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Recycling photovoltaic modules within a circular economy approach and a snapshot for Türkiye
Abstract
Solar energy has an important role for increasing renewable energy use and circularity options in the sector are increasing. This study analyses the advances in the scope of the Sustainable Development Goals that aim to create a more equitable and peaceful world and a more livable environment. Studies that are focused on life cycle
perspectives, opportunities for end-of-life management, and multiple goals, including climate action as well as responsible consumption and production are compared. This is used to understand synergies between the circular economy and solar photovoltaic technologies in Türkiye. A need analysis survey is conducted with the participation of academic institutions and research centers, producers, and other stakeholders who operate in the solar photovoltaic sector in Türkiye. The results are analyzed across stakeholder categories and used to derive policy recommendations based on the top drivers, barriers, and enablers to increase circularity in the sector. The expected impacts on environmental, economic and social aspects are also questioned to obtain perspectives on possible pathways. For the first time, the realization of sustainable solar photovoltaic waste management in the context of the circular economy is discussed by stakeholders in Türkiye to establish consensus, increase collaboration, and support planning of future opportunities
... Better urban planning for compact urban form can have multiplier effects on energy and material use in sectors and systems [45]. Extended operational use, regular maintenance, and recycling processes [170] will further reduce reliance on critical raw materials [171] and support circular material flows in producing and utilising renewable energy technologies. Enabling conditions for realising these results will involve targeted changes in energy systems, land use, and supporting choices at the societal level. ...
Urban areas represent key opportunities for mitigation efforts through supporting renewable energy systems, improving urban planning, and increasing resource efficiency. This research work develops two types of urban emissions scenarios in green growth-oriented contexts with and without local ambitions. These scenarios are further coupled with improvements in existing land use efficiencies and multi-dimensional analyses. The method is applied to 45 urban areas, including 15 cities that are selected as Mission Cities in Europe. Different urban emissions scenarios indicate possibilities for reducing 135.80 ± 0.87 MtCO2eq of annual urban consumption-based emissions in 2020 by 58.72 MtCO2eq in 2030 along a 100% renewable energy pathway. Urban land use efficiency scenarios determine annual carbon dioxide sequestration penalties that range between 8.25 and 14.95 MtCO2 in 2050 due to more built-up area in local biomes. Monte Carlo simulations support the analyses of urban emissions and sequestration penalties on a cumulative basis. Among illustrative scenario combinations, net cumulative urban emissions are 1725.93 MtCO2eq in the most favourable scenario that is 50.6% lower than those in the least favourable scenario. Multi-dimensional analyses based on a city index for benchmarking indicate an average improvement of 11.500 for Mission Cities with the quickest response for mitigation. The results have implications for guiding bold policy action and integrated urban planning to increase mitigation efforts for climate neutrality and sustainability.
Electricity generation from photovoltaic (PV) plants plays a major role in the decarbonization of the energy sector. The core objective of this paper is to identify the most important conditions for the future development of PV in order to achieve its greatest possible benefits of PV systems for society. This analysis is based on the documentation of the historical deployment of quantities of PV and on the lessons learned regarding cost developments. In addition, the improvements of PVs technical and environmental performance parameters are investigated. A major result is that the impact of PV feed-in on network capacities may be substantial. Hence, classical energy-based network charges are inadequate. Changes in tariff and pricing structures are needed especially on retail level. The major conclusions is that customers should also receive time-variable price signals that tells them the real-time value of electricity in the system and provides incentives for taking electricity from the grid or feed-in. In addition, the tariffs should have components for maximum power from and to the grid. Another conclusion is that on retail level grid parity already today provides sufficient incentives to purchase a PV system in many countries without additional financial support.
As human activities are increasingly exploiting our planet’s scarce resources, managing them has become of primary importance. Specifically, this study examines the management of photovoltaic (PV) waste that is produced when PV modules reach end-of-life (EoL). PV modules contain precious and valuable materials, as well as toxic materials that may be harmful to human health and the environment if not disposed of properly. First, this study aims to review and analyze the current literature in order to gain a deeper understanding of the recycling of PV modules, particularly c-Si modules, which represent the largest market share. In the second part, an analysis is conducted of the energy consumption of these recycling processes using a proposed model based on the full recovery end-of-life photovoltaic (FRELP) process. PV modules manufactured from raw materials and PV modules manufactured from recycled materials are also compared in this section. In addition, improvements are suggested with respect to the design of PV modules (eco-design). According to this study, c-Si PV modules can be recycled with an energy consumption as low as 130 ÷ 300 kWh/ton of treated PV waste, estimating an overall recycling yield of about 84%.
The efficiency and power output of photovoltaic (PV) panels are vital to the solar PV plant. Apart from overheating, and natural shading, some geographical locations are more susceptible to objectionable dust accumulation on the surfaces of PV panels. Consequently, specific cleaning techniques are required to mitigate the accumulated dust and restore the plant's efficiency. The most popular PV panel cleaning techniques include natural, manual, automatic, and electrostatic cleaning. Each cleaning technique is associated with both positive and negative impacts. Hence, this paper proposes a methodology that underlines the impact of each cleaning technique and relates it to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their associated targets. The results exhibit the goals related to energy (SDG 7, 9,11, 12, & 13) and water (SDG 6) were the most affected SDGs by choice of cleaning technology and thus needed to be carefully considered before their deployment. This paper then employs a multi-criteria decision-making method Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), to compare these cleaning techniques and find the optimal cleaning method concerning the SDGs. This method prioritizes the alternatives by considering the 18 criteria set and their relative significance to the SDGs. The TOPSIS technique showed that the manual cleaning technique outperformed the other cleaning techniques and obtained the highest ranking.
Purpose
This paper aims to develop an improved and harmonized approach to interdisciplinarity in education for sustainable development (ESD)within higher education institutions (HEIs), focusing on maximizing the mobilization of students from all academic disciplines. An attempt is made to reconcile varying strategies for the implementation of interdisciplinary ESD content in HEIs, studying the relative merit and benefit of those strategies and crafting a new approach to combining them, where possible.
Design/methodology/approach
This work relies on a robust review and analysis of existing literature proposals on the implementation of ESD in HEIs to elaborate an integrated approach to interdisciplinarity. Specifically, a scoping literature review is applied, analyzing the existing approaches to ESD in HEIs as well as the challenges observed in their implementation. Using this theoretical framework, this paper evaluates the compatibility and efficiency of the approaches currently implemented. Based on this analysis, an integrative approach is outlined, building upon and combining existing proposals.
Findings
Building on existing literature, this study identifies two main trends for interdisciplinarity in ESD in HEIs: integration into existing disciplinary curricula and new, stand-alone ESD curricula. This paper suggests adopting the two approaches simultaneously, to reach students from all academic disciplines, especially those with minimal exposure to ESD through their own discipline. Furthermore, this paper stresses that these dual curricula strategies should be combined with further interdisciplinary research initiatives as well as extensive leveraging of technology and e-learning.
Originality/value
This study bridges the gap between diverging visions for ESD in HEIs, harmonizing strategies from the literature to outline a new, multilateral strategy. Furthermore, it extensively studies the need for increased engagement into ESD of students from underrepresented disciplines, including the humanities. This engagement has been little addressed in the literature, rendering the proposed approach original insofar as it outlines the ways to improve current approaches to ESD in HEIs.
In times of climate change and increasing resource scarcity, the importance of sustainable renewable energy technologies is increasing. However, the photovoltaic (PV) industry is characterised by linear economy structures, energy-intensive production, downcycling and little sustainability. One starting point for sustainable technologies is offered by the circular economy with its circular design principles. One problematic aspect of the design of crystalline PV modules is the encapsulation. In particular, the encapsulation avoids high-value recycling or the remanufacturing of modules, which could close loops and extend the lifetime of the products. For this reason, this paper provides an overview of the current state of encapsulation methods regarding production, materials and recycling. In addition, the current state of sustainability research in the photovoltaic sector is presented using the VOSviewer tool. Furthermore, alternative encapsulation technologies are discussed and compared in terms of performance and sustainability. The current encapsulation method using ethylene vinyl acetate as the encapsulation material offers major disadvantages in terms of performance and recyclability. Alternatives are the thermoplastic material polyolefin and the alternative structure of the NICE technology. Overall, however, research should focus more on sustainability and recyclability. Alternative module structures will be a decisive factor in this context.
Development of ground-mounted solar power plants (SPP) is no longer limited to remote and low population density areas, but arrives in urban and rural landscapes where people live, work and recreate. Societal considerations are starting to change the physical appearance of SPPs, leading to so-called multifunctional SPPs. In addition to electricity production, multifunctional SPP produce food, deliver benefits for flora and fauna, mitigate visual impact or preserve cultural heritage. In this paper, we systematically examine the different spatial configurations of multifunctional SPPs that reflect a range of contemporary societal considerations. The purpose of this research is to create and test an SPP typology that can support evidence-based and transparent decision-making processes, from location finding to implementation. Comparative case analysis, expert interviews and questionnaires are used to distinguish different types of SPP. We propose a typology that consists of four dimensions: energy, economic, nature and landscape. These dimensions lead to three main types of multifunctional SPP: mixed-production, nature-inclusive, landscape-inclusive, and their combinations. This typology supports decision-making processes on solar power plants and adds to the existing (solar) energy landscape vocabulary. In doing so, the research supports the transformation of energy systems in a way that meets both the quantitative goals and qualitative considerations by society.
Various high-purity metals endow renewable energy technologies with specific functionalities. These become heavily intertwined in products, complicating end-of-life treatment. To counteract downcycling and resource depletion, maximising both quantities and qualities of materials recovered during production and recycling processes should be prioritised in the pursuit of sustainable circular economy. To do this well requires metallurgical infrastructure systems that maximise resource efficiency.To illustrate the concept, digital twins of two photovoltaic (PV) module technologies were created using process simulation. The models comprise integrated metallurgical systems that produce, among others, cadmium, tellurium, zinc, copper, and silicon, all of which are required for PV modules. System-wide resource efficiency, environmental impacts, and technoeconomic performance were assessed using exergy analysis, life cycle assessment, and cost models, respectively. High-detail simulation of complete life cycles allows for the system-wide effects of various production, recycling, and residue exchange scenarios to be evaluated to maximise overall sustainability and simplify the distribution of impacts in multiple-output production systems. This paper expands on previous studies and demonstrates the key importance of metallurgy in achieving Circular Economy, not only by means of reactors, but via systems and complete supply chains-not only the criti-cality of elements, but also the criticality of available metallurgical processing and other infrastructure in the supply chain should be addressed. The important role of energy grid compositions, and the resulting location-based variations in supply chain footprints, in maximising energy output per unit of embodied carbon footprint for complete systems is highlighted.
This article deals with the use of photovoltaic panels at the end of their life cycle in cement composites. Attention is focused on the properties of cement composite after 100% replacement of natural aggregate with recycled glass from photovoltaic panels. This goal of replacing natural filler sources with recycled glass is based on the updated policy of the Czech Republic concerning secondary raw materials for the period of 2019–2022, which aims to increase the self-sufficiency of the Czech Republic in raw materials by replacing primary sources with secondary raw materials. The policy also promotes the use of secondary raw materials as a tool to reduce the material and energy demands of industrial production and supports the innovations and development of a circular economy within business. The research has shown that it is possible to prepare cement composite based on recycled glass from solar panels, with compressive and flexural strength after 28 days exceeding 40 MPa and 4 MPa. Furthermore, a possible modification of the cement composite with different pigments has been confirmed, without disrupting the contact zone.
The effects of climate change are becoming increasingly clear, and the urgency of solving the energy and resource crisis has been recognized by politicians and society. One of the most important solutions is sustainable energy technologies. The problem with the state of the art, however, is that production is energy-intensive and non-recyclable waste remains after the useful life. For monocrystalline photovoltaics, for example, there are recycling processes for glass and aluminum, but these must rather be described as downcycling. The semiconductor material is not recycled at all. Another promising technology for sustainable energy generation is dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Although efficiency and long-term stability still need to be improved, the technology has high potential to complement the state of the art. DSSCs have comparatively low production costs and can be manufactured without toxic components. In this work, we present the world’ s first experiment to test the recycling potential of non-toxic glass-based DSSCs in a melting test. The glass constituents were analyzed by optical emission spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma (ICP-OES), and the surface was examined by scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX). The glass was melted in a furnace and compared to a standard glass recycling process. The results show that the described DSSCs are suitable for glass recycling and thus can potentially circulate in a circular economy without a downcycling process. However, material properties such as chemical resistance, transparency or viscosity are not investigated in this work and need further research.
With the fast growth of the global economy in terms of both supply and demand, social, economic, and environmental impacts become critically dangerous. This red alert has pushed the decision-makers to formulate objectives, guiding economic policies toward sustainable goals. The process is known as Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). That said, the energy sector is among the most contributing domains to the current crisis. Solar energy is among the most efficient solutions proposed to reduce the economic and environmental footprints of energy. In this frame, the current paper aims to localize solar energy within SDGs and analyze the contribution of the solar energy towards the achievement of the SDGs. Moreover, the current work highlights the contributions of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (MBR) Solar Park in the United Arab Emirates to achieving the SDGs standpoint. Indeed, the MBR Solar Park concept offers valuable insights of environmental impacts of deploying clean and affordable energy source than conventional fossil fuel power plants that are still heavily used in the region. The MBR Solar Park operation has already mitigated 6.5 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent and this number will likely rise when all phases are installed and operated. Moreover, it has been shown that MBR Solar Park verify several SDGs such SDG 8: decent work and economic growth, SDG 9: industry, innovation and infrastructure, SDG 11: sustainable cities and communities, and SDG 15: life on land.
To significantly impact climate change, the annual photovoltaic (PV) module production rate must dramatically increase from ~135 gigawatts (GW) in 2020 to ~3 terawatts (TW) around 2030. A key knowledge...
By 2050, the cumulative mass of end-of-life photovoltaic (PV) modules may reach 80 Mt globally. The impacts could be mitigated by module recycling, repair and reuse; however, previous studies of PV circularity omit the consideration of critical social factors. Here we used an agent-based model to integrate social aspects with techno-economic factors, which provides a more realistic assessment of the circularity potential for previously studied interventions that assesses additional interventions that cannot be analysed using techno-economic analysis alone. We also performed a global sensitivity analysis using a machine-learning metamodel. We show that to exclude social factors underestimates the effect of lower recycling prices on PV material circularity, which highlights the relevance of considering social factors in future studies. Interventions aimed at changing customer attitudes about used PV boost the reuse of modules, although used modules can only satisfy one-third of the US demand during 2020–2050, which suggests that reuse should be complemented by recycling. Techno-economic studies of photovoltaic solar cells recycling and reuse often do not take into account the impact of social factors. Walzberg et al. use an agent-based model to estimate the quantitative impact of behavioural choices on photovoltaic recycling efficacy.
Effective recycling of spent perovskite solar modules will further reduce the energy requirements and environmental consequences of their production and deployment, thus facilitating their sustainable development. Here, through ‘cradle-to-grave’ life cycle assessments of a variety of perovskite solar cell architectures, we report that substrates with conducting oxides and energy-intensive heating processes are the largest contributors to primary energy consumption, global warming potential and other types of impact. We therefore focus on these materials and processes when expanding to ‘cradle-to-cradle’ analyses with recycling as the end-of-life scenario. Our results reveal that recycling strategies can lead to a decrease of up to 72.6% in energy payback time and a reduction of 71.2% in greenhouse gas emission factor. The best recycled module architecture can exhibit an extremely small energy payback time of 0.09 years and a greenhouse gas emission factor as low as 13.4 g CO2 equivalent per kWh; it therefore outcompetes all other rivals, including the market-leading silicon at 1.3–2.4 years and 22.1–38.1 g CO2 equivalent per kWh. Finally, we use sensitivity analyses to highlight the importance of prolonging device lifetime and to quantify the effects of uncertainty induced by the still immature manufacturing processes, changing operating conditions and individual differences for each module. Effective recycling of worn-out perovskite photovoltaic modules could improve their energy and environmental sustainability. The authors perform holistic life cycle assessments of selected solar cell architectures and provide guidelines for their future design.
Losses of electricity production in photovoltaic systems are mainly caused by the presence of faults that affect the efficiency of the systems. The identification of any overheating in a photovoltaic module, through the thermographic non-destructive test, may be essential to maintain the correct functioning of the photovoltaic system quickly and cost-effectively, without interrupting its normal operation. This work proposes a system for the automatic classification of thermographic images using a convolutional neural network, developed via open-source libraries. To reduce image noise, various pre-processing strategies were evaluated, including normalization and homogenization of pixels, greyscaling, thresholding, discrete wavelet transform, and Sobel Feldman and box blur filtering. These techniques allow the classification of thermographic images of differen quality and acquired using different equipments, without specific protocols. Several tests with different parameters and overfitting reduction techniques were carried out to assess the performance of the neural networks: images acquired by unmanned aerial vehicles and ground-based operators were compared for the network performance and for the time required to execute the thermographic inspection. Our tool is based on a convolutional neural network that allows to immediately recognize a failure in a PV panel reaching a very high accuracy. Considering a dataset of 1000 images that refer to different acquisition protocols, it was reached an accuracy of 99% for a convolutional neural network with 30 min of computational time on Low Mid-Range CPU. While a dataset of 200 sectioned images, the same tool achieved 90% accuracy with a multi-layer perceptron architecture and 100% accuracy for a convolutional neural network. The proposed methodology offers an open alternative and a valid tool that improves the resolution of image classification for remote failure detection problems and that can be used in any scientific sector.
The circular economy can be promoted as a solution to support the sustainability market position of renewable energy systems. To design a circular and sustainable system, a structured approach is needed. The present study develops a methodology framework for sustainable circular system design (SCSD), aiming to assess thermal energy storage (TES) technologies from a sustainable perspective. To this end, a composite indicator, namely, environmental sustainability and circularity indicator (ESC) is provided. This indicator combines the environmental impacts of the TES system via the conduction of a life cycle assessment and its circulatory performance using the product-level material circularity indicator (MCI). The developed methodology is applied to a case study of high-temperature TES using molten salts as a part of a concentrated solar power plant. The SCSD embraces the analysis for the most relevant processes through proposing different ecological scenarios including, increasing the recycling rates (Modest Scenario), increasing the reuse rates (Medium Scenario), and a combination of both (Optimistic scenario). The circularity analysis showed that for the Modest, Medium and optimistic scenarios, the MCI moves from 20.6% for the current situation to 30.3%, 38.6%, and 46.4%, respectively. Accordingly, the optimistic scenario showed the most environmentally sustainable and circular scenario with ESC of 7.89%, whereas the Modest and Medium scenarios exhibited ESCs of 1.20% and 2.16%, respectively. A major obstacle for substantial improvement of the circulatory and ESC is the high share of unrecyclable molten salts in the system and therefore, any effort to improve the circulatory and the environmental benefits of this system can be reached by using more environmentally friendly alternative materials. The study concludes that the integration of reusing and recycling at the initial design should be sought in order to achieve a more environmentally sustainable and circular outcome.
Solar energy has become a leading solution to meet the increasing energy demand of growing populations. Solar photovoltaic technology is an efficient option to generate electricity from solar energy and mitigate climate change. Although the development and growth of solar photovoltaics has had a positive impact on energy system decarbonization, but end-of-life solar panels might become toxic waste if not properly disposed of. Presently in India, approximately 200,000 tonnes of solar photovoltaic waste are expected to be produced by 2030 and 1.8 million tonnes by 2050, by which time solar waste could grow to 60 million tonnes globally. Solar waste has recently been included in the category of waste electrical and electronic equipment to restrict the negative influence of continual development. Recent advancements have been focused only on increasing the efficiency of solar photovoltaic panels without considering the impact of waste solar panels on the environment and the issue of appropriate disposal of waste panels. Effective and ecofriendly methods for recycling end-of-life waste are rarely considered. There is a need to critically investigate and manage the disposal and recycling of solar panels waste. This review article addresses handling and recycling of solar waste, which will be present in large quantities after 25 years. We review multiple adopted technologies to recycle solar waste and technological advancement achieved while recycling photovoltaic waste. Further life cycle assessment of recycling technologies is also discussed.
The energy sector and electricity generation in particular, is responsible for a great share of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. World electricity generation is still largely based on the burning of fossil fuels. However, Brazil has already a very low electricity carbon intensity due to the country’s large hydropower capacity. In countries with low grid carbon intensities such as Brazil, the investment in photovoltaic solar systems (PVSS) even if it is cost-effective, might become challenging as any new generation competes essentially against other renewable generation and the carbon offset is not a key driver for investment anymore. This study builds further upon that case to examine if national renewable energy incentives could actually lead to an increase of global net carbon emissions from the installation of PVSS in countries with a low grid carbon intensity. The study presents a life cycle analysis (LCA) of ten photovoltaic systems representative of the different operational conditions in regions across Brazil. It was found that the average energy payback time of the studied PV plants is between 3 and 5 years of operation. This result shows the feasibility and viability of such investments in the Brazilian context. When the LCA was integrated into the analysis though, the results showed that the “local” direct emissions avoidance from two out of ten studied PV plants would not manage to offset their “global” life cycle emissions due to the 2020 projected Brazilian grid emission factor which is already low. It is important to recognize that public policies of unrestricted, unconditional stimulus to photovoltaic systems investment might not help towards reducing global net emissions when the PV systems are installed at countries with a low carbon emission electric matrix. That is also something to consider for other countries as the carbon intensity of their grids will start reducing at levels similar to Brazil’s. It is likely that in the near future, the real net carbon offset achieved by PV systems at the global level will be largely defined by the manufacture procedures and the production’s carbon intensity at the country of origin of the PV panels.
In solar panel production stage, it is unavoidable to neglect the huge amount of solar grade silicon particles displaced during the slicing of silicon ingot operation. A subject of the present study is to reuse the solar-grade silicon particles as a filler to enhance the mechanical properties of the epoxy-glass fiber polymer composite. Polymer composite was fabricated using a hand-layup method with constant hydraulic pressure by varying filler weight percentages of 0, 1, 3, 5, and 10 %. Particle size and mineralogical features of the recovered silicon particle were characterized by particle size analyser and X-ray diffraction analysis. A positive effect on the mechanical properties of the prepared composites is seen by the recovered silicon particle addition. Maximum tensile strength of 284 MPa has been achieved for the < 10 µm particle with a 5 % weight of silicon filler loaded composite. Both the flexural strength and the hardness of the composites were improved linearly by the addition of the filler material. The dielectric constant is considerably improved by incorporating recovered silicon filler into the epoxy polymer composite. There is a comparatively higher dielectric constant value of 5.96 in a fine silicon particle-filled composite than in a coarse silicon particle-filled composite of 4.8. The sustainable use of silicon wafer cutting particles in polymer composites would mitigate the problems of pollution and minimise the cost of silicon wafer waste disposal as well. This brings up the solution to recycling of silicon wafer cutting waste for a sustainable environment.
Multijunction III–V/silicon photovoltaic cells (III–V/Si), which have achieved record conversion efficiencies, are now looking as a promising option to replace conventional silicon cells in future PV markets. As efforts to increase efficiency and reduce cost are gaining important traction, it is of equal importance to understand whether the manufacturing methods and materials used in these cells introduce undesired environmental trade-offs. We investigate this for two state-of-the-art III–V/Si cell design concepts using life cycle assessment. Considering that the proposed III–V/Si technologies are still at an early research and design stage, we use probabilistic methods to account for uncertainties in the extrapolation from lab-based data to more industrially relevant processes. Our study shows that even at this early stage and in light of potential uncertainties, the III–V/Si PV systems are well positioned to outperform the incumbent silicon PV systems in terms of life-cycle environmental impacts. We also identify key elements for more sustainable choices in the III–V/Si design and manufacturing methods, including the prioritization of energy efficiency measures in the metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE) process and a reduction in the consumption of indium trichloride in spray pyrolysis.
The extensive deployment of photovoltaic (PV) modules at an expeditious rate worldwide leads to a massive generation of solar waste (60-78 million tonnes by 2050). A stringent recycling effort to recover metal resources from end-of-life PVs is required for resource recovery, circular economy, and subsequent reduction of environmental impact. The recovery of metallic resources (silicon, silver, copper, lead, and tin) from the first-generation PVs and critical elements (tellurium, indium, selenium, and gallium) from second-generation PVs are mainly targeted. This review systematically discusses the recycling literature of both generations of solar cells, market value calculations, recycling preferences, global trends, and the Indian perspective. The status of PV module recycling on a commercial scale and academic research efforts are discussed. The review systematically discusses the various possible pretreatments and extraction/refining processes. The pretreatments (physical, chemical, thermal, and hybrid processes) play a decisive role in up-gradation, impurity removal, and metal recovery. The challenges include homogeneous collection, process efficiency, holistic resource recovery, and energy considerations. Toxicity characteristics of both generations, life cycle assessment studies, recycling challenges with proposed flowsheets, and a detailed future outlook are propounded to develop a holistic metal recovery approach. In comparison, crystalline Si PVs comprise the maximum economic value. One tonne of mixed PVs (first and second generation) can yield 9.32 kg of Cu, 0.30 kg of Ag, 33.48 kg of Si, 1.12 kg of Sn, 1.12 kg of Pb, 4.9 g of Cd, 2.5 g of Te, and 3.4 g of In.
Many studies focus on the application of phase change materials (PCMs) to a photovoltaic (PV) panel. It has been proved that these materials provide a good thermal management for the PV panel, increasing the electrical conversion efficiency and recovering useful heat. This paper investigates these innovative systems from an environmental sustainability perspective. A PV-PCM prototype, built and tested over a reference year, has been taken as case study. The recovered heat by the PCM is intended as peak shaving for the domestic hot water (DHW) energy demand of a typical residential building. The analysis involves both the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), basing on the ISO standard 14040, and the circularity of the proposed system, proposing an alternative calculation procedure to the new Italian standard UNI 1608856. Results show that the proposed system allows the reduction of impact on climate change of around 11%, reaching a potential circularity performance of around 45%.
India’s most extensive renewable energy expansion program targets 280 GW of solar energy by 2030. Due to the massive generation of photovoltaic waste (expected 34,600 T by 2030), stringent recycling effort to recover metal resources from end-of-life PVs is required for resource recovery, circular economy, and subsequent reduction in the environmental impact. The present study investigates the recycling potential of end-of-life silicon solar modules. The feed characterization reveals that most of the values in PV modules are concentrated in the frame (pure Al), Si wafer (72–84% Si, 9–12% Al, and 0.13–0.71% Ag), and electrical connections (Cu wire coated with Sn). The Si and Ag values in the feed were beneficiated using water fluidization, and concentrate with 90% Si and 2% Ag was attained in the underflow concentrate. Ag values were recovered in the form of AgCl by leaching in nitric acid and precipitation. After the purification step, the residue containing 99% Si can be further utilized to fabricate Si wafer and Al-Si alloy. The preliminary cost estimations suggest that the proposed process is economically viable for the recycling of solar panels with the maximum value generated from the AgCl precipitate followed by Al panels and Si wafers.
With the widespread photovoltaic deployment to achieve the net-zero energy goal, the resulting photovoltaic waste draws attention. In China, considerable steps have not been taken for photovoltaic waste management. The lack of relevant scientific information on photovoltaic waste brings difficulties to the establishment of photovoltaic waste regulatory systems. In this study, the necessity and feasibility of photovoltaic waste recovery were investigated. In China, the photovoltaic waste stream was quantified as 48.67-60.78 million t in 2050. In photovoltaic waste, indium, selenium, cadmium, and gallium were in high risk, judging by the metal criticality analysis, which meant that their recovery was significant to alleviate the resource shortage. The full recovery method was proved to reduce the environmental burdens most. For cost and benefit analysis, the net present value/size was -1.02 $/kg according to the current industrial status. However, it can be profitable with the recovery of silver. This study provides scientific and comprehensive information for photovoltaic waste management in China and is expected to promote the sustainable development of photovoltaic industry.
Lithium-ion battery is the key technology to power electronic devices, digital tools, and electric vehicles. As battery-operated technologies are expanding enormously fast, battery raw materials are critical in terms of supply and demand. It is anticipated that battery raw materials preserved in the ores could face a supply crunch in the future. To minimize the future impact, alternative sources of battery raw materials are necessary. Although batteries, photovoltaic and glass sectors contribute to the world economy significantly, they could generate huge amount of underutilised materials at the end-of-life which are often disposed of as wastes or used in low value processes with significant negative economic and environmental impacts. All these wastes contain many high value battery materials, which can be extracted and processed for re-use again and again as economically viable effective raw materials for new battery application in a circular way. Currently, an organized comprehensive review focuses on circular energy materials recovered from waste resources is hardly found. This review takes this opportunity and provides an effective overview on the recovery of circular energy materials from waste resources. Various recycling approaches and challenges of valuable materials recovery from the wastes of lithium-ion battery, photovoltaic, and glass, subsequent purification and nano structuring processes, fabrication of new battery electrodes, and their further application in lithium-ion batteries are thoroughly discussed. This review also provides outlook and considers scientific, economic, environment, and social benefits of the materials recovered from wastes and re-use them in lithium-ion battery technology, and how this affects circular economy.
Emerging Pb‐based photovoltaic (PV) technologies, including in particular solution processed halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) and Pb chalcogenide quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs), are among the most promising next‐generation photovoltaic technologies for a range of disruptive energy and electronic applications. However, the potential toxicity and leakage of hazardous Pb species have become one of the main barriers to their large‐scale application. When solar cells are subject to physical damage or failure of encapsulation, rapid leakage of Pb may occur, which can be accelerated by exposure to external environmental weathering conditions such as rainfall and elevated temperature. In this review, we undertake an in‐depth investigation on the essential role of Pb in PSCs and QDSCs, as well as common causes of Pb leakage. The hazardous effects of Pb toxicity on soil plants, bacteria, animals, and human cells were also evaluated. We then summarized recent progress in developing effective strategies for Pb leakage reduction, such as Pb‐free or Pb‐less perovskite materials, device architecture design, encapsulation absorbers for PSCs, and core‐shell structure and ligand exchange method for QDSCs, in addition to Pb recycling strategies of end‐of‐life solar cells. Our review provides quantitative insights into the future development of eco‐friendly emerging Pb‐based PV technologies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
With the goal of Net-Zero emissions, photovoltaic (PV) technology is rapidly developing and the global installation is increasing exponentially. Meanwhile, the world is coping with a surge in the number of end-of-life (EOL) solar PV panels, of which crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV panels are the main type. Recycling EOL solar PV panels for reuse is an effective way to improve economic returns and more researchers focus on studies on solar PV panels recycling. Most recent recycling technology studies stay at the experimental stage, and problems of high cost, low recycling value, and secondary pollution are usually ignored. In this review, to establish an efficient, economic, and environmentally friendly recycling technology system, we systematically summarized the EOL c-Si PV panel module recycling technologies and condition parameters in three sections: module disassembly, module delamination, and material recycling and reuse. We discussed current technology strengths and weaknesses and research development directions in each section. This review aimed to provide a technical reference for the upcoming recycling surge of EOL PV modules all over the world.
The rapid deployment of solar photovoltaic (PV) technology around the world brings the ineluctable problem of disposing of and recycling decommissioned solar photovoltaic modules. Recycling will become an essential sector in the value chain of the PV industry. This paper reviews the progress in silicon photovoltaic module recycling processes, from lab-scale and pilot-scale research in order to compare mechanisms, ascertain feasible approaches, recycling yields, equipment, costs, and improvement areas for different recycling processes. Trends, gaps, and outlooks are drawn to guide future R&D. Recycling processes have evolved from mass recovery to value recovery and now full recovery. Selective delamination and automated material sorting are key enablers of high recycling yield. So far, most recycling research focuses on recovering materials, however, it is equally important to explore secondary markets and end-use applications of recovered materials, especially for glass, and polymers. To implement sustainable end-of-life recycling at a large scale, technological feasibility, economic viability, and social desirability need to be addressed altogether by innovative recycling technologies.
As China has pledged to become carbon neutral by 2060, electrifying its energy sector is no doubt one of the priority measures to support the transition towards a more sustainable and decarbonized energy system. Solar photovoltaics (PV) has been known as one of the most promising renewable technologies to facilitate the electrification of energy systems. The feasibility of utilizing PV to implement a nationwide decarbonized electricity system now becomes an urgent unanswered question, especially in the context of global climate change and rapid economic growth in China. Here, by using a GIS-based multiple-criteria decision-making approach we address this question by conducting a comprehensive feasibility analysis with consideration of various economic, technological, logistical, and climate change factors. We show that it is feasible for China to fulfill a net-zero electricity system by 2050, through the installation of 7.46 TW solar PV panels on about 1.8% of the national land area (mostly in western China) with a total capital investment of 4.55 trillion USD in the next 30 years. Besides, we show that future climate change may lead to a slight decrease (less than 5%) in solar energy potential, but this would not affect the capability of the nationwide PV system to meet the need for a fully-electrified energy system.
Innovation is seriously investing around the themes of climate change and sustainability. Commercial Photovoltaic (PV) has egregiously contributed to getting to 22.1% share of the gross final energy consumption in...
Fulfilling the SDGs and reaching the climate neutrality target of the EU Green Deal will require a global effort, for which solar energy is indispensable. From 2030 the global number of decommissioned and thus waste solar panels will increase exponentially. This review article specifies the barriers and solutions to creating a closed loop system (CLS) in the crystalline silicon (c-Si) photovoltaics industry in Germany. The conclusions drawn are however relevant for all countries using solar panels, as they will face similar challenges. Specific recommendations are outlined based on identified challenges that will help ensure a CLS for c-Si solar panels. Regarding regulation it is recommended that recycling targets for solar panels should be adjusted so that they are not linked to weight, as this does not encourage the recovery of all materials. It is also crucial that the design of the solar panels is adjusted to ensure that repair, refurbishment and at a later stage recycling are possible. Since the economic feasibility is not given at a small scale it is suggested for companies to join larger recycling schemes. Collaboration and exchange along the supply and value chain is also identified as essential to ensure the development of solutions that will truly enable the creation of a CLS. Product as a service should also be explored by solar panel companies as this would encourage the production of panels that can be easily repaired and later recycled.
Photovoltaic (PV) technologies are critical for sustainable energy supply, climate change mitigation, and energy security with lower environmental impact compared to other generation alternatives. Despite the environmental benefits of PV technologies, one of these major downsides is the growing concern over the environmental impact due to risks associated with improper waste handling and disposal of decommissioned PV panels. As a result, there are strong incentives for PV panel recycling to recover valuable resources and mitigate risks caused by hazardous substances.
This study proposes a reverse logistical planning framework for collecting end-of-life PV panels, which aims to support the integration of existing recycling technologies and collection schemes using a holistic approach for ensuring feasibility and reducing environmental impact. The framework reviews current recycling methodologies for PV waste and the state of PV markets, including PV uptake, waste stream forecast, collection and logistic strategies. Additionally, South Australia is used as the context of analysis for a case study where the framework is applied to identify the potential strategies for handling and collection of end-of-life PV panels based on current PV uptake and waste stream forecast. As a result, capital, transportation and operation costs can be reduced, contributing to lower overall recycling cost for the PV waste treatment and a more efficient reverse logistic system.
The Renewable Energy Directive delineates policies for energy production from renewable sources by at least 32% in European Union (EU) by 2030. All member states have established National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) for 2021–2030 to decipher how they will cover their energy needs from renewable sources. This work considers the targets set by each of the EU-27 countries to implement, in particular, solar photovoltaic (PV) modules to cover their energy needs. Then, the future PV waste amounts are assessed considering the widely used Early Loss and Regular Loss scenarios, as well as the noteworthy scenario proposed by the EU WEEE Directive. The study addresses the questions “when will large amounts of panel waste be generated in the EU countries and what will their composition be?” Also, a timescale for starting an economically viable recycling industry for PV panel waste in the EU is estimated based on the annual PV waste generated in each country. By 2050, 14.3–18.5 Mt PV waste will be generated in EU-27 while the profit of PV recovered materials will be 21.98–27.36 billion USD. The findings contribute to the efficient management of the forthcoming e-waste category, according to circular economy principles, ensuring the pathway to sustainability.
In this research, a framework for performing Anticipatory Life Cycle Analysis (a-LCA) has been developed to identify the sustainable end of life (EoL) management option for crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) panels. a-LCA can be used to stimulate proactive and sustainable decision making for emerging technologies through stakeholder participation. In this research, stakeholders related to EoL management of PV panels participated through a survey to identify and prioritize economic, environmental, and social indicators for PV EoL management. Several EoL strategies like bulk material recycling (centralized and decentralized), high value material recycling, and landfilling were chosen and assessed for the prioritised sustainability indicators. The EoL strategies were then ranked through a multi-criteria decision analysis tool for their level of sustainability.
High value material recycling (close to 100% material recovery) was identified as the most sustainable option followed by bulk recycling of PV panels that recover only the major constituents, such as aluminium, glass, and e-waste. Landfilling remained the least preferred option, although it currently has an economic advantage over other recycling options, highlighting the need to shift the user preferences. The developed a-LCA framework is iterative and can be applied by decision makers for different EoL management strategies in the future.
One of the ways of simultaneously minimising the use of fresh resources and pollution reduction are the industrial and urban symbiosis, implementing Circular Economy. The resource consumption and release of emissions can be considered as stemming from several domains-product use, production and delivery, resource supply, waste processing and reuse. In the present work, the Circular Economy issues are considered from a structural viewpoint, identifying the need to increase flexibility and the degrees of freedom. The analysis of the motivational example and the strategic issues in industrial and urban symbiosis has shown the need to construct Smart Symbiosis Networks for maximising the sustainability of cities and regions. Unlike previous studies related to circularity and Process Integration, the current analysis takes the holistic perspective and considers all three pillars of sustainability-economic (via cost and profit), environmental (via the footprints) and societal (by embedding health and safety into the analysis).
The proper disposal of photovoltaic modules has become an emerging environmental and social issue as modules installed around the 2000s have started entering their end-of-life stage. The decommissioning volume will keep increasing, reaching the gigawatt scale, or millions of tons, by 2030. End-of-life silicon photovoltaic modules contain various valuable materials, such as high-purity silicon and silver. Recycling silicon and silver from the end-of-life modules can significantly improve the recycling revenue. We developed an environmentally sustainable chemical process for simultaneously recovering high-purity silver and silicon from waste solar cells in a fast, efficient, and environmentally friendly way. Reverse electroplating with a full-area contact can successfully recover 99.9% purity metallic silver with a 95% yield within a few minutes. The electrolyte can be reused. The applied voltage and current densities play an important role in achieving a high recycling yield. Subsequent alkaline etching can recover 4N purity silicon with a 99% yield. The chemical process minimises chemical consumption and waste disposal, resulting in the avoidance of 1.60 kg CO2-eq Climate Change impact per kg cell recycled. Even though further chemical etching can remove impurities from the silicon surface to recover up to 5N silicon, the use of strong acids involves serious environmental disadvantages, the overall impacts of which are much higher than those of recovering 4N silicon using a simplified chemical process. This journal is
The approaching end-of life phase of early installed PV modules gave rise to a variety of potential end-of-life strategies, ranging from basic generic waste management strategies to advanced case-specific recycling options. However, no comprehensive assessment on the full range of technological possibilities is available and only limited attention was given to the material recovery rates of these different technologies in light of circular economy. In addition, current material recovery rates are indifferent towards the material value and the value of their secondary applications. Based on an extensive literature review, ten end-of-life scenarios with potential learning effects are identified and their material flows are quantified using a combined material and substance flow analysis. Subsequently, material recovery rates from a mass, economic value and embodied energy perspective are calculated, incorporating the differences in secondary applications. The differences in the mass-based recovery rates of the seven end-of-life scenarios that did not have landfill or municipal waste incineration as the main destination were minimal, as 73-79% of the mass was recovered for the best-case learning scenario. For the economic value recovery rate (9-66%) and the embodied energy recovery rate (18-45%), more profound differences were found. The collection rate was identified as most crucial parameter for all end-of-life scenarios, learning scenarios and recycling indicators. The mass-based recovery rate might favor end-of-life scenarios that lead to dissipation of valuable materials in non-functional secondary applications. Additional targets are required to avoid cascading of valuable materials and to avoid the economic cost and environmental burden of virgin materials.
Recycling is rarely considered in the field of dye solar cells. However, recycling should be a critical part of holistic eco-design, which considers the efficiency, lifetime, return of energy investment, safety, and availability of materials. The novelty and focus of this work is recycling, and this is the first contribution systematically analyzing how different material choices and their combinations affect the recycling of dye solar cells. By understanding the recycling processes and how the recycling of materials is interlinked in a multicomponent system, it is possible to eco-design systems and guide future research toward selecting materials that support sustainability and enable economically motivated recycling. Economic incentive is the biggest factor determining whether or not recycling will take place. With eco-design, it is possible to avoid future problems, such as trapping rare and expensive critical metals in waste from which they are difficult or even impossible to recover. In fact, the conventional dye solar cells create harmful waste with no economically profitable way of recycling. Interestingly, many of the alternative materials that enable recycling have not been originally designed for that purpose, and it is rarely obvious how the combination of different materials affects recycling. For instance, using thin flexible substrates, which have been developed for roll-to-roll manufacturing, supports the retrieval of Ag, and using high performance Co- or Cu-based electrolytes instead of iodine electrolyte eliminates toxic gas problems in pyrometallurgical recycling processes.
A first life cycle assessment study for the evaluation of a grid-connected photovoltaic system in Mexico was carried out from a cradle-to-grave perspective. The photovoltaic system consists of 12 modules integrated with a multi-crystalline silicon technology with a southward inclination of 20°, a 2.5 kW inverter, and a total installed capacity of 3 kWp, which provides an annual average production of 1282 kWh/kWp with a performance factor of 0.75. This system was installed in a building located in Mexico City. Potential environmental impacts from this photovoltaic system were analysed in eleven categories. The life cycle results show that this technology is within the cleaner energy sources with least environmental impacts throughout its life span. The major environmental impacts were attributed to the production stage, and more specifically, to the manufacturing of materials for the solar modules (which include PV panels, solar cells, and wafers). The multi-crystalline silicon photovoltaic system evaluated in this study was also compared with three conventional photovoltaic generation systems based on different technologies (i.e., single-crystalline silicon, the amorphous silicon, and the copper-indium-selenium solar cells). From this life cycle assessment, it was found that the multi-crystalline silicon system almost systematically exhibits the lower environmental burdens in most of the impact categories (six out of the eleven), in comparison with other systems which present larger contributions of pollutants during their life span. Regarding to the carbon footprint, it was found that the photovoltaic technology with the lowest global warming potential was related to the multi-crystalline silicon system (47.156 g CO2-eq./kWh), whereas the greatest contribution (69.1 g CO2-eq./kWh) was attributed to the single-crystalline silicon system.
By considering these environmental sustainability results, a better technological deployment might be achieved which may help to accelerate, and drive a massive use of solar energy resources towards a clean, sustainable and diversified energy future. Finally, the importance of mapping circular economy opportunities during recycling and waste disposal of materials, and the sustainability trade-offs of solar PV systems have been highlighted as crucial research areas and innovation opportunities for future LCA works.
The purpose of this paper is to make a research on solar power plants integration in an electric power system, taking into account all costs arising from circular economy criteria. Four scenarios of solar power plant installation are analyzed. The methodology relies on nature-inspired optimization. The evolutionary multiobjective genetic algorithm is applied. The optimization is based on the costs of electricity production, encompassing not only the costs of technology, but also the costs of environmental protection and sustainable development. These costs are included in the model and the objectives are formulated accordingly. The objectives are based on maximization of electricity production up to the level of demand, minimization of total electricity costs and minimization of greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, grid losses as well as other limitations and constraints of the electric power system are included into the model. The loss distribution is calculated in proportion to the distance between the supplier and the end user. The solar power plant losses equal zero, because it is assumed that the plant is located in a local community, close to consumers. The results show that the emissions and costs are higher without an introduced solar power plant. Introduction of solar capacities reduces the costs and emissions to a certain level. The developed model may be useful as a decision-support system generator.
Perovskite solar cell modules are expected to enter the market in the near future, but their implications in terms of sustainability compared to other photovoltaic devices are still debated. Now a study lays the groundwork for their eco-design.
This investigation highlights effective technology to convert crystalline silicon photovoltaic solar panel waste to composite products. The main problem with recycling photovoltaic modules is to economically separate and extract the materials in the laminated structure. This investigation was attempted to recycle c-Si photovoltaic modules using an unconventional method in which the cumbersome process of separating the materials in the module is avoided altogether. The aluminium frame, outer glass and junction box are removed mechanically and the rest of the c-Si PV module waste is powdered and blended with recycled polypropylene (PP) and Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) each to make compression moulded tiles. A total of six compression moulded tiles were made. Three tiles from each base material blended in three blend ratios (0%, 10% and 20%) with the powdered PV module waste. The tensile strengths of the tiles were tested and compared. The results prove that tiles made with recycled PP as a base material show very low tensile strength. However, recycled tiles made by blending with LDPE show appreciable tensile strength of more than 8 MPa. These tiles may be used to make furniture.
With the pursuit of high photoelectric conversion efficiency in the photovoltaic market, passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC) modules has become the new market mainstream. The environmental impact of PERC modules requires life cycle assessment (LCA) methods to analyze. The SimaPro software was used to calculate the environmental impacts, such as global warming potential (GWP), human toxicity potential – cancer effects (HTP-CE), human toxicity potential-non-cancer effects (HTP-nCE), freshwater ecotoxicity potential (FEcP), freshwater eutrophication potential (FEuP) and abiotic depletion potential (ADP) of mono-facial and bifacial (dual-glass encapsulation and transparent back-sheet encapsulation) PERC modules prepared using 158.75 mm, 166 mm and 210 mm silicon wafers. The rear side gain of a bifacial module increases its electricity generation in the Use stage, and thereby making bifacial module achieve better environmental performance than mono-facial module. In order to improve the rear side gain of bifacial module, it is usually necessary to select an appropriate ground reflective material in system design. The LCA results show that the waterproof membrane TPO (Thermoplastic Polyolefin) is a very good choice, and white gravel and grassland can also be considered in landscape design point of view. Whether to choose dual-glass encapsulation or transparent back-sheet encapsulation, has little effect on the overall environmental impact of bifacial modules. In addition, adding recycling in the photovoltaic industry chain can significantly reduce the overall environmental impact of photovoltaic modules, especially in the indicators such as ADP, HTP-CE and FEuP.
Demand for electricity is expected to increase significantly in the coming decades, one reason being the ongoing decarbonization process of the power and the transportation sectors, in an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus alleviate climate change. Photovoltaics that harvest solar energy, coupled with energy storage systems are addressing these challenges effectively. In the current study, the simulated energy winnings from typical photovoltaic-battery (PV-BAT) configurations were economically evaluated, under equal technical and site-specific meteorological conditions. Furthermore, their capital, replacement, operation, and maintenance costs were inquired and the average unit cost of electricity per kWh was estimated based on specific energy cost estimation methods and a Monte-Carlo analysis addressing uncertain meteorological risk factors. The cost of electrical energy production in Greece was examined for six scenarios with varying battery technologies and module topologies. Calculated costs ranged from 0.17 to 0.24 €/kWh indicating a significant downward trend in the unit cost of electricity generated by PV-BAT systems. These findings indicate the need for further investigation into how the integration and utilization of such systems can be optimized. The proposed methodology is developed in line with the circular economy action plan which requires increased system efficiency, storage and renewable energy use.
As a consequence of the photovoltaic (PV) market expansion in the last 20 years, the cumulative global PV waste is expected to exponentially grow. A proper disposal of decommissioned PV panels is crucial for avoiding environmental risks and for recovering value-added materials. In this study, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was performed in order to assess the environmental performance of a new recycling process for crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV panels, at the End of Life (EoL). The process was developed in the framework of the ReSiELP (Recovery of Silicon and other materials from the End-of-Life Photovoltaic Panels) project, aiming at recovering valuable resources from EoL PV c-Si modules and making the recovered materials readily available for different supply chains, in line with the principles of Circular Economy. A “gate to gate” approach was used to investigate two lines of activities: (i) the Recovery line, dedicated to the recovery of secondary raw materials from EoL c-Si PV panels, namely aluminium, copper, glass, silver and silicon, and (ii) the Glass reuse line, for the employment of the recovered glass in prefabricated building components (predalles slabs). The results highlight energy consumption, chemicals and transportation as the main hotspots of the ReSiELP process. For a comprehensive evaluation, the generated loads were compared with the potential environmental benefits gained thanks to the recovery of aluminium, at the largest extent. Overall, the LCA analysis showed that the investigated process is environmentally favorable, also when compared to other EoL PV panels recycling scenarios reported in literature.
Climate change, resource depletion and unsustainable crop productivity are major challenges that mankind is currently facing. Natural ecosystems of earth’s biosphere are becoming vulnerable and there is a need to design Bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) which are ecologically engineered microcosms that could effectively deal with problems associated with urbanization and industrialization in a sustainable manner. The principles of BLSS could be integrated with waste fed biorefineries and solar energy to create a self-sustainable bioregenerative ecosystem (SSBE). Such engineered systems will have potential applications in urban farming and climate change mitigation ultimately advocating circular economy. Furthermore, they can generate ecologically smart and resilient communities which can strengthen the global economy. This article provides a detailed overview on SSBE framework and highlights its importance in fulfilling life essentials in the contemporary era. Also, discussed possible avenues for improvement of SSBE to mediate effective resource recycling to achieve circular bioeconomy.
Photovoltaic (PV) panel manufacturing is increasing worldwide, which subsequently increases the amount of waste PV. This study proposes to recycle waste PV using organic solvent delamination followed by downstream thermal and leaching procedures. Firstly, experimental data is obtained using small commercial modules by replicating a recycling route taken from the literature. Based on the experimental results, life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) are applied to evaluate the experimental and optimized industry scale processes. Results show that the main profitable recycling avenues are for aluminum frame and junction box removal; and that downstream processes can separate and recover all the remaining materials, but not profitably. The laboratory and high-throughput-optimized processes, considering the median costs and revenues, have a net cost of 29.00 and 3.30 USD per module, respectively. The complete recovery of materials using the proposed method is unlikely to be profitable and this may only be achievable where labor is not expensive. Alternatively, the complete recycling of waste PV could be made economically viable by reducing process time, increasing automation and/or providing financial subsidies. The environmental analysis, however, shows that the optimized process modelled here has a positive net environmental impact. The results are also compared against the cost/environmental impact of landfilling such waste. In summary, the proposed recycling route is capable of completely recovering the main materials in waste PV (aluminum frames, junction box, silver, copper tabbing, silicon, backsheet and unbroken glass) and can have a positive environmental impact, but it is not economically profitable.
The rise in the utilization of solar energy for energy generation has grown exponentially throughout the past decade. By the end of 2019, the global total installed solar capacity is close to 600 GW (Gigawatts). This share is only expected to rise.
Although the current life of solar panels of about 25 years is a good figure to persist the interests of investors, a higher potential is anticipated for PV panels. This results in the sheer interest in investment in the potential recycling of solar panels, which is leading to demand and the need for policy development that regulates the responsibilities of stakeholders. This motive was led by a serious concern regarding the anticipated amount of waste that the disposal of solar panels would resort to. This results in the need of recycling of solar panels which is a relatively modern and growing phenomenon.
This article aims to provide a detailed understanding of the existing policies involved in recycling silicon based PV panels currently being employed. In addition, the world's current position on policy issues regarding the recycling of solar panels will be discussed.
The volume of spent photovoltaic (PV) panels is expected to grow exponentially in future decades. Substantial material resources such as silver (Ag), copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and glass can potentially be recovered from silicon-based PV panels. In this paper, we targeted the recovery of Cu and Ag from a cell sheet separated to a glass panel from a spent PV panel. The technical feasibility of a novel electrical dismantling method was experimentally studied. This method employed a pulsed power technology that releases high energy in a short time. It allowed a selective separation of the Cu/Ag wires from the sheet once per discharge in water. The experimental results indicated that 95.6% of the total Cu and 17.2% of the total Ag in the sample were successfully separated from the cell sheet using a 3.5-kJ capacitor bank circuit. Moreover, 3.66% of the total Si in the sample was contaminated by the separated Cu/Ag particles from the cell sheet, mainly by shockwaves generated by plasma expansion, and some of them formed a compound with Cu and Ag by eutectic melting, resulting in low liberation. At the lower energy of 3.5 kJ, eutectic melting of Cu and Ag with Si was more suppressed than 4.6 kJ, and 94.3% of Cu and 77.5% of Ag in the separated particles were liberated, which would be acceptable for further wet gravity and/or shape separation of Cu and Ag.
In the recent past, technological advances in the solar photovoltaic (PV) sector have accelerated, leading to managerial problems for the end-of-life (EOL) disposal of solar photovoltaic e-waste. Developed countries have initiated management systems while India is presently in the photovoltaic panel installation stage, with no concrete strategy to manage the resulting e-waste. This study undertakes an assessment of the magnitude of the issue in India, using a forecasting model that projects the amount of waste generated by EOL solar PV panels and its balance of system (BOS) using Weibull reliability function for panel failure. The study also estimates the amount of raw material recovered after recycling to contribute to the circular economy of EOL PV. In the study, an empirical estimation shows that solar PV installations in India will generate 347.5 GW by 2030. The model evaluates that between 2020 and 2047, about 2.95 billion tonnes of e-waste will be generated in India from solar PV systems, including critical metals worth 645 trillion USD, of which 70% (worth 452 trillion USD) can be recovered using state-of-the-art recycling technology. The present study sheds light on maximizing resource efficiency, by creating facilities for a circular economy-based supply chain to handle the massive e-waste generated by solar PV panels in India.