Agriculture in the Baksan Gorge of the Central Caucasus, Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia

Abstract

No agriculture is possible without soil. This article reviews available data on the soils of the Baksan Gorge located in the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Russia. The research objective was to collect and analyze information on the soil composition and crop yields in this region of the Central Caucasus.
The review covered the last five years of scientific publications cited in Scopus, Web of Science, and Elibrary. It also featured contemporary and archival documents on the soil composition and periglacial agriculture in the Baksan Gorge.
The agriculture and cattle breeding started in the Central Caucasus in the first millennium BC when the local peoples began to develop these lands as highland pastures and, subsequently, for agricultural farming. During the second millennium BC, crop production became one of the most important economic sectors in the Central Caucasus. Corn, barley, wheat, and millet were the main agricultural crops in the Baksan Gorge. Millet has always been a traditional Kabardian crop, and millet farming occupied the largest flatland areas. Barley was the staple crop in the highlands. Currently, the list of local staple crops includes corn, wheat, and sunflower. Barley, oats, peas, potatoes, vegetables, berries, nuts, grapes, and annual herbs are also popular. The past fifteen years have seen an extensive development of intensive horticulture in the Baksan Gorge.
Agricultural ecology and production problems depend on the localization of agriculture in the Central Caucasus. This research reviewed data on the effect of soil composition on the yield and value of agricultural crops in the Baksan Gorge of the Central Caucasus.

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Foods and Raw Materials. 2023;11(1) ISSN 2308-4057 (Print)
ISSN 2310-9599 (Online)
Review Article Available online at ht tp://jfrm.ru/en
Open Access https://doi.org/10.21603/2308- 4057-2023-1-561
https://elibrary.ru/ABDXKI
Agriculture in the Baksan Gorge of the Central Caucasus,
Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia
Evgeny V. Abakumov1,* , Rustam Kh. Tembotov2
1 St. Petersburg University , St. Petersburg, Russia
2 Tembotov Institute of Ecology of Mountain Territories RAS , Nalchik, Russia
* e-mail: e_abakumov@mail.ru
Received 09.06.2022; Revised 29.06.2022; Accepted 04.07.2022; Published online 30.01.2023
Abstract:
No agriculture is possible without soil. This article reviews available data on the soils of the Baksan Gorge located in the
Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Russia. The research objective was to collect and analyze information on the soil composition
and crop yields in this region of the Central Caucasus.
The review covered the last ve years of scientic publications cited in Scopus, Web of Science, and Elibrary. It also featured
contemporary and archival documents on the soil composition and periglacial agriculture in the Baksan Gorge.
The agriculture and cattle breeding star ted in the Central Caucasus in the rst millennium BC when the local peoples began to
develop these lands as highland pastures and, subsequently, for agricultural farming. During the second millennium BC, crop
production became one of the most important economic sectors in the Central Caucasus. Corn, barley, wheat, and millet were the
main agricultural crops in the Baksan Gorge. Millet has always been a traditional Kabardian crop, and millet farming occupied
the largest atland areas. Barley was the staple crop in the highlands. Currently, the list of local staple crops includes corn, wheat,
and sunower. Barley, oats, peas, potatoes, vegetables, berries, nuts, grapes, and annual herbs are also popular. The past fteen
years have seen an extensive development of intensive horticulture in the Baksan Gorge.
Agricultural ecology and production problems depend on the localization of agriculture in the Central Caucasus. This research
reviewed data on the eect of soil composition on the yield and value of agricultural crops in the Baksan Gorge of the Central
Caucasus.
Keywords: Land use, crops, soil, Central Caucasus, Baksan Gorge
Funding: This research was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation
(Minobrnauka) as part of state grant for the development of the world-class Scientic Center Agrotechnologies of the Future,
agreement No. 075-15-2022-322, April 22, 2022.
Please cite this article in press as: Abakumov EV, Tembotov RKh. Agriculture in the Baksan Gorge of the Central Caucasus,
Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia. Foods and Raw Materials. 2023;11(1):129–140. https://doi.org/10.21603/2308- 4057-2023-1-561
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture has expanded into hard-to-reach regions
with a harsh climate [1–3]. This global trend is a result
of soil depletion and climate change, which reduce the
agro-ecological potential of traditional agricultural
regions [4, 5]. Russia is extremely heterogeneous in
terms of food security [6]. Russian North Caucasus
provides itself with agricultural products by more than
80% [7]. Diversication of agricultural production in
the regions is an urgent task in the current conditions
of import substitution [8]. As a result, some regions
may experience diculties in complying with FAO
food security standards [9]. In this regard, agricultural
science focuses on the fallow soils in the Russian Arctic
and other hard-to-reach regions [10–12].
The current rapid deglaciation of the Central
Caucasus has become a source of new lands [13–16].
The deglaciated areas demonstrate good projective
plant cover and herbal diversity [17]. The farmers of the
Central Caucasus use these new territories as pastures,
hayelds, and cultivated lands, thus increasing the local
planted acreage.
Sustainable soil development and environmental
management are of highest importance in Russia
because soil degradation has already destroyed a third

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of its soil resources [18]. Soil depletion is a relevant
issue for the Kabardino-Balkarian part of the Central
Caucasus. At present, the available lands of the
Kabardino-Balkarian Republic cover 1247 thousand
hectares, which is 3.5% of the total available lands of
the North Caucasian Economic Region. Agricultural
land occupies 627.6 thousand hectares, or 50.3% of the
active area, including 284.5 thousand hectares (22.8%)
of arable lands. More than 38% of agricultural lands
are aected by water and wind erosion, as well as
salinization [19].
The research objective was to describe the periglacial
agriculture in the Baksan Gorge of Kabardino-Balkaria.
The authors analyzed the agricultural history in the
Central Caucasus and studied the local soils and their
agricultural application under the harsh orographic
and climatic conditions of the Central Caucasus. The
research also revealed various aspects of food security
in the Central Caucasus.
STUDY OBJECTS AND METHODS
The research covered ve years of scientic
publications in domestic and foreign peer-reviewed
journals on the soil and agriculture of the Central
Caucasus. The search parameters included English
keywords for Web of Science and Scopus databases and
Russian ones for the Elibrary database. The study also
featured monographs on the development of Caucasian
agriculture. The methods included data analysis,
systematization, and generalization.
The paper also introduces some results of laboratory
physicochemical studies of the Baksan soils, as well as
photographs of soil sections obtained by eld research.
RESULTS AN D DISCUSSION
Agricultural history of the Central Caucasus. The
early rst millennium BC saw an active rise of highland
tribal communities, who began to develop mountain
pastures [20]. The North-Caucasian highlands, with
their steep slopes and rocky soils, were unsuitable for
crop farming but provided excellent pastures for cattle
breeding. For centuries, cattle provided the highlanders
with everything they needed. Cattle breeding was
the main subsistence in the ancient economy of the
North-Caucasian peoples [21]. The progress of crop
agriculture was less prominent. However, it was also
an important sector of the Central-Caucasian economy
in the second millennium BC. The arable plow farming
was possible in the atlands, but highland crop farming
developed less intensively [22]. The unfavorable
climatic conditions resulted in infertile permafrost and
seasonally freezing soils. Together with the complex
terrain, they were responsible for the poor agricultural
development of the Central-Caucasian highlands. The
rst arable farming reached these areas together with
the general technological development and required a lot
of draft power. Nevertheless, crop farming was always
part of the ancient economy in all the gorge areas of the
Central Caucasus.
Plow farming found little application in the Central-
Caucasian highlands with its harsh climate and complex
terrain. Hoe farming with its articial terraces was
more ecient. All suitable lands were subjected to
agricultural processing, including capes, watershed
hill tops, thirty-degree slopes, etc. Steep slopes were
terraced to provide extra acreage. In fact, terrace
agriculture was practiced in the Central Caucasus until
the middle of the 20th cent ury.
Terracing was also popular in other parts of the
Caucasus, especially in Dagestan [23]. Agricultural
terracing has always been the optimal solution for hilly
and mountainous terrains all over the world [24–27].
Ancient Italy was especially famous for its terraces,
which proved to be the most eective form of land
cultivation in the harsh conditions because terraced
slopes prevented soil degradation [28, 29].
In the Central Caucasus, some terraces were as big
as 1–1.5 hectares. The bottom of the terrace consisted
of large stones and boulders, followed by small stones
and yellow clay. The upper layer consisted of imported
soil and humus, which were compacted by sheep and
cow herds. This method provided the maximal moisture
retention. Terrace construction depended on such
factors as soil composition, slope angle, vegetation,
etc. The terraces performed two important functions:
they optimized the relief by reducing the chance of
avalanches and mudows, as well as increased in the
acreage [30].
The economic structure of the Central Caucasus
has always depended on its topography. The Central
Caucasus can be divided into atlands, foothills,
highlands, and alpine areas. The highlands and alpine
areas had very little land suitable for plowing, which
made the life of the local people a constant struggle
with nature. It took the local tribes superhuman eorts
to turn the mountain slopes into plowed elds. They
literally had to conquer every piece of land from nature
by chopping down forests, uprooting shrubs, and
removing stone boulders. Irrigation and soil fertilization
were also extremely eort-consuming, but the gorges of
the Central Caucasus eventually developed a complex
network of irrigation canals [31].
Despite the enormous eorts to increase productivity,
the yields were still small. The seeds vs. harvest ratio
was 1:3, 1:5, or even 1:2 in lean years. Sometimes,
farmers even failed to reach a 1:1 ratio [32]. The
atlanders used a heavy limber plow, dragged by three
or four pairs of oxen. Highlanders preferred a wooden
light plow with an iron share. This tool provided shallow
plowing as the plow could loosen only the very surface
soil, but this method was more rational because the
fertile soil layer was thin anyway [33].
Corn, barley, wheat, and millet were the staple
agricultural crops in the Central Caucasus. Most at-
lands were allotted for millet, a traditional Kabardian
crop. Millet covered almost 40% of the entire ac-
reage [22, 34]. Barley was the staple crop in the
highlands. Its varieties were frost-resistant and low-

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maintenance in terms of soil because of the harsh
climate with its frozen or seasonally freezing soils.
Wheat did not survive in the Central-Caucasian
highlands because it failed to ripen during the short
warm season [35].
Glacial dynamics and expansion of arable soil
areas in the Central Caucasus. Like many other
mountain-glacier regions these days, the Caucasus
has been experiencing a stable deglaciation for several
thousand years. Glaciers all over the world are gradually
decreasing in number, area, and volume. Elbrus is the
largest mountain glacier in Russia. It includes 16 major
glacial streams [36]. In 2007, its total ice sheet area was
120 km2. Elbrus has two big glaciers. The Big Azau is
located on the southern slope. It is 9.35 km in length
with a total area of 20.2 km2. The vast Jikiuankez
ice eld on the northern slope consists of two glaciers,
Birjalychiran and Chungurchatchiran. Its total area is
23.4 k m2. The Elbrus ice cap covers several altitudes,
descending from the peaks (5642 m) to the bottom of the
Big Azau glacier (2542 m) [37, 38].
The rst instrumental survey of the entire Elbrus
glacier took place in 1887–1890. It resulted in a
topographic map at a scale of 1:42 000 [39]. This map
served as ground zero for every subsequent glacier
survey in this region. A lot of data on the Elbrus
deglaciation are available for 1957–1997, when the
Elbrus glaciers shrank by 12.5 km2, i.e., an average of
0.25 km2 per year. Between 1887 and 2007, the area of
Elbrus glaciers decreased by 20% [13, 40, 41]. Climate
change is not the only enemy of the Caucasian glaciers:
cryoconites reduce the surface albedo and thereby
accelerate the melting [14, 15].
The mass balance of glaciers on the southern Elbrus
dropped by half over the past two decades and amounted
to 63 cm w.e., i.e., water equivalent. Between 2010 and
2018, its average value dropped to 90.4 cm w.e. The ice
and perennial rns accumulated in the second half of the
XX century are melting at an unprecedented rate: they
are almost exhausted over a large area at the altitude
of 3700–4000 m. The glacier feeding boundary has
risen by 200 m, and the rn consumption is increasing.
The ablation area has melted down to lava ridges. The
cumulative mass balance has reached its minimum value
over the past 50 years [42].
As the Central-Caucasian glaciers continue to retreat,
the periglacial landscapes of the Baksan Gorge continue
to grow. The periglacial Bashkara area increased
signicantly in 1996–2006. In the ten years it took the
grass line to move 10–20 m up the slope, the projective
cover and herbal diversity also increased dramati-
cally [17]. Residents of the Baksan Gorge use the former
glacier areas that are now covered by grass. These
territories still freeze in winter or remain cryosolic, but
they serve as pastures and hayelds in warm seasons.
In their turn, the lands that were previously used as
pastures and hayelds gradually become arable. The
agricultural area is expanding, which is very important
in mountainous areas where arable soil is scarce.
Soils of the Baksan Gorge and their agricultural
application. The Baksan Gorge boasts a wide variety of
geomorphological forms and climatic conditions, which
aected the local soil-forming processes and agriculture.
Foothill farmers mostly grow wheat, corn, and sunower
(Fig. 1), not to mention fruit and vegetables. The
highland and alpine areas with their permafrost and
seasonal freezing develop meat and dairy farming,
sheep breeding, etc., and the local agricultural lands are
mostly pastures and hayelds [43, 44].
The soils of the Baksan Gorge are diverse, depending
on the altitude and the bank of the Baksan River [44–46].
The right bank of the Baksan River is covered by
forests of pine, pine and birch, birch and pine, and birch.
They host a wide variety of mountain forest soils (Fig. 2).
Mountain forest-meadow soils develop under the
birch crooked forests that cover the northern slopes.
These soils have a prominent humus-accumulative
horizon and residual weathering. The mechanical
Figure 1 Crops cultivated in the foothills of the Baksan Gorge (photo by R.Kh. Temboto v)

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composition reects the redistribution of chemical
elements along the prole. Table 1 contains some phy-
sical and chemical characteristics of mountain forest-
meadow soils dened as part of this research. These
indicators are similar to mountain forest-meadow soils
in other regions of Russia. For instance, the humus
content in the South Urals is 5–7%, and the soil is
slightly acidic. In the South-Eastern Transbaikalia, the
humus content reaches 8–9%, and the soil is slightly
acidic, too [47]. Mountain forest-meadow soils are of
little agricultural use since they occur mostly in forests.
In places like the Baksan Gorge, mountain forest-
meadow soils are available for grazing and haymaking,
and few areas are free from forest vegetation.
Mountain brown forest soils are common in the
highlands and in the alpine forests between 800 and
180 0 m above sea level, on watershed hill tops, and on
the northern slopes of various steepness. These soils are
formed by eluvial rocks and talus, e.g., sandstone, clay,
limestone, and granite. Mountain brown forest soils
have no distinct genetic horizons. They are relatively
uniform in color: brown or brownish-fallow. The humus
content depends on the depth: its powdery and granular
structure becomes nutty and lumpy in B-horizon. The
thickness of the humus prole ranges from 23 to 38 cm,
while its mechanical composition varies from heavy to
light loamy.
Table 1 features the main physical and chemical
characteristics of the mountain brown forest soils
of the Baksan Gorge. The dense forestation of the
terrain prevents its agricultural application: only forest
meadows can be used as hayelds. In the Kaliningrad
Region, however, mountain brown forest soils are used
not only for pastures and hayelds, but also for arable
land [48].
Mountain dark-grey forest soils develop in the
forest-steppe zone of low-altitude mountains covered
by post-forest meadows and broad-leaved forests under
partially percolative water regime. The parent-rock
material is represented by carbonate clays, talus, and
heavy-clay loams. Mountain dark-grey forest soils
have a weak morphological dierentiation of organic
matter in the upper prole, thick A-horizon humus,
and no morphologically pronounced podzolization.
The A-horizon humus is 25 cm thick. The mechanical
composition is loamy with fractions of ne sand and
silt. Table 1 features the main physical and chemical
properties of mountain dark-grey forest soils of the
Baksan Gorge. In other regions, dark-grey forest soils
have a similar humus content (4.7–8%) from slightly
acidic to neutral [49]. In the Baksan Gorge, forest-
free dark-grey forest soils are used for crop farming,
gardening, hayelds, or pastures.
Figure 3 illustrates the mountain-meadow soils in the
left-bank alpine part of the gorge, covered with under
alpine and subalpine vegetation.
The mountain-meadow alpine soils of the Baksan
Gorge appeared under alpine meadows under percolative
water regime and low temperatures. These soils are
located in the alpine zone, on slopes of various steepness
Figure 2 Proles of mountain forest soils in the Baksan Gorge: mountain forest-meadow soil (A), mountain brown forest soil (B),
and Mountain dark-grey forest soil (C) (photo by R.Kh. Tembotov)
a b c
Table 1 Mountain woodland soils of the Baksan Gorge: physical and chemical parameters of upper horizons (0–20 cm)
Soil рН (H2O) Density, g/cm3Humus
Content, % Stocks, t/ha
Mountain forest-meadow 6.0 – 5.9 –
Mountain brown forest 6.6 0.9 12.1 199
Mountain dark-grey forest 6.3 0.90 7.4 148

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Abakumov E.V. et al. Foods and Raw Materials. 2023;11(1):129–140
and exposure. The incomplete set of genetic horizons
in the prole is their specic feature. The A-horizon
humus prole is up to 20 cm thick. It has a dark-brown
color and a powdery structure. The underlying horizons
are yellowish-brown and structureless. The parent rock
is represented by acidic residual deposits and talus.
The soil prole is rock-debris and stones, while the
mechanical composition is from medium loamy to light
loamy.
Table 2 presents the mean values of the physical
and chemical characteristics of this type of soils. The
mountain-meadow alpine soils of the Western Caucasus
have the same acidity (4.4) as those of the Central
Caucasus, but a higher humus content (14.3%). The high
humus content is a direct result of the humid climate and
the corresponding patterns of organic transformation.
The decomposition of organic matter occurs slowly,
resulting in a robust accumulation of semi-decomposed
organic matter [50]. The Baksan mountain-meadow
alpine soils serve as summer pastures.
Mountain-meadow subalpine soils are to be found
on the slopes of the Lateral (Bokovoi) and Rocky
(Skalisty) Ridges of various steepness. In the subalpine
bioclimatic zone, they develop at low temperatures
beneath subalpine and post-forest meadow vegetation
under percolative water regime. The parent rocks are
represented by unsaturated siallitic weathering detritus
of non-carbonate dense sedimentary and massive
crystalline rocks. As a rule, they are residual deposits
and talus of non-carbonate bedrocks, with accidental
loose sediments. Mountain-meadow subalpine soils
develop in the cold and humid alpine climate. They
are usually medium-thick: 20–40 cm. The soil has
no distinct genetic horizons, the transitions between
the horizons are smooth. The upper horizons are dark
brown with a gray tint, which changes to light brown
downwards.
Table 2 presents the mean values of the physical and
chemical characteristics of these soils. In the Western
Caucasus, mountain-meadow subalpine soils are more
acidic. Unlike alpine soils, they are more humus-
rich than in the Baksan Gorge [50]. In other regions,
mountain-meadow alpine and subalpine soils serve as
distant pastures [51]. In the Baksan Gorge, they can be
used hayelds or pastures.
Mountain meadow-steppe subalpine soils appear
in xeromorphic areas among the mountain-meadow soils
of the southern, southeastern, and eastern slopes of the
Lateral (Bokovoi) and Rocky (Skalisty) Ridges of the
Baksan Gorge. The parent-rock material is weathering
detritus of dense sedimentary non-carbonate rocks, and
the soil cover is represented by combinations of soils
of dierent thickness, stone content, and removal. The
soil prole ranges from 20–25 to 40–50 cm. It is grass-
covered, with no distinct horizons. A-horizon is dark
brown, changing to yellowish-brown downwards; the
compaction is weak. Table 2 presents the mean values
of the physical and chemical characteristics of this type
of soil. In other Caucasian areas, mountain meadow-
Table 2 Mountain-meadow soils of the Baksan Gorge: physical and chemical parameters of upper horizons (0–20 cm)
Soil рН (H2O) Density, g/cm3Humus
Content, % Stocks, t/ha
Mountain-meadow alpine 4.4 0.7 11.7 162
Mountain-meadow subalpine 5.7 0.66 15.3 202
Mountain meadow-steppe subalpine 5.6 0.95 13.6 256
a b c
Figure 3 Proles of mountain-meadow soils in the Baksan Gorge: mountain-meadow alpine soil (a), mountain-meadow subalpine
soil (b), and mountain meadow-steppe subalpine soil (c) (photo by R.Kh. Tembotov)

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steppe soils are more alkaline (pH 6.1), but their humus
content (9.2%) is lower than in the Baksan Gorge [52].
Mountain meadow-steppe subalpine soils are used as
pastures in the Baksan Gorge and in the rest of the
Caucasus.
Figure 4 shows mountain sod-calcareous, mountain-
meadow chernozem-likes, and mountain leached cher-
nozem soils that developed in the highlands and foothills
of the Baksan Gorge, in the belt of steppe meadows, and
in the meadow steppes proper.
Mountain sod-calcareous soils are common in the
forest-steppe zone on the watershed hill tops, as well as
on slopes of various steepness and exposure. These soils
develop on less weathered and thin limestone residual
deposits and talus. They have no distinct prole, as
well as a lot of rubble and rocks. The humus horizon is
dark and granular or lumpy-granular. The mechanical
composition is medium loamy with fractions of coarse
and ne dust.
Table 3 presents the mean values of the physical and
chemical characteristics of mountain sod-calcareous
soils, determined as part of this research. These soils
are quite suitable for grain crops. However, the climate
is unfavorable, and these soils are located on the steep
slopes of the Baksan Gorge. As a result, they serve only
as hayelds and pastures. Sod-calcareous soils make
excellent vineyards in humid boreal and subboreal
conditions [53].
Mountain-meadow chernozem-likes soils develop
in the bottom subalpine belt, covered by steppe
subalpine meadow and meadow vegetation. The humus
horizon is dark gray, with a brownish tint. Their ne-
grained structure changes to ne cloddy downwards.
These soils are well-compacted and porous. They
contain a lot of roots, rubble, and rocks, the number of
which increases with depth. The humus prole is 43–
48 cm in the thick subtypes, 34.8 cm in the medium-
thick subtypes, and 18–12 cm in the thin subtypes. The
mechanical composition is medium to heavy loamy.
Table 3 presents the mean values of the physical and
chemical properties of mountain-meadow chernozem-
likes soils. In the Western and Eastern Caucasus, these
soils are neutral or slightly alkaline (pH 6–7.1), with
a very high humus content (12–15.3%), like in the
Central Caucasus [54]. These soils possess a rather high
potential fertility. However, they are used as highly
productive hayelds and pastures all over the Caucasus
because the harsh climate and complex terrain prevent
the local farmers from using them for crop cultivation.
Mountain leached chernozems are located on the
northern slope of the Chalk (Melovoy) Range. They
appear in the mountain-steppe belt, some 700–1200 m
above sea level, which is under meadow steppes and
steppes proper. These soils are a result of partially
percolative water regime. They also develop on
watershed hill tops and slopes of dierent steepness,
mainly in the northwestern, northeastern, and northern
Table 3 Highland and foothill soils of the Baksan Gorge: physical and chemical parameters of upper horizons (0–20 cm)
Soil рН(H2O) Density, g/cm3Humus
Content, % Stocks, t/ha
Mountain sod-calcareous 7.7 0.70 13.2 178
Mountain-meadow chernozem-likes 6.9 0.90 11.0 197
Mountain leached chernozems 7.7 1.01 10.2 197
Mountain leached agricultural chernozems 7.9 1.21 6.5 105
Figure 4 Proles of highland and foothill soils of the Baksan Gorge: sod-calcareous soil (a), mountain-meadow chernozem-likes
soil (b), and mountain leached chernozem (c) (photo by R.Kh. Tembotov)
a b c

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Abakumov E.V. et al. Foods and Raw Materials. 2023;11(1):129–140
exposures. They are located on the residual deposits and
talus of limestones, calcareous sandstones, carbonate
loams, and clays. Mountain leached chernozems have
great agricultural prospects. Their properties make it
possible to use them for all zonal crops and perennial
plantations.
Table 3 shows the physical and chemical properties
of these soils. Mountain leached chernozems are the
main arable soils of the Baksan Gorge. That is why
Table 3 also presents some physical and chemical
properties of mountain agrogenic leached chernozems.
A comparative analysis of natural and arable mountain
leached chernozems demonstrates that agricultural
use results in a greater compaction of the upper soil
horizons and a signicant loss of humus [55]. The
entire soil prole is important for agricultural crops
in the Baksan Gorge, especially for sunower and
corn. According to Khakunova et al., the prole chan-
ges its physical and chemical parameters downwards
(Fig. 5) [55]. The humus content goes down sharply, like
in leached chernozems elsewhere [56, 57].
Food security in the Central Caucasus. The entire
human history is a never-ending search for new methods
to meet the basic needs to sustain society, especially in
food production. As a result, the existing agricultural
systems are adapted to a particular geographical context.
They maintain a fragile balance between the basic
human needs and the sustainability of the resource [58].
However, people have been trying to adapt the
environment for their needs [59]. Extensive agricultural
practices changed the landscape, thus becoming a
multifunctional agent [60]. This role is especially
typical of mountain agriculture with its low-productivity
and high-quality focus. These agricultural systems
are dominated by grazing and perennial crops, e.g.,
orchards, vineyards, etc. As a rule, mountain regions
have fewer agricultural holdings compared to the
national averages. Geographic constraints reduce labor
productivity in the highlands by 28% compared to less
favorable areas and by 40% compared to valley farming.
The Federal Law on Organic Products and
Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of the
Russian Federation was adopted in 2018 and entered
into force on January 1, 2020 [61]. This law obliges
all Russian regions to localize agricultural products
and introduce the best organic farming practices. The
transition to a highly productive and green agricultu-
ral economy requires a deep analysis of soil resources
of fallow and arable lands, including those that
appeared as a result of deglaciation [62, 63]. Russian
active and fallow agroecosystems are unique systems
represented by models of development, degradation,
progradation, and evolution of biogeocenosis in space
and time as a result of the multidirectional agrogenic
impact that occurred in the 20th century [64, 65]. The
Central Caucasus is of particular interest because the
region is currently experiencing a turbulent agricultu-
ral development of lands available after deglacia-
tion [13, 17, 37]. The Baksan lands possess an enormous
food security potential for the entire Central Caucasus.
The local farmers are eager to develop the ice-free areas
as pastures, hayelds, and crop farms, thus increasing
the acreage in the region.
Mountain-meadow ecosystems are essential for the
sustainable development of mountain areas as providers
of various ecosystem services, e.g., regulation, culture,
food, etc. [66–68]. Long-term overgrazing leads to soil
degradation of mountain meadows, a lower humus con-
tent in the fertile layer, a greater compaction of the
upper horizons, a lower humidity, and a change in
microbial indicators [69, 70]. However, no grazing
also destroys the biodiversity of mountain meadows,
increases tree and shrub vegetation, develops exces-
sive turness, and promotes plants of low nutritional
value [71, 72].
The eective management of mountain meadows
should be based on sustainable consumption of natural
resources, i.e., an optimal ratio between the economic
use of resources, their renewal rate, biodiversity, and
ecosystem integrity [73–75]. A combination of various
Figure 5 Mountain leached chernozems in the Baksan Gorge: changes in the physical and chemical parameters
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
789
Sampling depth, cm
pH(H2O)
arable natural
0
20
40
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140
0.9 1.4
Sampling depth, cm
Density, g/cm3
пахотные естественные
0
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120
140
0 5 10
Sampling depth, cm
Humus content, %
пахотные естественные
0
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140
789
Sampling depth, cm
pH(H2O)
arable natural
0
20
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120
140
0.9 1.4
Sampling depth, cm
Density, g/cm3
пахотные естественные
0
20
40
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80
100
120
140
0 5 10
Sampling depth, cm
Humus content, %
пахотные естественные
0
20
40
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100
120
140
0 5 10
Sampling depth, cm
Humus content, %
пахотные естественные
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
789
Sampling depth, cm
pH(H2O)
arable natural
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.9 1.4
Sampling depth, cm
Density, g/cm3
пахотные естественные
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 5 10
Sampling depth, cm
Humus content, %
пахотные естественные
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
789
Sampling depth, cm
pH(H2O)
arable natural
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.9 1.4
Sampling depth, cm
Density, g/cm3
пахотные естественные
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 5 10
Sampling depth, cm
Humus content, %
пахотные естественные
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
789
Sampling depth, cm
pH(H2O)
arable natural
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.9 1.4
Sampling depth, cm
Density, g/cm3
пахотные естественные
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 5 10
Sampling depth, cm
Humus content, %
пахотные естественные

136
Abakumov E.V. et al. Foods and Raw Materials. 2023;11(1):129–140
plant, soil, landscape, economic, and organizational
indicators helps recognize the stages of pasture
change in mountain meadow ecosystems [76–78]. This
system needs optimal indicators to assess the state
of a particular meadow under certain environmental
conditions.
The stages of pasture digression should correspond
with particular grazing rates. The lack of clear ideas
about this correlation is especially relevant for the
highlands of the Central Caucasus. The scale of pasture
pressure in the region is so great that researchers
recognize all mountain meadows in the Central and
North Caucasus as semi-natural pasture ecosystems that
have formed after centuries of constant grazing [79].
The rental land use, which is currently operating in the
territory of Kabardino-Balkaria, aects food security
in the mountain-meadow ecosystems of the Baksan
Gorge [80]. This situation is also typical of other
regions with pronounced diversication and numerous
small farms, especially in the Carpathians [81, 82]. In
the Central Caucasus, this type of land use leads to
unsystematic exploitation of agricultural land [83].
The Central Caucasus is an intensively developing
tourist and recreational cluster. The resulting labor
reorientation of the local population means that agri-
culture does not attract young people any more. The
same crisis of traditional trade is observed in moun-
tainous regions all over the world [84]. The agricultural
development of the Baksan valleys and foothills suer
from the general improper disposal of land resources
in Kabardino-Balkaria. The fertile soils of the Baksan
valleys and foothills are now allocated for intensive
orchard farming [85]. A more rational approach to
Central-Caucasian agriculture requires more fertile at
soils for grain crops, while medium and high-intensity
adaptive gardens should be cultivated in the foothills
and forest-mountain zones or on hillsides and slopes that
are unsuitable for arable land because of the complex
terrain and harsh climate.
CONCLUSION
The recent decades have seen a rapid deglaciation
of the Central Caucasus. On the one hand, such
an unprecedented deglaciation rate is bad for the
environment. On the other hand, the area of periglacial
landscapes is growing. The new ice-free areas are
undergoing an intensive agricultural development.
Although they are still aected by seasonal freezing
and permafrost, they can serve as pastures and hay-
elds in the summer. The lands that were previously
used as pastures and hayelds gradually turn into
arable land, which signicantly increases the amount of
acreage. This expansion is extremely important for the
Central Caucasus, where the amount of arable land is
extremely low.
Kabardino-Balkaria is a predominantly agrarian
republic with about 55% of arable land. Horticulture has
become very popular here in recent years. The repub-
lic plants intensive and innovative orchards and fruit
tree nurseries. Traditionally, Kabardino-Balkaria is one
of the ve leading regions in the country in this
sphere.
The main threat to food security in the region is
that 80% of agricultural products come from its
1500 farms, 6500 land holders and sole entrepreneurs,
and more than 115 000 personal subsidiary plots. As a
rule, arable land is used on a short-term lease, and small
farmers can provide no rational crop rotation, no proper
agricultural technology, and no fertilizers. Moreover,
the local population gradually turns to the robust sphere
of recreation and tourism, which discourages the young
generation from engaging in agricultural business.
CONTRIBUTION
The authors were equally involved in the research
and are equally responsible for any potential plagiarism.
E.V. Abakumov supervised the project and wrote the
manuscript. R.Kh. Tembotov collected the materials,
performed the analytical work, and wrote the
manuscript.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no competing
nancial interests or personal relationships that
could have appeared to inuence the work reported
in this paper.
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ORCID IDs
Evgeny V. Abakumov https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5248-9018
Rustam Kh. Tembotov https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2342-4653