization; Funding acquisition; Project administration; Re-
sources; Roles/Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
A.H., G.C.C. and E.D.M. thank the European Research Council (ERC)
for funding under the European Union‘s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation program (grant agreement #802933). A.H. thanks the Mai
and Tor Nessling Foundation (grant number 202200342). All authors
wish to thank Dr. Correia Ricardo, Dr. Fink Christoph and Dr. Kulkarni
Ritwik for their support with the survey translations. All authors are also
grateful to the focus groups´participants for their contribution. All au-
thors wish to thank the Editor, as well as Dr Adam Toomes and an
anonymous reviewer for the insightful comments that helped improve
the manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110007.
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