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Enabling young elementary‐school children to ask questions on a school‐based internet forum operated by educational psychologists

Authors:

Abstract

The present study describes the successful operation of an online forum designed to answer questions posted by Israeli elementary‐school children during an emergency exercise. Analysis of 212 posts revealed that being younger predict higher levels of emotional intensity. Younger children are 3.561 times more likely than older children to have an increase in emotional intensity. Overall, the model accounted for 5.5% of the variance in emotional intensity. School‐based online forums may be used as a universal screening method to enable school staff to identify children exhibiting enhanced emotional intensity. Given the restrictions on face‐to‐face interactions that are occasionally necessitated by the worldwide COVID‐19 crisis, this approach is particularly relevant nowadays. Detailed appendices are provided to help plan, initiate, and run such forums.
Received: 13 September 2022
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Revised: 13 January 2023
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Accepted: 25 February 2023
DOI: 10.1002/pits.22905
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Enabling young elementaryschool children
to ask questions on a schoolbased internet
forum operated by educational psychologists
Sarit Alkalay
1
|Avivit Dolev
2
1
Department of Psychology, Max Stern
Yezreel Valley Academic College, Emek
Yezreel, Israel
2
Science, Technology and Society (STS),
Interdisciplinary studies, BarIlan University,
Ramat Gan, Israel
Correspondence
Sarit Alkalay, Department of Psychology,
Max Stern Yezreel Valley Academic College,
Emek Yezreel 1930600, Israel.
Email: sarital@yvc.ac.il and
saritalkalay@gmail.com
Abstract
The present study describes the successful operation of an
online forum designed to answer questions posted by Israeli
elementaryschool children during an emergency exercise.
Analysis of 212 posts revealed that being younger predict
higher levels of emotional intensity. Younger children are 3.561
times more likely than older children to have an increase in
emotional intensity. Overall, the model accounted for 5.5% of
the variance in emotional intensity. Schoolbased online forums
may be used as a universal screening method to enable school
staff to identify children exhibiting enhanced emotional
intensity. Given the restrictions on facetoface interactions
that are occasionally necessitated by the worldwide COVID19
crisis, this approach is particularly relevant nowadays. Detailed
appendices are provided to help plan, initiate, and run such
forums.
KEYWORDS
elementaryschool, emotional intensity, internet forum
1|INTRODUCTION
Children have often been referred to as digital natives,which describes individuals who have never lived in a
world without the internet and thus are highly proficient in using computers, applications, and digital
communication options (Prensky, 2001). In addition to being natives of the digital era, children also belong to a
Psychology in the Schools. 2023;60:29322952.2932
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This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2023 The Authors. Psychology in the Schools Published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.
physical community that includes schools. The World Health Organization (WHO) highlighted the importance of
schools and other community settings in providing psychological support for children in need (WHO, 2003). To
date, most efforts directed at combining the digital world and school settings have focused on the contributions of
digital platforms and devices to learning (e.g., Luo et al., 2020; Saarinen et al., 2021).
Interestingly, even before digital platforms began to take over as an exclusive means of communication,
researchers began considering them as a possible way to solve growing psychological and mental needs (e.g., Busch
et al., 2018). Nowadays, under the occasionally imposed restrictions on social gatherings, which are designed to
curb the spread of COVID19, the use of digital platforms for learning and other communication needs appears to
be turning into more than merely a nice and convenient option. Moreover, given that the need for psychological
services exceeds the ability to provide them, there is an urgent need to increase the scalability of these services.
The digital world offers the potential to make emotional support more accessible to children (Alkalay & Dolev,
2019) and there is a growing body of work focusing on the development of technologically mediated mental health
support (Hanley et al., 2019,2021).
The current study has two objectives, both of which pertain to improving psychological services offered to
children, by means of using a digital platform. The first objective is to demonstrate the establishment and successful
implementation of an online forum for Israeli elementary school children, to enable increased accessibility to the
educational psychologists working in their city, during an emergency crisis exercise at schools. The second objective
is to assess the emotional intensity expressed in these posts to sketch a contour line of the group of children that
can benefit the most from an online forum. Thus, the article is structured as a twostep study followed by an
integrative discussion.
2|FIRST PHASE OF THE STUDY: INCREASING SCALABILITY
OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SERVICES BY ESTABLISHING AND OPERATING
AN ONLINE FORUM FOR CHILDREN DURING A CRISIS EXERCISE
2.1 |Phase 1: Background
2.1.1 |Crisis exercise in Israeli schools
Stressful life events are experiences that disrupt individuals' adaptive functioning (Folkman, 2013). Crises may be
stressful and are therefore prone to trigger high negative emotions. In Israel, the Ministry of Education conducts
annual emergency exercises in the schools (e.g., the 2020 National Emergency Exercise conducted in educational
institutions https://apps.education.gov.il/Mankal/Hodaa.aspx?siduri=127). Emergency public health interventions
are designed to moderate the effects of natural and manmade catastrophes (Davis, 1996). Because crises usually
emerge suddenly and without warning, these exercises are intended to familiarize children with such emergencies
and the appropriate actions to be taken. The underlying assumption is that these exercises will help decrease
the possibility of developing mental illness in the wake of crises, similar to how medical immunization works
(WHO, 2016). Nevertheless, the very act of preparing for the right actions may also have side effects for children,
such as increased worries, such that being exposed to emergency exercises at school may affect children's
emotional responses.
Research has shown that the availability of social support and the tendency to cope by seeking support or help
can reduce the negative effects of stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Nelson LeGall, 1981). Thus, active mediation by
adults during emergency exercises may mitigate negative emotional responses among children as well as provide
them with practical information regarding various issues they may consider troubling. Yet despite the obvious
importance of such support, national emergency exercises in Israel are aimed at drilling specific and practical actions
to be taken during earthquakes or national security crises (e.g., going to the school shelter during a missile attack).
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These exercises do not include components designed to reinforce children's emotional resilience, such as the option
to talk with a school staff member or mental health professional about upsetting thoughts and negative emotions
that may arise during the exercises. Educational psychologists in Israel have the potential to help children do
just that.
2.1.2 |Israeli educational psychology services
Unlike many school psychology services and educational psychology services around the world that tend to focus
on learning problems and school behaviors, educational psychologists in Israel are deployed in all the schools and
kindergartens to serve the important communitybased role of providing various mental health services (Sterne &
Porter, 2013). The designated tasks entrusted to educational psychologists working with children and adolescents
in Israel also include providing professional services at times of national and individual emergencies and crises (Israel
Ministry of Education, 2010; Kohavi et al., 2020). In emergencies, educational psychologists are among the first
responders (Raviv et al., 2007), even in crises that do not directly involve students enrolled in schools (Kohavi et al.,
2020). Educational psychology interventions following crises are usually shortterm supportive interventions aimed
at quickly and efficiently tackling the current problem and helping the child regain balance and restore calm
(Ashkenazi et al., 2014; Levinson, 2018).
Israeli educational psychologists are expected to promote prevention by working on both the individual and the
system levels (Israel Ministry of Education, 2010). Because of their nationwide deployment in all schools and
kindergartens, educational psychologists have access to the entire student population in the formal education
system, enabling them to implement primary and secondary prevention practices geared toward the general
population (Kohavi et al., 2020). Notwithstanding the importance of preventative acts (e.g., emergency
preparedness exercises), due to current professional work conditions (Alkalay & Dolev, 2019; Kohavi et al.,
2020) much of the work of educational psychologists in Israel is reactive in nature (GreenwaldKashni & Matichas,
2009). Given the extensive role played by educational psychologists in responding to crises and their current
position in the Israeli school system, we attempted to implement a more proactive approach on a small scale. We
aimed to expand the involvement of educational psychologists in crisis interventions to encompass preventative
measures during an emergency preparedness exercise run by the Ministry of Education. Because children and
adolescents are immersed in the digital world, we chose to provide this psychological service by digital means.
2.1.3 |Digital emotional support for children
In their everyday lives, children and adolescents use the internet for schoolwork, entertainment, and
communication with others (Media Awareness Network, 2005). Since children and adolescents have such an
extensive online presence, it would seem reasonable to offer emotional support via digital channels (Alkalay &
Dolev, 2019; Hanley et al., 2019,2021). By using the children's digital language, psychological services can be
accessible and youthfriendly (Griffiths, 2003).
In general, children and adolescents appear to be quite satisfied with using the internet for mental health
services and are likely to respond favorably to and accept internetbased applications (Boydell et al., 2014). For
example, in the context of providing mental health services to high school pupils (Bischoff et al., 2004), young
people preferred videoconferencing over facetoface sessions. This finding reflects positive attitudes among
children and adolescents regarding digital mental health platforms and may explain why they embrace the option of
selfhelp via the internet.
A wide variety of psychological services ranging from general support to intensive therapy can be offered via
the internet (Naser et al., 2020). One form of internet selfhelp is forum participation. Online forums have been
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developed to provide mental health support, but they have received little attention in the research (Hanley et al.,
2019). Internet forums have been found beneficial for young people as they provide a safe place for sharing,
offering, and receiving information and emotional support through active (i.e., writing) as well as passive (i.e.,
reading the correspondence) participation (e.g., Horgan et al., 2013; Prescott et al., 2015). Several studies have
investigated forums targeting children and adolescents. One such study describes Kooth, a UKbased online
counseling service for young people aged 1125 that provides freeofcharge, anonymous, and confidential online
psychological support. Among the services offered by Kooth are thememoderated forums (Hanley et al., 2019;
Prescott et al., 2017). The Kooth forums emerged as a viable tool for selfhelp, with 4,279 user posts over 2 years
(Prescott et al., 2017).
We found no studies that specifically examine internet forum use among elementaryschool children. Nevertheless,
the reports described above indicate that children readily use forums when experiencing emotional distress. Today's
children and teens, are proficient in technology and are capable of contacting professionals on their own, formulating their
questions in their very own words, and actively asking for help (Naser et al., 2020).Thus,weexpectedthatoncethe
children were given the opportunity to ask questions in the forum, they would embrace it.
Furthermore, our expectancy that the children would engage in the forum stemmed from our familiarity with
the population's characteristics. As educational psychologists we worked for several years in the city in which the
project was initiated, thus we developed a holistic understanding of the specific characteristics of children, their
families, and the school systems within this community. Based on Bronfenbrenner's ecological model (1989)a
child's development is influenced by the contexts, including the closest environments (Microsystems such as the
family), as well as more peripheral circles of influence (Exosystems such as the socioeconomic condition).
All these contexts of development are surrounded and influenced by the cultural heritage and the beliefs
entrenched in the specific population (Macrosystem).
The population in the abovementioned city was characterized at the time of the study by the Israeli Bureau of
Statistics as having a mediumlow socioeconomic status (a rank of 109 out of 255 local authorities, and a rating of
cluster 5 out of 10) (Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 2015). Some neighborhoods in the city could be considered
risk areascharacterized by poverty, poor family functioning in many families, and schools that must deal with
extensive difficulties with few resources. These characteristics may present children with obstacles in acquiring
knowledge that is crucial for their successful and adaptive functioning and integration into society. Moreover, we
were under the impression that children growing up in this environment have limited ability to search for this
knowledge and to express their need for it.
Thus,theforumwasinitiatedandimplementedwithintheeducational environment, to allow the children to express
their authentic worries and to seek knowledge, as they see fit. Our familiarity with the population allowed us to understand
children's posts and to provide a serious and dignified answer, even in cases in which the posts contained misguided
information and the questions seemed out of context (e.g., a question about a tsunami in the city, which is located
90 km from the nearest seashore. Note that the emergency exercises dealt with events of missile attacks and earthquakes).
The establishment and operation of the forum conveyed our desire to provide psychological services to this community's
children and to help them acquire muchneeded information about the challenges they face in crises while taking into
accountthecontextoftheenvironmentandthesparseresourcestheyhave.
2.1.4 |The objective of the 1st phase
In the current study we explored the possibility of using an internetbased forum for elementaryschool children
during an emergency exercise and expected that once the children were given the means to be in contact with the
psychologists they know, they would embrace the opportunity to express their questions during the emergency
exercise. In the process of operating the forum we also wanted to expand our knowledge about digital
psychological services for children.
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2.2 |Phase 1: Methods
2.2.1 |Participants
All children attending local elementary schools that had access to the Sisma Lekol Talmid (Password for Every Pupil)
networka communitywide project to provide each pupil with secure access to the community internet server
(n= 1515)could participate either actively (by posting on the forums) or passively (by reading the questions and
answers on the forums).
2.2.2 |Procedure
At the time of the study, the authors worked in a public educational psychology service located in a peripheral city
in Israel. In their capacities as service internet coordinator (D. A.) and service manager (A. S.), the authors set up a
successful website as part of (Sisma Lekol Talmid). As one of the unique features of the site, the authors established
online forums that enabled the population to consult local educational psychologists about coping with crises.
Based on this experience, practical stepbystep guidelines for initiating and establishing a schoolbased online
forum were devised (Appendix A). As part of their routine work at the educational psychology service, the authors
ran the forum for several years in conjunction with annual national crisis preparedness exercises, which focused on
national security threats (e.g., missile attacks) and earthquakes.
During one of these annual national crisis preparedness exercises, the authors ran the forum for a period of
5 days. The exercise was advertised by flyers distributed in all the schools, in the local newspapers, and via the
Sisma Lekol Talmid network. The flyers explained what constitutes an emergency as well as an invitation to
participate in the forums.
1
Each of the posts was answered by one of the 11 staff psychologists working at the local public educational
psychology service, including the authors. In Israel, crisis intervention is considered part of the regular workload of
educational psychologists (Ashkenazi et al., 2014; Levinson, 2018) and part of their basic training (Kohavi et al.,
2020), such that all the participating psychologists had been trained in facetoface crisis intervention. Moreover,
research shows that professionals must be provided with specific knowledge and effective tools for online
intervention (e.g., Agmon et al., 2018). Thus, before participating in the forum, the authors introduced the
psychologists to the principles of online mental health services and provided guidelines for answering the children's
questions (Appendix B).
Finally, all the children who entered the forum were invited to respond to a short survey asking them about their
satisfaction with the forum, how useful they found the answers, and if they would recommend it to their friends.
2.2.3 |Ethical considerations
To access the forum, whether for reading only or for reading and writing, the children had to identify themselves by
username and password, but they were not required to specify their names. This method enabled us to match the
users and the posts while maintaining the users' anonymity if they wished.
1
From the flyers: An emergency situation is one that disrupts our routine and, in many cases, presents a threat to us or to those
close to us. Emergency situations can be events on a nationwide scale (such as security threats or earthquakes) or regional and
communitylevel events. You can ask any question on the forum at any time, and one of the psychologists from our service will
respond.
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2.3 |Phase 1: Results
During the fiveday exercise, 224 pupils from seven elementary schools posted on th e forum, representing
an active participation rate of 14.8%. The rate of passive participation was also high, as reflected in the
overall number of those who viewed the posts (n= 5,336) (Dolev et al., 2014).Inthe2ndphaseofthe
study, we explored the contents of the posts and analyzed the emotional intensity that was expressed in
the posts.
Of the 80 children who responded to the survey (36% of those actively participating), the majority
stated they would highly recommend the forum to their friends (on a scale of 15, 54% chose 5, and 13%
chose 4).
2.4 |Phase 1: Discussion
The webbased forum was established, operated, and presented to the children as part of routine national
crisis preparedness exercises conducted in elementary schools, which focused on national security threats
and earthquake preparation. Until the time we established this forum, no other public educational
psychology agency in Israel had offered a similar service (Alkalay & Dolev, 2019). Furthermore, our
literature review did not reveal any similar endeavor offering official internet forums for emotional support to
elementary school children. During the 5day exercise, 224 pupils (224 posts) from seven elementary
schools posted on the forum, representing an active participation rate of 14.8%. The rate of passive
participation was very high, as reflected in theoverallnumberofthoseviewingtheposts(n= 5,336)
(Dolev et al., 2014).
These figures signify that the operation of the forum was successful and support the option of
offering online psychological assistance to schoolaged children. The results appear to indicate that once
children are presented with this opportunity, they use it readily (actively by writing a post, and passively by
reading posts). Other studies also report that children and youth embrace technology and use forums (Hanley
et al., 2019;Prescottetal.,2017)andemails to consult with mental health professionals (Hanley &
Reynolds, 2009).
The children's acceptance of our forum is also echoed in their respon ses to the short survey distr ibuted at
the end of the exercise. For example, one of the children wrote: I will recommend my friends to enter and
visit the forum, because: one needs to ask for help when needed and, in this forum, one can find solutions to
problems that cause us to be anxious.Many children wrote that reading the questions and answers in the
forum eased their worries by gaining information about troubling issues. For example: Reading the questions
and answers in the forum helped me to feel less afraid. And I feel more secure with those answers, because:
I found solutions to problems that until now I didn't know;IfeltwonderfulbecausenowIknowwhattodo
during an earthquake;it (the forum) helps me because I don't know what to do in situations like this,
so I enter this site and relax because now it is a bit less scary.Moreover, the majority of the 80 children that
answered the survey expressed high satisfaction with using the forum and stated they would highly
recommend it to their friends.
Providing access to psychological support via the internet is especially important for children living in remote
and peripheral areas, such as the city in which we operated, where psychological assistance is scarce (Alkalay &
Dolev, 2019; Nelson & Bui, 2010). The use of the online forum in our study demonstrated that online emotional
support platforms provide greater availability and accessibility of psychological support (Gilat, 2013), not only for
adults but for elementaryschool children as well.
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3|SECOND PHASE OF THE STUDY: EXPLORING THE CONTENT AND
THE EMOTIONAL INTENSITY OF CHILDREN'S POSTS
3.1 |Phase 2: Background
We explored the content of the children's posts on an online forum that was designed to provide elementary school
children emotional support during an emergency preparedness exercise (see Phase 1: Methods Section). Since the
emergency exercises in Israel focus on national security issues (e.g., missile attacks) and natural disasters (e.g.,
earthquakes) we expected that most of the posts would address those topics. Additionally, we examined what
predicts the expressions of emotional intensity in the children's posts.
The study of emotional expression in online textbased communication is a relatively new research field (Derks
et al., 2008). Derks et al. (2008) reviewed studies that compared textbased computermediated communication
(CMC) to facetoface (F2F) communication among adults. They concluded that emotional communication online
and offline is surprisingly similar, and if differences are found they show more frequent and explicit emotional
communication (especially negative emotions) in CMC than in F2F. Yet, few studies have systematically examined
CMC used by children and youth (Wendt & Langmeyer, 2021).
Emotional expression is an important feature of healthy child development (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013). During the
first few years of life, children develop flexible patterns of facial, vocal, and behavioral (i.e., bodily) expressions of
emotion. These patterns allow them to communicate their feelings and needs to others, adjust those
communications according to the situation, and even mask their emotions (Malatesta & Wilson, 1988). In this
way, children's emotional expressions facilitate their social relationships (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The acquisition
of coping strategies and competencies when regulating emotions can be conceptualized as an important
developmental task, particularly considering that deficits in these capabilities exert longlasting effects on the
psychosocial adjustment of children and adolescents (e.g., Cox et al., 2010). Accumulating findings show that
adaptive emotion regulation strategies are vital for wellbeing, academic achievement, and positive adjustment
throughout the lifespan (Balzarotti et al., 2016). As previously indicated, we expected that exposure to a crisis
exercise might in itself trigger elevated tensions. Thus, we assessed the emotional intensity expressed in the
children's questions posted on the forum and examined possible predictors.
3.1.1 |What predicts variations in emotional responses to crisis?
Research shows that individuals differ in their adjustment to stressful situations (Troy et al., 2010). Accordingly,
responses to crises may also vary greatly, with some population groups more vulnerable in terms of their emotional
reactions to such crises. Since emergency exercises are also likely to trigger stress, we expected a varying pattern of
emotional responses to emerge on the forums. Specifically, we explored how gender and age influenced the
emotional intensity expressed in the children's questions.
In a metaanalysis of 166 studies, Chaplin and Aldao (2013) found that girls (toddlers to adolescents) tend to
express more internalizing emotions such as anxiety than boys. Prior (1992) also noted the appearance of gender
differences in some modes of emotionality, including higher fear and anxiety in girls (also see Bates, 1989). Thus,
our first hypothesis was that girls' posts on the forum would reveal higher levels of emotional intensity than
would boys' posts. Our second hypothesis was that younger children would exhibit higher levels of emotional
intensity since emotion regulation processes develop gradually during childhood. For example, Carlson and
Wang (2007) stated that the development of cognition is linked with the development of control over
emotional expression and experience, indicating that years of social interaction are required to construct and
develop these higher processes.
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3.1.2 |Objectives of the 2nd phase
The first objective of the 2nd phase of our study was to describe the contents of the children's posts concerning the
topics that are of main concern to them. Next, we investigated the emotional intensity expressed in the children's
posts, and what predicted it. We expected that being a girl and being young, would predict higher levels of
emotional intensity.
3.2 |Phase 2: Methods
3.2.1 |Participants
At the time of the study, nine elementary schools operated in the city. All but two of them participated in the Sisma
Lekol Talmid project and our online forum during the emergency exercises. Two ultraOrthodox (Haredi) schools
were excluded from the project due to attitudes toward the internet in their communities at the time of the study.
Approximately 14% of Israel's Jewish population is ultraOrthodox (Haredi) (Israel Central Bureau of Statistics,
2018). According to survey data, internet use in the Haredi community is about 50% among users aged 20 and
above (Cahaner et al., 2016; Israel Internet Association, 2017; Malach & Cahaner, 2018), lower than the rate in the
general population (88%). Furthermore, the Haredi schools in the city were less cooperative with the emotional
support internet forum initiative, leading to our decision not to include this population in the exercise. During the
5day exercise, 224 children actively used the forum (i.e., posted on the forum).
Concerning age groups, we divided the pupils who used the elementary school forum (n= 224) into two groups:
general elementary school children (n= 199) and very young children (n= 25), a category containing children whose
posts indicated they were in the 2nd and 3rd grades, even though they were not asked to provide their specific age.
In Israel, 2nd to 6th graders are typically 7 to 12yearold.
Participants were also not directly asked to indicate their gender, in line with the approach used by Prescott
et al. (2017). Since the young people who used the forums in that study did so for genuine reasons rather than for
research purposes, the writers decided not to include any user details to ensure that all posts were completely
anonymous and no background data were available (Prescott et al., 2017). In the current study, we inferred
information regarding the participant's gender from the name given in the post or from the participant's use of
genderspecific language which is distinct in Hebrew. We were unable to identify the gender of eight participants
who were excluded from the final analysis. We also excluded four posts that contained gibberish. Thus, our final
sample comprised 212 elementary school children [N(3rd grade or younger) = 24; N(girls) = 112].
3.2.2 |Instruments
Emotional intensity
After reviewing all the responses, we developed a scale to measure the emotional intensity in the posts, as
displayed in a verbally explicit way, specifically by expressing emotions verbally or using certain phrases that are
known to convey emotions (e.g., wahoo). We also included in our analysis implicit expressions of emotion which
were termed by Glazer (2002)extraverbalindicators of emotions (e.g., font sizes and colors, exclamation points,
and the like). Similarly, Derks et al. (2008) also included both explicit and implicit emotional communication in their
study of CMC, stating that both types of communication are essential to examine the emotional content and quality
of textbased CMC.
Note that different feelings were specified by the children. However, many of the posts contained more than
one distinct emotion (e.g., sadness and confusion), thus we could not differentiate between different groups of
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children according to the emotion that was expressed in the post. Notably, all the feelings could be considered
negative (e.g., anxiety, fear, sadness, confusion, and being overwhelmed).
In developing the emotional intensity scale, we relied on our expertise as educational psychologists
experienced in working with children and adolescents. During observations, educational psychologists are often
required to analyze the verbal behavior of children and adolescents. Moreover, while making psychological
assessments educational psychologists often need to analyze texts written by children and adolescents.
Additionally, one of the authors (A. S.) is a qualified expert in analyzing textbased transcripts of interviews
conducted with adults (Adult Attachment Interview [AAI]). Analyzing the AAI includes textbased indications of the
level of emotionality expressed in the interview (e.g., repetitive words or escalating a scenario, represent a higher
level of emotionality) (Main et al., 2008). Our combined expertise yielded the following emotional intensity scale:
1No explicit or implicit emotional intensity: The participant seems to be asking a general question (e.g., What
should I do when there is a storm?).
2Minimal emotional intensity: The participant seems to bring the crisis closerto the self, indicative of implicit
emotional intensity (e.g., What if I'm playing football during an earthquake and the ball rolls away from me?
What should I do?).
3Low emotional intensity: The participant shows some explicit verbal emotional intensity. Extraverbal indicators
of emotions may be present, for example, the use of font variations (Glazer, 2002) (e.g., I'm scared to be home
alone).
4Moderate emotional intensity: The markers of emotional state intensity are more pronounced (e.g., by using
colors) and the crisis is more elaborated. Also, extraverbal indicators of emotions are usually present (e.g., I'm
scared to be alone in an elevator during an earthquake. What should I do?) (The child used red ink). Note, that
one of the unwritten rules of online communication, says that typing in all capital letters is the equivalent of
screaming (Glazer, 2002). While some posts used capital letters, others used various extraverbal methods to
emphasize the emotionality of their messages, in place of using screaming capsthroughout the post.
5Highly intense emotional intensity: As the post progresses the participant seems to escalate the crisis by adding
details and/or other events (e.g., I'm afraid to leave my home during an earthquake and when there are missiles
and gunshots. What should I do?). Many extraverbal indicators of emotion may be present.
6Extremely intense emotional intensity: The participant seems to feel as if the crisis constitutes an actual current
threat and intensifies the event to the point of experiencing it as engulfing and overwhelming (e.g., I know that
during a war I need to go into a shelter and not come out, but what if the enemy comes to my house and goes
into the shelter looking for me? What should I do?). Many extraverbal indicators of emotion may be present.
All the responses were analyzed by two independent coders, which did not participate in the development of
the scale. The coders were trained by one of the authors (S. A.). To establish interrater agreement, Spearman
correlation was calculated between the ratings of the coders (Cooksey, 2020, p. 464) for all 212 cases (r= .726,
p= .000). Our process of developing and analyzing the emotional intensity scale helps demonstrate the overall
reliability of the data analysis (Shenton, 2004).
The final emotional intensity score for each question was calculated as the average score between the two
independent coders' ratings, resulting in more variability of the emotional intensity variable. Instead of the initial
6point scale (05), we used an 11point scale (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, etc.) (M= 2.05, SD = 1.04).
3.2.3 |Procedure
As described in Phase 1 of the study, during one of Israel's annual national emergency exercises, the authors
launched an online forum for elementary school children, as part of the public educational psychology service's
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website. The forum was active for 5 days. Before the exercise, the participating educational psychologists were
trained in the principles of answering questions online. Eleven psychologists (including the two authors) answered
all the questions presented by the children.
3.2.4 |Ethical considerations
The study was approved by the institutional ethics committee (approval number EMEK YVC 201419) . A username
and password were needed to enter the forums. The psychologists were instructed to respond to posts containing
high levels of emotional intensity while offering to meet with the child (after obtaining parental consent) to provide
further professional assistance. Data for the study were collected only from those pupils whose parents permitted
their children to participate in the internet forum run by the educational psychology service, including permission
for the anonymous publication of responses.
3.2.5 |Analytic plan
First, we read all the posts and grouped them according to the type of crisis the child referred to, to map what are
the main topics that concern children. This approach is in line with the suggestions made by Giorgi (1975)to
incorporate a phenomenological approach in the study of psychological phenomena (i.e., to gain deeper insights into
how people understand their experiences). Next, we analyzed what predicts the children's emotional intensity in
their posts, using a comprehensive model (an ordinal logistic regression). Statistical significance was set at p= .05.
3.3 |Phase 2: Results
3.3.1 |Content of the children's posts
We found that the children addressed several different types of crises in their posts.
1. National security crisis: For example, missile attack, terrorist incident, war (n= 64; 30.2% of the posts).
2. Natural disaster: For example, earthquake, storm, fire, electrical outage, or roads collapsing due to a natural
disaster (n= 87; 41% of the posts).
3. Personal/family/social crisis: Personal crises included arguments with a parent/sibling, illnesses, and concerns
about appearance (e.g., pimples). Family crises included personal crises experienced by a family member and
divorce. Social crises included arguments with friends, worries about social status in class, peer rejection, and
bullying (n= 31; 14.6% of the posts).
4. Undefined crisis: No specific crisis was mentioned in the post (n= 30; 14.2% of the posts).
3.3.2 |Predicting emotional intensity using ordinal logistic regression analysis
Preliminary analysis
To test the combined effect of gender and age on the emotional intensity we intended to use a hierarchical
regression which allows us to evaluate each predictor's addition to the model in terms of what it uniquely adds to
the prediction, over and above the predictor that was entered first (Cooksey, 2020, pp. 373374). Notably, our
predicted variable (emotional intensity) is ordinal. Although it is possible to use hierarchical regression with an
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ordinal predicted variable when there are five or more categories, moderate sample size, and fairly symmetrically
distributed variables (Kromrey & RendinaGobioff, 2002; Taylor et al., 2006), we chose a more accurate approach
and used an ordinal regression.
The predicted variable (emotional intensity) was not distributed normally (KolmogorovSmirnov(212) = 0.148,
p= .000; ShapiroWilk(212) = 0.940, p= .000). There were no missing data for any of the variables. Collinearity
between the variables was not detected (VIF = 1.020). Finally, we tested the parallel regression assumption (i.e.,
proportional odds assumption). Results indicate that we have not violated the parallel regression (proportional odds)
assumption χ
2
(18) = 27.717, p= .052, which implies that the relationship between each pair of outcome groups is
the same. Hence, we used cumulative odds ordinal logistic regression with proportional odds.
Regression results
The categorical predictors were gender (male = 0; female = 1) and age (general elementary school students = 0; 2nd
and 3rd graders = 1). The ordinal predicted variable was the emotional intensity exhibited in children's posts
(an 11point scale ranging from 0 to 5 with midpoints of 0.5).
Together, the predictors accounted for a significant amount of variance in the outcome (likelihood ratio
χ
2
(2)
= 11.781, p= .003). Only age, B= 1.271, SE = 0.391, OR = 3.561, p= .001, significantly predicted the emotional
intensity (see Table 1). A change from 0‐“general elementary school childrento 1‐“3rd grade and younger,was
associated with a 1.271 increase in the ordered log odds of being in a higher level of emotional intensity category.
Younger children are 3.561 times more likely than older children to have an increase in emotional intensity
compared to the lower categories (95% CI, 1.654 to 7.672), a statistically significant effect, Wald χ
2
(1)
= 10.538,
p= .001. Overall, the model accounted for 5.5% of the variance in emotional intensity, Nagelkerke pseudo
R
2
= 0.055.
3.4 |Phase 2: Discussion
For the most part, elementary school children have the cognitive and behavioral abilities to consolidate some sort of
understanding of crises (Munson, 2002). Yet their understanding of the situation and their ostensibly calm state
during a crisis may mask inner turmoil that remains undetected by adults (Naser et al., 2020). Furthermore, this
outward calm may conceal reactions that can emerge when the crisis is over (Terr, 1990). Assisting children in
dealing with their emotional difficulties is an especially important challenge. Yet because of the hidden nature of the
emotional world of children, professionals have difficulties meeting this challenge. In the current study, children's
willingness to participate in dialogue with educational psychologists opened a door to their distress elicited by
various crises. Analysis of their posts yielded several themes. As expected, most of the posts (71.2%) referred to
national security threats and natural disaster issues (30.2% and 41%, respectively).
Nevertheless, we were surprised to find that many children associate the emergency context with other forms
of concern that are closer to their world. We found that 28.4% of the forum posts were related to personal/family/
social crises or undefined types of crises (14.6% and 14.2%, respectively). Although this is not qualitative research,
we did embrace a light qualitative perspective, like paying attention to written descriptions as a relevant way to
TABLE 1 Regression parameters summary.
Estimate SE Wald df sig OR
OR CI 95%
Lower Upper
Gender 0.449 0.245 3.341 1 0.068 0.638 0.395 1.033
Age 1.271 0.391 10.538 1 0.001 3.563 1.654 7.672
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expand the understanding of children's needs as they perceive them (i.e., a phenomenological approach). The raw
data of this study are children's short authentic text, containing descriptions of their concerns and their
understanding of the environment. We did not use content analysis of the short texts, however carefully reading
the posts, highlighted that from children's point of view crises are diverse. The picture that emerged is that crises
frighten young children and enhance their emotional reaction and that the crises as children define them, seem to
be prevalent everywhere and concern various personal topics, not only those targeted in the emergency drills.
Children asked questions such as: My mom loves my brother more than me. What should I do?;What should I do
if I discover that my best friend is lying to me? She stole my pencil and when I asked her about it, she denied it, but
during prayer, I saw it in her bag;Hello, I wanted to ask about a problem in my class, which is a boycott.;What
can I do when the class queenlaughs at me during a school assembly in front of all the pupils, and the principal and
school staff do not respond?.
The relatively high percentage of posts about troubling personal/family/social issues may be related to
children's egocentric perceptions. Egocentrism was first conceptualized by Piaget (1964) and later defined by Elkind
(1967) as the inability to differentiate between the self and others with regard to cognitive concerns. Schoolaged
children assign priority to what they perceive as permanent and necessary (the products of their thoughts) (Elkind,
1974). As children mature, their egocentric thoughts and perceptions tend to diminish. Hence, the children in our
study may have considered their personal problems as crises on a par with national security crises or natural
disasters. Asking them to post questions about such crises may have stimulated their associative thinking, leading
them to contemplate personal crises as well.
Specifying the characteristics of forum users may help psychologists offer more accurate and effective
psychological services. Our results show that being a younger child is a significant predictor of higher levels of
emotional intensity as expressed in the posts, explaining 5.5% of the variance. Crises are prone to trigger high levels
of negative emotions, which in turn require the activation of inner mechanisms to restore a more relaxed and
adaptive state (Silk et al., 2003). This process can be described in terms of emotional regulation. Emotional
regulation refers to a heterogeneous set of strategies invoked to regulate the magnitude or duration of positive or
negative emotional arousal, thus enabling the individual to flexibly accommodate situational demands and
effectively communicate intentions (Gross & Thompson, 2007). Our agerelated finding is in line with theoretical
and empirical developmental research showing that emotional regulation is less developed in younger children than
in older children. Developmental scientists link the development of cognition with the development of control over
emotional expression and experience and assert that years of social interaction are required for these to be
constructed and developed (Carlson & Wang, 2007; Liebermann et al., 2007). Thus, our findings showing that
younger children exhibit higher emotional intensity attest to the developmental nature of emotion regulation
processes. Our findings also suggest that children behave in the same way in various social arenas. Specifically,
children's online expression of emotional intensity is in line with their realworld behavior.
3.4.1 |Practical implications of our findings
1. Screening for students in need of special attention: Universal screening in schools is based on mass and
systematic methods of data collection regarding students' wellbeing. Universal screening shows promise as a
proactive approach to identifying students who may be at risk, who may benefit from an early or targeted
intervention, or who may need further diagnostic assessment (Verlenden et al., 2021). Among its other uses, an
online schoolbased forum, such as described in this article, may also serve as a widescale screening method
that can help mental health professionals identify children who may be at risk for elevated emotional intensity
during stressful situations.
2. Focusing interventions on young children: Interventions are extrinsic emotional regulation practices that affect
individuals' immediate emotional status as well as their longterm socialization of emotional intensity
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(Thompson, 1991). Our results indicate that extrinsic interventions of this type may be especially important for
younger children who are prone to exhibit heightened emotional reactions to emergencies. In accordance with
this insight, Buijzen et al. (2007) found that active mediation of the news reduced fear and worry only among the
young children in their sample (between the ages of 8 and 12). Hence, online interventions should consider the
specific characteristics of younger children, for example by using ageappropriate language (e.g., simpler
language for younger children).
4|INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION OF THE STUDY
The need for psychological services for children surpasses the ability to deliver it by exclusively traditional means
(e.g., via facetoface meetings). Technology can increase accessibility to those services (Alkalay & Dolev, 2019;
Hanley et al., 2019,2021), and offer children a viable platform for emotional expression. However, the mere
creation of a digital platform does not guarantee it will be used successfully among children. Implementing digital
platforms which are operated by familiar professional teams, in a schoolrelated context, can increase the odds that
pupils will use them. The national emergency exercises conducted in the schools, as described in phase 1 of this
study, served as an excellent opportunity to help children practice emotional regulation in times of crisis by using
online forums, thus increasing the scalability of psychological services. This approach is especially relevant given the
global COVID19 pandemic. The current worldwide COVID19 crisis caused occasional restrictions on facetoface
meetings, thus forcing the use of digital/technological communication channels between healthcare professionals
and their patients.
In the wake of a stressful situation, individuals restore their wellbeing through a process involving innate traits
(e.g., affective dispositions), environmental resources (e.g., therapy services), and acquired skills and attitudes (e.g.,
coping strategies) (Lent, 2004). As acquired variables can be amended by selfcontrol, they form the basis for
interventions designed to promote wellbeing (Ng et al., 2018). Thus, caregivers' interventions are one of the ways
of influencing children's emotional and behavioral coping styles at times of crisis (Kagan et al., 1987). Schools
provide an excellent platform for offering such initiatives, as most children spend a considerable amount of their
time at school (McLaughlin & Clarke, 2010).
Accordingly, emergency exercises conducted at elementary schools by the Israel Ministry of Education are
aimed at drilling concrete and practical actions to be taken during national security crises or earthquakes. These
exercises do not include components such as talking about upsetting thoughts and negative emotions that may
arise following a crisis. An emergency is potentially troubling for children in terms of knowing how to act under such
circumstances and how to regulate fears and stressful emotions. Formulating knowledge regarding how to handle
such situations by asking questions serves as an effective tool that allows children to gather the information they
need precisely when they need it (Chouinard et al., 2007). The online emotional emergency exercise initiated by the
local public educational psychology service created the conditions that enabled children to ask questions regarding
various types of crises and to express their emotions on the forum.
4.1 |Unique features of the study
Only a few studies have examined the use of various internetbased mental health services for elementary school
children (Slone et al., 2012). Furthermore, the study on online forums is scarce (Hanley et al., 2019). To the best of
our knowledge, no study specifically explored online forums for elementary school children. Thus, little is known
about the emotional intensity they express online.
Moreover, Livingstone (2003) claimed that research that combines qualitative and quantitative data is sorely
needed. Although our research used quantitative methods, we were able to shed light on children's worries and
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emotional responses by carefully reading their posts. We reiterate Livingstone's suggestion and recommend that
future studies also use qualitative methods to explore elementary school children's online behavior (e.g., indepth
interviews with children regarding their online experience).
Research studies examining children's emotional expressions rely mostly on structured selfreports or parent
report questionnaires and less on observations of emotional expressions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; D. L. Cox et al.,
2000). Children's selfreport questionnaires are valid tools that give them a more authentic voice, which is evident
for example during therapy (Sturgess et al., 2002). However, selfreport measures are prone to various biases
(Schwarz, 1999). Children may be more selfconscious when answering questions and sometimes may be biased
toward responses they assume are expected (Stone et al., 2000). GarciaAndres et al. (2010) ties the reliance on
selfreport measures to the difficulty in finding tools for assessing emotional regulation in children. They suggest
using performancebased measures of emotional regulation in addition to parental, teacher, and selfrating
questionnaires. In our study, children's spontaneous and undirected posts on the forum provided a more accurate
glimpse into their inner world than selfreport questionnaires by providing vivid and authentic responses that we
can learn from.
4.2 |Limitations of the study
Our case study demonstrated the possibility of providing the entire student population access to public
psychological services during times of crisis via online forums. Yet because of the extensive investment of time and
effort required to initiate, implement, publish, and operate the forum, we were not able to expand this endeavor to
cover routine services we offer the children in the schools. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, this approach
has not been adopted nationally. Thus, Israeli educational psychologists continue to provide mainly reactive
responses to crises (GreenwaldKashni & Matichas, 2009) rather than using primary and secondary preventative
methods such as those described in this case study. As a result, the case study we presented is a onetime event.
Hence, our results on the successful operation of the forum and children's emotional intensity in the posts are
limited in terms of their generalizability.
Our study's methodological limitations stem from the nature of our naturalistic study. We analyzed the
authentic online behavior of children during a real event (an online emergency exercise). Therefore, we did not
collect any background data from the forum participants. This approach represents a more authentic way to
communicate over forums for it minimizes users' apprehension and increases their participation. It is also consistent
with the approach of Prescott et al. (2017), who investigated Kooth support forums for 1125yearold. Yet despite
its advantages, this approach prevented us from collecting important background information that may shed further
light on our research questions (e.g., socioeconomic status).
Moreover, we did not specifically ask participants to indicate their gender but rather inferred this information
from the participant's name or use of verbal expressions in the posts. Thus, we excluded eight responses that we
were unable to identify in terms of gender. Additionally, we did not specifically ask participants to indicate their age
or grade in school. Rather, we grouped all the forum participants into two groups: a group of general elementary
school children and a group of very young children consisting of children who explicitly stated they were in the 2nd
and 3rd grades. Thus, we were unable to use a continuous age variable, so our statistical analysis only used a
categorical age variable. Such conversion downward between scales of measurement inevitably results in a loss of
information as well as precision (Cooksey, 2020, p. 30). Additionally, the group of general elementary school
children may have also included children who should have been assigned to the very young children's group but
were unidentified as such because they did not specifically state they were in the 2nd and 3rd grades. These
methodological issues may have influenced the results regarding agerelated differences.
Other methodological limitations are related to our newly developed measure of emotional intensity. Children's
emotional intensity was assessed by analyzing their online posts. Because no other measure was used to
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corroborate emotional intensity, the study lacks external validity. Future studies can use our observational method
for emotional intensity assessment alongside children's selfreport questionnaires, teachers' and parents' reports of
children's behavior, and observations of children's reallife behavior.
Finally, we were unable to find similar studies on the analysis of children's emotional intensity online.
Furthermore, since our measure of emotional intensity is newly developed, no other study has used it. Thus, our
findings have no point of reference based on other research results, limiting our macrounderstanding of the
results.
4.3 |Conclusions and recommendations
Our research findings indicate that when children are offered an online platform to express their worries, they
readily use it and express high satisfaction with this opportunity. We provid detailed appendices that may assist
mentalhealth professionals to establish and operate similar online forums for children. We recommend that this
approach would be incorporated into the routine work of educational psychologists, which may improve the
services offered to children.
The forum was operated in one location only and under special circumstances, namely during an emergency
exercise, thus limiting the generalizability of our findings. Future studies should implement this method at various
locations, with diverse populations and age groups, and under different conditions (i.e., not emergency). The
accumulated data can help in specifying user profiles other than those we identified, which may help in designing
more accurate interventions.
The worldwide COVID19 crisis has placed occasional restrictions on facetoface meetings and forced the use
of digital/technological communication channels between healthcare professionals and their clients. Today it is
urgent to reach many pupils simultaneously during frightening situations, as in the emergency exercise described in
this article. We hope our study will be of use in planning digital psychological and educational interventions, which
have become particularly imperative nowadays.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the educational psychologist who participated in the online emergency exercise and answered all
of the children's posts: Nofia Zalevski, Moran Ytzhaki, Irit Glasman, Esti Gross, Lia Ravkin, Ronit Rolsmach, Halil
Badarne, Zaid Nujidat. The authors also wish to thank Dr. Sharona Maital for her assistance and advice.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.
ORCID
Sarit Alkalay http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1829-1745
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How to cite this article: Alkalay, S., & Dolev, A. (2023). Enabling young elementaryschool children to ask
questions on a schoolbased internet forum operated by educational psychologists. Psychology in the
Schools, 60, 29322952. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22905
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APPENDIX A
See Figure A1.
APPENDIX B: GUIDELINES FOR ANSWERING CHILDREN'S POSTS
The guidelines outlined here were written by the authors based on theoretical knowledge, extensive training in
emergency response principles, and vast personal experience with online psychological support for children,
parents, and educational staff. These guidelines were given to the psychologists participating in the online exercise
that was initiated by the authors.
FIGURE A1 Guidelines for establishing and operating a schoolbased forum.
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1. Begin your response by addressing the child by name and welcoming him/her to the forum. Explain that
seeking help in this stressful situation is a good course of action. For example: Hello Dan. I am glad you wrote
to us. In situations such as you described, it is a good idea to seek help from adults.
2. Use simple language so that a child may easily understand your message (e.g., avoid professional concepts,
abbreviations, long sentences, passive voice).
3. Address the content of the child's post and express empathy for his/her distress. For example: It is indeed very
stressful to hear the alarm sirens.
4. Although the child's response to the emergency situation may seem unreasonable to us, it is an acceptable
response and should be perceived as a normal response to an abnormal situation.Convey the message that
the child's response is common and normal. For example: A lot of children feel distressed when they see so
many people wearing costumes.
5. Instruct the child to follow safety guidelines and adults' instructions during the emergency situation. You may
also refer the child to the Home Front Command's website for children for more detailed safety instructions.
For example: When you hear an alarm siren, you should enter the nearest safe room or shelter and remain
there until your parents tell you it is safe to come out. You can find more explanations here: Home Front
Command for children.
6. Encourage the child to maintain a normal routine as much as possible, so as to alleviate distress and diminish
the chances that the child will exhibit posttraumatic responses. For example: Did your teacher give you
homework for the days you cannot come to school? If so, it is a good idea to do it.
7. Encourage the child to be active, and find a special role that will be the child's responsibility during emergency
situations. This type of behavior has been found to lower the risk of developing posttraumatic responses. For
example: You mentioned that your younger brother starts crying when he hears the sirens. You can help him
by reading a book to him or playing with him.
8. Social support is very important during emergency situations. Therefore, encourage the child to seek the
companionship of parents, other family members, school staff, or friends. For example: You wrote that you
were sad when your best friend insulted you. I suggest that you tell your parents about this as well. You can
also play with other children during recess, rather than remain alone.
9. Pay special attention to posts containing a high level of emotional distress. Encourage the child to share this
distress with his/her parent and ask for the parents' permission to see you for further professional intervention
(remember that you need parental permission before meeting with a child). Specify the means of
communication available. For example: I think you are very distressed because of the situation you described.
You can ask your parents for permission to come to my office or call me, and we can continue to discuss it.
I will be glad to see you and continue our conversation. My phone number is.
10. At the end of your response, identify yourself by name and profession, and specify what organization you work
for. For example: Take care, Avivit Dolev, educational psychologist, Center for ChildrenEducational
Psychology Service.
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This book occupies a unique position in the field of statistical analysis in the behavioural and social sciences in that it targets learners who would benefit from learning more conceptually and less computationally about statistical procedures and the software packages that can be used to implement them. This book provides a comprehensive overview of this important research skill domain with an emphasis on visual support for learning and better understanding. The primary focus is on fundamental concepts, procedures and interpretations of statistical analyses within a single broad illustrative research context. The book covers a wide range of descriptive, correlational and inferential statistical procedures as well as more advanced procedures not typically covered in introductory and intermediate statistical texts. It is an ideal reference for postgraduate students as well as for researchers seeking to broaden their conceptual exposure to what is possible in statistical analysis.
Article
Background: Young people increasingly look towards the Internet for support. Online forums have been developed to provide mental health support, but they have received little attention in the research to date. Aims: To summarise the existing literature examining how individuals use online forums to obtain support for mental health difficulties. Methods: A systematic review of electronic databases was conducted to identify empirical literature in this area. The papers that met the inclusion criteria and satisfied quality assessment review were analysed for key themes. Results: Twenty-one papers were found. Three common themes in the papers were associated with opportunities of the technology: (1) Providing stand alone or complementary informal support, (2) Providing informational, emotional and infomotional support, and (3) Making use of the specific practical opportunities afforded by forum technology. A further three themes were associated with challenges: (1) Managing the expectations of forum users, (2) Ensuring service user safety, and (3) Navigating the technical challenges associated with forums. Conclusions: The paper highlights the potential for individuals to access dynamic and responsive support within online forums. Additionally, it reflects upon the major areas that mental health professionals need to be aware of when entering into this arena.