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i
FROM
DISCRIMINATION
TO
INTEGRATION
A History of Chinese Immigration in Canada
PENG SUN
ii
FROM DISCRIMINATION TO INTEGRATION
A History of Chinese Immigration in Canada
PENG SUN
iii
PREFACE
As we reflect on the intricate tapestry of Canada's history, one significant thread
weaved throughout is the story of Chinese immigration and its evolution from a
troubled past of discrimination to the inspiring journey of integration. It is with great
honor and dedication that I, Peng Sun, present this book as a testament to the
resilience, struggles, and triumphs of the Chinese-Canadian community.
The purpose of this book is to delve into the historical trajectory of Chinese
immigration to Canada, examining the various phases that have shaped the
experiences of Chinese immigrants and their descendants. By investigating the push
and pull factors that influenced migration, the chapters uncover the early waves of
Chinese immigrants in the 1850s to the 1900s. We explore the profound impact of the
Chinese on the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the formation of
communities, and the rich religious and cultural practices that took root.
However, the historical narrative is incomplete without confronting the
challenges and discrimination that characterized the Exclusion Era from 1923 to 1947.
By examining the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 and its consequences, this book
sheds light on the hardships endured by Chinese communities, while also revealing
their strength through resistance and activism.
Moving forward, the repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1947 brought significant
changes to Canadian immigration policies. We closely investigate how these policy
shifts facilitated the arrival of more Chinese immigrants, exploring the growth and
transformation of Chinatowns, the role of Chinese-Canadian businesses, and the
impact of immigration on Canadian society and politics.
The chapters extend into the contemporary era, exploring Chinese immigration
since 1967, where the points system played a pivotal role in shaping immigration
trends. We delve into the challenges and settlement experiences of recent Chinese
immigrants, their contributions to Canadian society, and their evolving identity and
community building.
This book also celebrates the richness of Chinese-Canadian culture, examining
the development of a unique identity influenced by historical and cultural legacies.
Chinese-Canadian organizations, institutions, and notable figures are spotlighted,
showcasing their contributions to Canadian society and culture.
The journey of Chinese immigrants in Canada has not been without its trials,
including persistent racism and integration challenges. As we reflect on the past, we
contemplate the implications for the future of Chinese-Canadian relations and the
importance of fostering an inclusive and cohesive society.
The research and insights presented in this book are drawn from a wide range of
historical records, academic studies, and first-hand accounts, aiming to provide
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readers with a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of Chinese immigration in
Canada. It is my hope that this work will not only contribute to the field of Canadian
history but also foster empathy and appreciation for the diverse contributions of
Chinese-Canadians to the fabric of our nation.
In closing, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to all those who have contributed to
this endeavor, whether through support, guidance, or sharing their experiences. May
this book serve as a bridge of knowledge and understanding, inviting readers to
explore the multifaceted history of Chinese immigration in Canada and inspiring us to
build a more inclusive and harmonious society for all.
Peng Sun
Author
v
CONTENTS
Preface ......................................................................................................................... iii
Introduction ..................................................................................................................1
Purpose of the Book ....................................................................................... 1
Scope of the Book .......................................................................................... 2
Brief Overview of Chinese Immigration to Canada ...................................... 3
Chapter I. Early Chinese Immigration to Canada (1850s-1900s) ........................... 6
1.1 Push and Pull Factors ............................................................................... 6
1.1.1 Economi c and Political Conditions in China .................................. 6
1.1.2 Recruitment by Canadian Businesses and Government ................. 8
1.1.3 P rospects for Wealth and Opportunity in Canada .........................10
1.2 The Building of the Canadian Pacific Railway ......................................13
1.2.1 Role of Chinese Labor in Building the Railway ...........................13
1.2.2 Living and Working Conditions for Chinese Workers ..................16
1.2.3 Impact on Canadian Development and Transportation.................18
1.3 Early Chinese Immi gration to Canada (1850s-1900s) ...........................21
1.3.1 S ettlement Patterns and Geographic Distribution .........................21
1.3.2 Formation of Chinese Associations and Businesses ..................... 23
1.3.3 Religious and Cultural Practices ................................................... 26
1.4 Discrimination and Ex clusion ................................................................28
1.4.1 Hostility and Racism towards Chinese Immigrants ......................28
1.4.2 Anti-Chinese Legislation and Policies ..........................................31
1.4.3 Effects on Chinese Families and Communities ............................34
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................ 36
Chapter II. Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era (1923-1947) ............ 38
2.1 The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 ...................................................38
2.1.1 C ontext and History of the Act ..................................................... 38
2.1.2 Provisions and Restrictions on Chinese Immigration ...................40
2.1.3 Political and Social Factors Behind the Act ..................................43
2.2 Life Under the Ex clusion Policy ............................................................46
2.2.1 Effects on Chinese Communities and Families ............................46
2.2.2 Economi c and Social Hardships ................................................... 49
2.2.3 Resistance and Coping Strategies ................................................. 51
2.3 Resistance and Challenges ..................................................................... 54
2.3.1 Organized Protests and Legal Challenges .....................................54
2.3.2 C ommunity Building and Solidarity Efforts .................................57
2.3.3 R ole of Chinese-Canadian Activists and Allies ............................ 60
2.4 The Impact on Chinese-Canadian Families and Communities ..............63
2.4.1 S eparation and family disruption .................................................. 63
2.4.2 Effects on children and education ................................................. 65
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2.4.3 Mental and physical health consequences .................................... 68
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................ 70
Chapter III. Repeal of the Exclusion Act and Changing Immigration
Policies (1947-1967) ....................................................................................72
3.1 The Repeal of the Exclusion Act and Changes in Immigration
Policy ..................................................................................................... 72
3.1.1 Factors leading to repeal ............................................................... 72
3.1.2 C hanges in Canadian immigration policy ..................................... 75
3.1.3 Effects on Chinese-Canadian communities .................................. 77
3.2 Changing Immigration Policies and the Arrival of More Chinese
Immigrants ............................................................................................. 80
3.2.1 Trends and Patterns in Chinese Immigration ................................ 80
3.2.2 Different Types of Immigrants and Their Experiences .................83
3.2.3 Economic, Social, and Cultural Impacts of Immigration ............. 86
3.3 The Growth of Chinatowns and Chinese Communities in Canada ....... 91
3.3.1 Ex pansion and Transformation of Chinatowns .............................91
3.3.2 Chinese-Canadian Business and Community Development ........ 93
3.3.3 C ultural and Religious Life in Chinese Communities .................. 96
3.4 The Impact of Immigration on Canadian Society and Politics .............. 99
3.4.1 Debate s and controversies over immigration policy .....................99
3.4.2 Contributions of Chinese immigrants to Canadian society ........ 102
3.4.3 Interactions between Chinese-Canadians and other Canadians ..105
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................... 108
Chapter IV. Chinese Immigration since 1967 ........................................................ 110
4.1 The Points System for Immigration ..................................................... 110
4.1.1 Background and rationale ........................................................... 110
4.1.2 Impact on Chinese immigration ..................................................112
4.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages ................................................... 115
4.2 Trends in Chinese Immigration ............................................................118
4.2.1 Demographic and geographic patterns ........................................ 118
4.2.2 Differences between earlier and recent immigrants .................... 119
4.2.3 R easons for emigrating to Canada .............................................. 121
4.3 Settlement Ex periences of Recent Chinese Immigrants ...................... 123
4.3.1 C hallenges in finding suitable housing and employment ........... 123
4.3.2 C ultural and language barriers in dail y life ................................ 126
4.3.3 Social and psychological challenges ...........................................129
4.4 The Role of Chinese Canadians in Canadian Society and Politics ...... 131
4.4.1 Contributions to Canadian society .............................................. 131
4.4.2 Political participation and representation ................................... 134
4.4.3 Chinese-Canadian identity and community building ..................137
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................... 140
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Chapter V. Chinese-Canadian Communities and Culture ................................... 141
5.1 The Development of Chinese-Canadian Cul ture ................................. 141
5.1.1 Historical and cultural influences on Chinese-Canadian
identity ......................................................................................... 141
5.1.2 Language , food, and traditions ................................................... 144
5.1.3 Art, l iterature, and media ............................................................ 147
5.2 C hinese-Canadian Organizations and Institut ions ............................... 151
5.2.1 S ocial and cultural organizations ................................................ 151
5.2.2 R eligious and community institutions ........................................ 154
5.2.3 Political and advocacy groups .................................................... 156
5.3 The Contributions of Chinese Canadians to Canadian Society and
Culture ................................................................................................. 159
5.3.1 Economi c, social, and cultural contributions .............................. 159
5.3.2 Not able Chinese-Canadian figures and achievements ................ 162
5.3.3 R epresentation in Canadian media and arts ................................ 164
5.4 Challenges and Opportunities for Chinese-Canadian Communities
Today ....................................................................................................167
5.4.1 Persistent racism and discrimination towards
Chinese-Canadians .......................................................................167
5.4.2 Integration and assimilation challenges facing
Chinese-Canadians .......................................................................170
5.4.3 Advantages and strengths of Chinese-Canadian communities ... 173
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................... 176
Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 177
Summary of Key Points ............................................................................. 177
Reflections on the History of Chinese Immigration to Canada ................. 178
Implications for t he Future of Chinese-Canadian Relations ...................... 180
Conclusions ................................................................................................183
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 185
Afterword ................................................................................................................. 190
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... 192
1
INTRODUCTION
Purpose of the Book
1. Goals and Objectives of the Book
The purpose of this book is to provide a comprehensive and in-depth exploration
of the history, experiences, and contributions of Chinese Canadians in Canada.
Through this book, we aim to shed light on the challenges and opportunities faced by
Chinese Canadians, past and present, and to highlight the unique and valuable
contributions that they have made to Canadian society and culture.
One of the main goals of this book is to provide a thorough and nuanced
understanding of the history of Chinese Canadians in Canada. This includes exploring
the discrimination and exclusion faced by early Chinese immigrants, the impact of the
Chinese Exclusion Act, the experiences of recent Chinese immigrants, and the role of
Chinese Canadians in shaping Canadian society and culture. By delving into these
issues, we hope to provide readers with a deeper understanding of the struggles and
triumphs of Chinese Canadians throughout Canadian history.
Another key objective of this book is to highlight the cultural, social, and
economic contributions of Chinese Canadians to Canadian society. From the
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway to the growth and development of
Chinatowns across Canada, Chinese Canadians have played an important role in
shaping the country's history and culture. We aim to highlight these contributions and
showcase the diverse and dynamic nature of Chinese Canadian communities.
In addition to exploring the past and present experiences of Chinese Canadians,
this book also aims to identify the challenges and opportunities facing Chinese
Canadian communities today. From issues of racism and discrimination to integration
and assimilation challenges, we hope to provide readers with a comprehensive
understanding of the complex issues facing Chinese Canadians today. By doing so, we
hope to contribute to ongoing efforts to promote social justice, equity, and inclusion
for all Canadians.
Overall, the goal of this book is to provide readers with a comprehensive and
engaging exploration of the history, experiences, and contributions of Chinese
Canadians in Canada. Through this book, we hope to promote greater understanding,
awareness, and appreciation of the rich and vibrant contributions of Chinese
Canadians to Canadian society and culture.
2. Importance of Studying Chinese Immigration to Canada
Studying Chinese immigration to Canada is important for a number of reasons.
First and foremost, it sheds light on the experiences and contributions of a significant
group of immigrants who have helped shape Canada's history and identity. Chinese
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immigrants have faced unique challenges and discrimination, and their stories
highlight the struggles and resilience of immigrant communities more broadly.
Furthermore, studying Chinese immigration to Canada provides insight into
Canada's immigration policies and the ways in which they have changed over time.
The discriminatory practices of the past, such as the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923,
are important to acknowledge and understand in order to ensure that history does not
repeat itself.
Additionally, understanding the experiences of Chinese immigrants can
contribute to the development of more inclusive and equitable policies and practices.
By recognizing the challenges faced by Chinese-Canadians in the past and present, we
can work towards a more just and welcoming society.
Finally, the study of Chinese immigration to Canada has broader implications for
the study of immigration and diaspora more generally. By examining the experiences
of a specific group, we can gain insight into the larger processes of migration, cultural
adaptation, and identity formation that are at the heart of the immigrant experience.
Scope of the Book
1. Time Period and Geographical Scope
This book focuses on Chinese immigration to Canada, from the late 19th century
to the present day. This period marks a significant time in Canadian history, as
Chinese immigrants faced numerous challenges and obstacles upon arriving in
Canada, including the discriminatory policies of the Chinese Exclusion Act. The book
will examine the historical context of Chinese immigration to Canada, the experiences
of Chinese immigrants and their families, and the contributions they have made to
Canadian society and culture.
The geographical scope of the book is Canada, with a particular emphasis on
major cities such as Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal, which have large
Chinese-Canadian populations. These cities have played a significant role in shaping
the experiences of Chinese immigrants in Canada, and have also been important sites
for the development of Chinese-Canadian culture and institutions.
By examining Chinese immigration to Canada over a significant period of time
and in specific geographical areas, this book aims to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the experiences and contributions of Chinese immigrants to Canada.
It also aims to highlight the ongoing challenges faced by Chinese-Canadians and the
ways in which they continue to shape Canadian society and culture. Overall, the book
seeks to contribute to a greater understanding of Canada's multicultural heritage and
the diverse experiences of its citizens.
2. Topics Covered in Each Chapter
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The book provides a comprehensive overview of the history of Chinese
immigration to Canada, examining the political, social, economic, and cultural factors
that have shaped the experiences of Chinese Canadians from the 19th century to the
present day.
Chapter I will explore the early history of Chinese migration to Canada,
including the role of Chinese workers in building the Canadian Pacific Railway and
the emergence of discriminatory policies such as the Chinese Head Tax.
Chapter II will focus on the period of the Chinese Exclusion Act and its impact
on Chinese communities in Canada, including the social, economic, and
psychological effects of exclusion policies.
Chapter III will examine the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947 and the
subsequent changes in Canadian immigration policy that led to the arrival of more
Chinese immigrants, as well as the growth of Chinatowns and Chinese communities
in Canada.
Chapter IV will provide an in-depth analysis of recent trends in Chinese
immigration to Canada, including demographic and geographic patterns, settlement
experiences, and the role of Chinese Canadians in Canadian society and politics.
Chapter V will explore the development of Chinese-Canadian culture and the
contributions of Chinese Canadians to Canadian society and culture, as well as the
challenges and opportunities faced by Chinese-Canadian communities today.
Overall, the book aims to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of
the history and experiences of Chinese Canadians, as well as the ongoing
contributions and challenges faced by this community in contemporary Canadian
society.
Brief Overview of Chinese Immigration to Canada
1. Historical Background of Chinese Immigration to Canada
Canada has a long and complex history of Chinese immigration that began in the
late 18th century. The first wave of Chinese immigrants arrived in Canada during the
1850s, in response to the gold rush in California and British Columbia. These early
immigrants worked as laborers on the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway
and in the mining, fishing, and agriculture industries. They faced significant
discrimination and racism, which led to the implementation of discriminatory laws
and policies targeting Chinese immigrants.
One such law was the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885, which imposed a head
tax on all Chinese immigrants entering Canada. This tax was increased several times
over the years, making it increasingly difficult for Chinese immigrants to enter the
country. In 1923, the Chinese Immigration Act was replaced with the Chinese
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Exclusion Act, which banned Chinese immigration to Canada altogether.
The Chinese Exclusion Act remained in place until 1947, when it was finally
repealed. This led to a new wave of Chinese immigration to Canada, which continued
to grow in the following decades. Today, Chinese Canadians represent one of the
largest visible minority groups in Canada, and their contributions have had a
significant impact on Canadian society, culture, and economy.
Understanding the historical background of Chinese immigration to Canada is
crucial for understanding the challenges and opportunities faced by Chinese
Canadians over time. It also provides insight into the ways in which government
policies and societal attitudes have shaped the experiences of Chinese immigrants and
their descendants in Canada.
2. Key Events and Themes in Chinese Immigration History
Chinese immigration to Canada has a long and complex history, with key events
and themes shaping the experiences of Chinese immigrants over time. Some of the
most significant events and themes include:
a. The arrival of the first Chinese immigrants: Chinese immigrants first began
arriving in Canada in significant numbers in the mid-1800s, primarily to
work on the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Many faced
discrimination and hostility from white settlers, and the Canadian
government began to restrict Chinese immigration through a series of laws
and policies.
b. The Chinese Immigration Act: In 1885, the Canadian government passed the
Chinese Immigration Act, which imposed a head tax on Chinese immigrants
and effectively limited their numbers. The head tax was increased several
times over the years, making it increasingly difficult for Chinese immigrants
to enter Canada.
c. The Chinese Exclusion Act: In 1923, the Canadian government passed the
Chinese Exclusion Act, which banned all Chinese immigration to Canada for
over two decades. The Act was finally repealed in 1947, but it had a
profound impact on the Chinese-Canadian community, leading to family
separation and economic hardship.
d. Changing immigration policies: In the decades following the repeal of the
Chinese Exclusion Act, Canada's immigration policies began to shift,
opening up opportunities for more Chinese immigrants to enter the country.
Today, Chinese immigrants are one of the largest and fastest-growing
immigrant groups in Canada.
e. The growth of Chinatowns and Chinese communities: As Chinese
5
immigrants settled in Canada, they often formed close-knit communities,
centered around urban Chinatowns. These communities played an important
role in preserving Chinese culture and traditions, and in supporting new
immigrants as they adjusted to life in Canada.
f. Challenges faced by Chinese immigrants: Despite progress in recent years,
Chinese immigrants to Canada still face a range of challenges, including
discrimination, language barriers, and difficulties in finding employment and
housing.
By understanding these key events and themes in Chinese immigration history,
we can gain a deeper appreciation for the experiences of Chinese immigrants to
Canada, and the ways in which they have shaped Canadian society and culture.
3. Significance of Chinese Immigration to Canada's Development
Chinese immigration has played a significant role in the development of Canada.
From the earliest immigrants who arrived during the gold rush, to the most recent
newcomers, Chinese immigrants have contributed to the country's economy, society,
and culture.
In the early days, Chinese immigrants worked on the construction of the
Canadian Pacific Railway, which linked the country from coast to coast, and helped to
open up new lands for settlement and development. Chinese workers also played a
crucial role in the development of Canada's mining and fishing industries, and in the
building of many of the country's cities.
In more recent times, Chinese immigrants have brought valuable skills and
expertise to Canada's economy, particularly in areas such as technology, finance, and
healthcare. Many Chinese immigrants have started their own businesses, contributing
to the growth of Canada's entrepreneurial sector.
Chinese immigrants have also had a significant impact on Canada's cultural
landscape, with their traditions, language, and cuisine becoming an integral part of
Canadian society. They have contributed to the diversity and richness of Canadian
culture, and have helped to shape the country's identity as a welcoming and inclusive
nation.
Overall, the contributions of Chinese immigrants to Canada have been
significant and far-reaching, and their impact can be seen in all aspects of Canadian
life.
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CHAPTER I. EARLY CHINESE IMMIGRATION TO CANADA
(1850S-1900S)
Imagine boarding a ship and leaving behind everything you know to travel across
the ocean to a new land where you don't speak the language and are not welcome.
This was the reality for thousands of Chinese immigrants who journeyed to Canada
during the 1850s-1900s. Chapter I of this book explores the early Chinese
immigration to Canada, which was characterized by a search for economic
opportunities and escape from political turmoil in China. It covers the first wave of
Chinese immigrants who came to work in the gold mines and railway construction,
the establishment of Chinese communities, and the development of anti-Chinese
sentiments that would lead to discriminatory laws and policies. Through the lens of
historical accounts and personal narratives, this chapter illuminates the challenges and
triumphs of the early Chinese pioneers in Canada.
1.1 Push and Pull Factors
1.1.1 Economic and Political Conditions in China
1. Brief Overview of Economic and Political Conditions in 19th and Early 20th
Century China
To understand the early Chinese immigration to Canada, it is important to have a
basic understanding of the economic and political conditions in China during the 19th
and early 20th centuries.
In the mid-19th century, China was ruled by the Qing dynasty, which was facing
significant challenges both internally and externally. Internally, the dynasty was
weakened by a variety of factors including corruption, economic instability, and
widespread poverty. Externally, China was increasingly coming into conflict with
foreign powers, particularly Britain, France, and Russia, who sought to expand their
spheres of influence in China and gain access to its resources and markets (Li, 2018, p.
34)1.
One of the most significant events during this period was the First Opium War,
which took place between 1839 and 1842. The war was fought between China and
Britain, which was seeking to increase its trade with China by selling. After a series of
military defeats, China was forced to cede Hong Kong to Britain and open several
treaty ports to foreign trade.
Following the First Opium War, China was increasingly subjected to unequal
treaties with foreign powers, which gave them significant economic and political
advantages over China. The most notable of these was the Treaty of Nanjing, which
was signed in 1842 and granted extraterritorial rights to British citizens in China,
1Li, X. (2018). The Making of Modern China: A Short History. Routledge.
7
opened five treaty ports to foreign trade, and imposed a large indemnity on China (Xu,
2014, p. 67)2.
The economic and political conditions in China during this period were
characterized by widespread poverty, social unrest, and political. The Qing dynasty
was unable to address the economic and political challenges facing the country,
leading to a growing sense of disillusionment and dissatisfaction among the Chinese
people.
These conditions played a significant role in driving Chinese immigration to
Canada and other parts of the world during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Many Chinese people left their homeland in search of economic opportunities and a
better life, hoping to escape the poverty and political instability that characterized
China during this period.
2. Factors motivating Chinese people to leave China
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, China experienced significant
economic and political turmoil that pushed many Chinese people to leave the country
in search of better opportunities elsewhere. One of the main factors that motivated
Chinese people to emigrate was poverty. Many Chinese peasants lived in extreme
poverty and struggled to make a living due to high taxes, debt, and the pressure of the
feudal land system. Additionally, the frequent natural disasters such as floods and
droughts made it even more difficult for people to survive.
Another factor that motivated Chinese people to leave was political instability.
The Qing dynasty, which ruled China during this time, faced a series of internal
rebellions and external pressures from foreign powers such as Britain, France, and
Japan. The Opium War in the mid-19th century resulted in a series of unequal treaties
that gave foreign powers significant control over China's economy and territory,
causing widespread resentment among the Chinese people. Moreover, the Taiping
Rebellion, which lasted from 1850 to 1864, led to the death of millions of people and
further destabilized the country.
The loss of China's sovereignty and the presence of foreign powers in China also
led to a decline in the quality of life for many Chinese people. The unequal treaties
forced China to open its ports to foreign trade, resulting in the flooding of cheap
foreign goods that harmed local businesses and caused widespread unemployment.
Additionally, foreign powers established spheres of influence in China, which meant
that they had control over large parts of the country's territory and resources.
All of these factors combined made life difficult for many Chinese people,
2Xu, G. (2014). The Treaty of Nanjing and the Opium War. In D. Li & Y. Li (Eds.), A History of Law and
Lawyers in the GATT/WTO: The Development of the Rule of Law in the Multilateral Trading System (pp. 59-79).
Springer.
8
leading them to seek better opportunities abroad. For many, emigration was seen as a
way to escape poverty, political instability, and foreign control. Canada, along with
the United States and other countries, became a popular destination for Chinese
immigrants seeking a new life.
3. Impact of major events like Opium Wars, Boxer Rebellion, and fall of Qing
dynasty
The Opium Wars, Boxer Rebellion, and fall of the Qing dynasty were major
events that had a significant impact on China's economic and political conditions and
ultimately played a role in motivating Chinese people to leave their homeland.
The First Opium War (1839-1842) and Second Opium War (1856-1860) were
military conflicts between China and Western powers, primarily Britain, over China's
attempts to restrict the importation of opium. The wars ended with China being forced
to open its ports to foreign trade and cede Hong Kong to Britain, which led to a
significant increase in Western influence and control over China's economy.
The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian
movement that took place in northern China. The rebellion was in response to
growing foreign influence and control over China's economy and political affairs. The
rebellion was ultimately put down by a coalition of foreign powers, which led to
increased foreign control over China's economy and political affairs.
The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 marked the end of imperial rule in China
and the beginning of a period of political instability and civil war. This period of
political turmoil and uncertainty led to economic hardship and social unrest, which
motivated many Chinese people to leave their homeland in search of better
opportunities.
These major events had a significant impact on China's economic and political
conditions and contributed to the motivation for Chinese people to leave their
homeland in search of better opportunities elsewhere. The Opium Wars and Boxer
Rebellion, in particular, led to increased foreign control over China's economy and
political affairs, which had a lasting impact on the country's development. The fall of
the Qing dynasty and the subsequent period of political instability and civil war
further compounded the economic and social challenges faced by the Chinese people,
which led to increased migration and emigration.
1.1.2 Recruitment by Canadian Businesses and Government
1. How Canadian businesses and government recruited Chinese workers to
Canada
As the demand for labour in Canada grew, Canadian businesses and government
officials turned to China as a potential source of cheap labour. Recruiters were sent to
9
China to encourage Chinese workers to come to Canada, and they used various tactics
to attract them. One common tactic was to exaggerate the economic opportunities
available in Canada, while downplaying the harsh realities of life there. Recruiters
also used the networks established by previous Chinese immigrants in Canada to
spread the word and encourage others to come.
The Canadian government also played a role in recruiting Chinese workers. In
1885, the Canadian government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, which imposed
a head tax on Chinese immigrants, effectively limiting their numbers. However, this
act was amended in 1895 to allow for the importation of Chinese workers for specific
industries, such as mining, railway construction, and domestic service.
The government also signed agreements with the Chinese government, known as
the "Chinese Labourer's Convention," which allowed for the importation of Chinese
workers for a period of two years. The Chinese workers recruited under these
agreements were not allowed to bring their families and were required to return to
China after their contracts were completed.
Overall, the recruitment of Chinese workers by Canadian businesses and
government officials was a deliberate effort to meet the growing demand for labour in
Canada, while keeping labour costs low. The recruitment efforts, however, resulted in
the arrival of large numbers of Chinese immigrants who faced discriminatory policies
and attitudes upon their arrival in Canada.
2. Work opportunities for Chinese immigrants, including mining and railroad
construction
The work opportunities available to Chinese immigrants in Canada during the
19th and early 20th centuries were limited and often dangerous. Chinese immigrants
were initially recruited to work in the gold mines of British Columbia, where they
were paid lower wages than non-Chinese workers and faced dangerous working
conditions. Many Chinese workers died in the mines due to accidents or illness caused
by working in cramped and poorly ventilated conditions.
In addition to mining, Chinese immigrants were also recruited to work on the
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The CPR was built between
1881 and 1885 and connected the east and west coasts of Canada. Chinese workers
were instrumental in the construction of the railway, as they made up the majority of
the workforce. They were paid lower wages than non-Chinese workers and faced
difficult working conditions, including long hours and dangerous work. Many
Chinese workers died from accidents or illness during the construction of the railway.
After the completion of the railway, many Chinese workers were laid off and
faced limited job opportunities. Some turned to agriculture or small businesses, such
as laundries and restaurants, but these opportunities were also limited and often
10
subjected to discrimination and racism.
In summary, the work opportunities available to Chinese immigrants in Canada
during the 19th and early 20th centuries were often limited to dangerous and
low-paying jobs, such as mining and railway construction. Despite their significant
contributions to the development of Canada, Chinese workers were subjected to
discrimination and racism and faced limited job opportunities after the completion of
major projects.
3. Contracts and Working Conditions for Chinese Workers in Canada
The Chinese workers who were recruited to Canada were often subjected to
harsh working conditions and had limited employment opportunities. Many of these
workers were brought to Canada under contract agreements that were designed to
ensure that they remained with their employers for a certain period of time. These
contracts typically required Chinese workers to work long hours for low wages, and
they were often subjected to dangerous working conditions. Moreover, many of these
workers were required to live in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, which led to
the spread of disease and poor health outcomes.
In the railroad construction industry, Chinese workers were often assigned to the
most dangerous and difficult tasks, such as blasting through mountains and laying
tracks across treacherous terrain. Many Chinese workers lost their lives or were
seriously injured while working on the railroad. Despite the dangerous conditions,
Chinese workers were paid significantly less than their white counterparts. For
example, Chinese workers were paid $1 per day, while white workers were paid $2.50
per day for the same work.
In the mining industry, Chinese workers were similarly exploited. They were
often assigned to work in the most dangerous and difficult parts of the mines, and they
were paid significantly less than white workers. Moreover, they were often subjected
to discrimination and harassment from their white coworkers.
In addition to these difficult working conditions, Chinese workers in Canada
faced social isolation and discrimination. They were often excluded from mainstream
society and were forced to live in segregated areas of cities such as Vancouver and
Victoria. This further reinforced their marginalization and contributed to the formation
of tight-knit Chinese communities. Despite these challenges, Chinese workers showed
remarkable resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity. They formed mutual
aid societies and support networks to help each other cope with the challenges of
living and working in a new country.
1.1.3 Prospects for Wealth and Opportunity in Canada
1. Economic and Social Opportunities Available to Chinese Immigrants in
11
Canada
Despite facing discrimination and hardships, Chinese immigrants in Canada
found economic and social opportunities that were unavailable in their homeland.
Chinese immigrants who worked on the railroad construction and mining projects
received wages that were higher than what they could earn in China. Many Chinese
immigrants used these earnings to start small businesses, such as laundries,
restaurants, and grocery stores. These businesses not only provided a livelihood for
Chinese immigrants but also served as social hubs for the Chinese community.
Chinese immigrants also found employment as laborers, domestic servants, and
agricultural workers. These jobs were often low-paying and difficult, but they
provided a means of survival for many immigrants who had few other options. Some
Chinese immigrants found work in the fishing and canning industries in British
Columbia, while others worked as cooks and waiters in hotels and restaurants across
the country.
In addition to economic opportunities, Chinese immigrants in Canada also found
a sense of community and belonging within their own ethnic enclaves. Chinese
immigrants formed their own organizations, such as the Chinese Benevolent
Association, which provided mutual aid and support to the community. These
organizations also helped new immigrants adjust to life in Canada by providing
language classes and assistance with finding housing and employment.
Despite facing discrimination and exclusion, many Chinese immigrants in
Canada were able to build successful lives for themselves and their families. By
working hard and supporting each other, Chinese immigrants were able to overcome
the challenges they faced and contribute to the growth and development of Canadian
society.
2. Perception of Canada as a Land of Opportunity among Chinese Immigrants
The Chinese immigrants who came to Canada during the 19th and early 20th
centuries had a perception that Canada was a land of opportunity. They had heard
stories about the discovery of gold and other valuable resources, and they believed
that Canada was a place where they could build a better life for themselves and their
families.
The perception of Canada as a land of opportunity was especially strong among
Chinese immigrants who had come from rural areas in China. They had experienced
poverty, famine, and political unrest in their homeland, and they saw Canada as a
place where they could escape these problems and start anew.
Many Chinese immigrants also believed that Canada was a country with a strong
economy and a stable political system. They had heard that there were many jobs
available in Canada, particularly in industries such as mining, agriculture, and
12
construction. They believed that if they worked hard, they could earn a good living
and provide for their families.
The perception of Canada as a land of opportunity was also fueled by the
propaganda efforts of Canadian officials and businesses, who sought to attract
Chinese immigrants to Canada. Canadian officials painted a picture of Canada as a
prosperous and welcoming country, where immigrants could find good jobs, build
businesses, and become part of a thriving community.
However, the reality for Chinese immigrants in Canada was often very different
from their perception. They faced discrimination, racism, and exclusion from many
aspects of Canadian society, including education, housing, and political representation.
They also faced harsh working conditions and low wages, particularly in industries
such as mining and railroad construction.
Despite these challenges, many Chinese immigrants persevered and built
successful businesses and communities in Canada. They formed social and cultural
organizations, such as the Chinese Benevolent Association, which provided support
and resources to Chinese immigrants in Canada. They also worked together to fight
against discriminatory laws and policies, and to promote greater understanding and
acceptance of Chinese culture and traditions.
3. Role of potential wealth and success in motivating Chinese immigration to
Canada
The potential for wealth and success in Canada was a significant factor in
motivating Chinese people to immigrate during the 19th and early 20th centuries. In
China, economic and political instability, combined with natural disasters, had led to
widespread poverty and famine, leaving many with little hope for a better future.
Canada, on the other hand, was seen as a land of opportunity, with abundant resources
and economic growth.
Many Chinese immigrants were attracted to the opportunities presented by the
gold rushes in British Columbia and the Yukon, where they hoped to strike it rich. The
discovery of gold in the Fraser River in 1858 and in the Cariboo region in 1861 drew
thousands of prospectors to the area, including many from China. Chinese immigrants
were often employed as laborers, providing support services to the miners, such as
cooking, laundry, and transportation. Although they were generally excluded from
working in the mines themselves, some Chinese immigrants did manage to strike it
rich in the gold fields.
In addition to the gold rushes, Chinese immigrants were also drawn to Canada by
the prospect of work on the railroad. The construction of the Canadian Pacific
Railway in the late 19th century was a major undertaking that required a massive
workforce. Chinese immigrants were recruited to work on the railway, where they
13
performed difficult and dangerous labor, including blasting tunnels through the
mountains and laying tracks across rugged terrain.
The promise of economic opportunity was not the only factor that motivated
Chinese people to immigrate to Canada. Many were also attracted by the prospect of
freedom from the rigid social hierarchy and political oppression that existed in China
at the time. In Canada, Chinese immigrants were able to escape the restrictions placed
on them by the traditional Confucian system, which emphasized filial piety and
obedience to authority. They were also able to escape the violence and chaos that had
characterized Chinese politics in the late 19th century, including the Taiping Rebellion
and the Boxer Rebellion.
Overall, the potential for wealth and success, as well as the promise of freedom
from social and political oppression, were major motivators for Chinese people to
immigrate to Canada during the 19th and early 20th centuries. While the reality of life
in Canada was often harsh and challenging, many Chinese immigrants were able to
achieve a degree of economic success and social mobility that would have been
impossible in China at the time.
1.2 The Building of the Canadian Pacific Railway
1.2.1 Role of Chinese Labor in Building the Railway
1. Historical background of CPR construction
The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) is a transcontinental railway that spans
Canada from coast to coast. The idea for the railway was conceived in the late 19th
century as a means of connecting the east and west coasts of Canada and improving
transportation and communication throughout the country. The railway was
considered essential for the economic and political development of Canada, and the
government played a significant role in its construction.
Construction of the CPR began in 1881 and was completed in 1885. The project
was a massive undertaking that required extensive labor and resources. The
construction of the railway involved the use of dynamite, steam-powered drills, and
other advanced technology for the time, but the majority of the work was done by
hand. The terrain was rugged and difficult to navigate, and the workers had to contend
with harsh weather conditions, including extreme cold in the winter and scorching
heat in the summer.
The construction of the CPR was divided into several sections, with different
companies responsible for different parts of the railway. The Canadian government
provided significant funding and resources for the project, and the railway was
constructed with the help of many immigrants, including Chinese laborers.
The role of Chinese labor in building the CPR is a significant part of Canadian
14
history. The Chinese workers were recruited by the railway companies, who were
seeking cheap and reliable labor. Many of the Chinese workers were recruited from
China and arrived in Canada with the promise of work and a better life. They were
hired to do some of the most dangerous and difficult jobs, including blasting through
mountains and laying track in treacherous terrain.
The Chinese workers faced many challenges and hardships during the
construction of the CPR. They were paid significantly less than their non-Chinese
counterparts and often worked longer hours. They also faced discrimination and
racism from other workers and the broader Canadian society. Despite these challenges,
the Chinese workers persevered and played a crucial role in the construction of the
railway.
In conclusion, the Canadian Pacific Railway was a significant engineering feat
that required extensive labor and resources. The project played a crucial role in the
development of Canada, and the role of Chinese labor in its construction is an
important part of Canadian history. Despite facing discrimination and hardship, the
Chinese workers played an essential role in building the railway and contributed to
the economic and social development of Canada.
2. Role of Chinese workers in the construction of the railway
Chinese workers played a critical role in the construction of the Canadian Pacific
Railway (CPR) in the late 19th century (Li, 2011)3. The CPR was a transcontinental
railroad that connected the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Canada and was crucial for
the economic development of the country. Chinese workers were brought in large
numbers to help build the railway, and they worked under extremely challenging
conditions.
The Chinese workers were brought to Canada in the late 19th century through
recruitment efforts by Canadian businesses and government agencies. They were
recruited as cheap laborers and promised high wages and good living conditions.
However, the reality was much different, and the Chinese workers faced terrible
working conditions, low wages, and discrimination.
Despite these challenges, Chinese workers played a crucial role in the
construction of the CPR. They were responsible for the most difficult and dangerous
parts of the railway construction, such as the blasting of tunnels through the Rocky
Mountains. Chinese workers worked long hours, often in extreme weather conditions,
and were subjected to dangerous working conditions. Many lost their lives due to
accidents, landslides, and avalanches.
Chinese workers were also subjected to discrimination and racism from other
3Li, P. (2011). Chinese workers and the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In Chinese Immigrants (pp.
127-146). Springer.
15
workers and local communities. They were paid lower wages than their non-Chinese
counterparts, and they were often segregated from other workers in camps. Chinese
workers were also subjected to violence, with instances of beatings, arson, and even
murder.
Despite these challenges, Chinese workers persevered and completed their work
on the CPR. Their contributions were essential to the success of the project, and
without their hard work and sacrifices, the railway could not have been completed.
The completion of the CPR had a significant impact on the development of Canada's
economy and helped to connect the country from coast to coast.
Overall, the role of Chinese workers in the construction of the CPR was vital,
and their contributions cannot be understated. They faced enormous challenges and
overcame tremendous obstacles to help build one of Canada's most important national
projects. Their contributions continue to be recognized and celebrated, and they serve
as a reminder of the hard work and sacrifices made by early Chinese immigrants to
Canada.
3. Challenges and dangers faced by Chinese workers during CPR construction
The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) was a monumental task
that required the efforts of thousands of workers from different ethnic and cultural
backgrounds. Chinese laborers played a crucial role in the construction of the railway,
making up the majority of the workforce for a significant portion of the project.
However, the conditions they faced were often difficult and dangerous.
One of the biggest challenges faced by Chinese workers was the harsh terrain of
the Canadian Rockies. Many of them were not accustomed to the extreme cold and
rugged landscape, and they had to work in dangerous conditions, such as blasting
tunnels through solid rock and working on steep cliffsides. The workers were also
required to work long hours, often in grueling conditions, without adequate food or
rest.
In addition to the physical challenges, Chinese workers faced discrimination and
hostility from both their Canadian employers and the local population. They were
paid lower wages than their white counterparts, and often had to live in substandard
housing conditions. Furthermore, they were subjected to racist attitudes and violence,
including physical assaults and murder.
Another significant danger faced by Chinese workers during the construction of
the CPR was disease. Many of the workers were living in overcrowded and unsanitary
conditions, which made them more susceptible to diseases such as smallpox, typhus,
and tuberculosis. Diseases spread rapidly through the camps, and many workers died
as a result.
Despite these challenges and dangers, Chinese workers continued to play a vital
16
role in the construction of the CPR. They were known for their hard work, diligence,
and skill, and were often assigned the most difficult and dangerous tasks. Without
their efforts, the railway may not have been completed within the time frame required.
In summary, Chinese workers faced numerous challenges and dangers during the
construction of the CPR. They were required to work long hours in difficult and
dangerous conditions, and faced discrimination and hostility from both their
employers and the local population. However, their hard work and dedication were
crucial to the completion of the project, and they played a vital role in the
development of Canada's transportation infrastructure.
1.2.2 Living and Working Conditions for Chinese Workers
1. Description of living and working conditions for Chinese workers during
CPR construction
The living and working conditions of Chinese workers during the construction of
the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) were extremely challenging. Chinese workers
were paid lower wages than other workers and were given the most difficult and
dangerous tasks, such as blasting through mountains and laying tracks across
treacherous terrain.
The working day for Chinese workers was typically between 10 and 12 hours
long, with no overtime pay. They were often subjected to harsh treatment from their
supervisors and were given little protection from the dangerous working conditions.
Injuries and deaths were common, with workers being killed by explosions, landslides,
and other accidents. Workers who were injured or fell ill were often left without
medical attention, and many died as a result.
Living conditions for Chinese workers were also very poor. They were housed in
overcrowded and unsanitary bunkhouses, with little privacy and no cooking facilities.
Food was often of poor quality and in short supply. Workers were responsible for their
own meals and had to purchase food from company stores, which charged high prices.
Discrimination and racism were also major issues for Chinese workers during
this period. They were often excluded from social and cultural activities and were not
allowed to bring their families to Canada. In addition, Chinese workers were paid less
than non-Chinese workers for the same work and were often subjected to physical and
verbal abuse.
Despite these difficult conditions, Chinese workers persevered and played a
crucial role in the construction of the CPR. Their hard work and determination helped
to connect Canada from coast to coast and paved the way for future Chinese
immigrants to Canada.
2. Discussion of discrimination and racism faced by Chinese workers
17
Chinese workers who came to Canada to work on the Canadian Pacific Railway
(CPR) faced significant discrimination and racism. Anti-Chinese sentiment was
prevalent in Canadian society, and many people believed that Chinese workers were
taking jobs away from Canadians. As a result, Chinese workers were often subjected
to unfair treatment and harsh working conditions.
Chinese workers were paid less than their white counterparts, and they were
often given the most dangerous and difficult tasks. They were also forced to work
longer hours and were given fewer breaks. They had to live in crowded and
unsanitary conditions in makeshift camps along the railway line. These camps lacked
proper sanitation facilities, and diseases such as smallpox and tuberculosis were
common.
Furthermore, Chinese workers faced discrimination and racism in their daily
lives. They were often excluded from Canadian society and were not allowed to
participate in many aspects of Canadian life. They were not allowed to vote or to hold
public office, and they were not allowed to marry outside of their own race. Chinese
workers were also the victims of violence and harassment, and many were attacked or
robbed by white settlers.
The government also played a role in discrimination against Chinese workers.
The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Act, was
passed in order to restrict Chinese immigration to Canada. This law imposed a head
tax on all Chinese immigrants, and it effectively barred Chinese workers from
bringing their families with them to Canada.
Despite the challenges they faced, Chinese workers played a vital role in the
construction of the CPR. They were responsible for the most difficult and dangerous
parts of the railway, and their hard work and dedication helped to connect Canada
from coast to coast. However, their contributions were often overlooked or ignored,
and it was not until many years later that the government acknowledged the important
role that Chinese workers played in building the railway.
3. Impact of these conditions on the Chinese community in Canada
The living and working conditions that Chinese workers faced during the
construction of the CPR had a significant impact on the Chinese community in
Canada. Chinese workers were subjected to harsh and dangerous working conditions,
low pay, and discrimination. The discrimination against Chinese workers was not
limited to their working conditions but extended to all aspects of their lives, including
housing, education, and social interactions.
The Chinese workers were paid less than their European counterparts, and they
had to work longer hours without any additional compensation. They were housed in
primitive and overcrowded conditions, and there was no access to basic amenities
18
such as sanitation, clean water, and medical facilities. Many Chinese workers suffered
from diseases and injuries due to the unsafe working conditions and lack of proper
medical care.
Discrimination against the Chinese community was rampant in Canada during
this time. Chinese workers were seen as inferior and treated as second-class citizens.
They were excluded from many social activities and were often victims of verbal and
physical abuse. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1923 further exacerbated the
discrimination against the Chinese community by prohibiting Chinese immigrants
from entering Canada.
The impact of these conditions on the Chinese community in Canada was
devastating. Chinese workers were forced to live in poverty and endure the harsh
working conditions, while facing discrimination and racism. They were unable to
integrate into Canadian society and were isolated from the rest of the population. This
exclusion had long-lasting effects on the Chinese community in Canada and
contributed to the creation of Chinatowns, where Chinese immigrants could live
among their own people and preserve their culture.
Despite the challenges they faced, the Chinese workers played a significant role
in the construction of the CPR and helped to connect Canada from coast to coast. The
sacrifices they made and the hardships they endured paved the way for future
generations of Chinese immigrants to come to Canada and build a better life for
themselves and their families.
1.2.3 Impact on Canadian Development and Transportation
1. Overview of the impact of the CPR on Canadian development and
transportation
The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) had a profound impact
on Canadian development and transportation. Before the railway was built,
transportation in Canada was limited to waterways and trails, which made travel and
trade slow and difficult. The CPR connected the eastern and western parts of Canada,
providing a reliable and efficient transportation route that greatly facilitated trade,
communication, and migration.
The completion of the CPR in 1885 marked the beginning of a new era in
Canadian history. The railway opened up the West to settlement and resource
development, as it allowed for easier transportation of goods and people to and from
the region. The construction of the CPR also spurred the growth of other industries
such as agriculture, mining, and forestry, which contributed significantly to the
development of the Canadian economy.
The CPR also had a significant impact on Canadian transportation. The railway
greatly improved travel time and transportation costs across the country, making it
19
possible for Canadians to travel long distances in a matter of days rather than weeks
or months. The railway also facilitated the growth of Canadian cities, as it allowed for
the transportation of goods and people to and from urban centers.
In addition, the CPR played a crucial role in the establishment of Canada as a
nation. The construction of the railway was a national project that brought together
people from different parts of the country and created a sense of national identity. The
railway was seen as a symbol of Canada's unity and progress, and it helped to
establish Canada's position as a major player on the world stage.
Overall, the impact of the CPR on Canadian development and transportation
cannot be overstated. The railway was a crucial element in the growth and
development of Canada, and it helped to shape the country into what it is today. The
construction of the railway was a monumental achievement, and it remains an
important part of Canada's history and identity.
2. Economic and social benefits of the CPR for Canada
The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) had a significant impact on the economic
and social development of Canada. The construction of the railway created jobs and
stimulated economic growth, opening up new markets and opportunities for
businesses across the country. The railway also played a critical role in promoting
settlement and development in the western regions of Canada, as it allowed for the
transportation of people, goods, and resources to previously inaccessible areas.
The CPR not only facilitated transportation and trade within Canada but also
played a critical role in connecting Canada with the rest of the world. The railway
provided a direct and efficient transportation route between the Pacific Ocean and the
eastern regions of Canada, linking Canada with Asia and Europe (Canadian Pacific
Railway, n.d.)4. This connection allowed for the increased import and export of goods,
which helped to stimulate the Canadian economy and promote international trade.
Furthermore, the CPR also had a significant social impact on Canada. The
construction of the railway brought together people from different parts of Canada
and the world, including Chinese workers, who played a critical role in the building of
the railway. The railway also facilitated the movement of people across the country,
making travel more accessible and affordable. This helped to promote the growth of
tourism and leisure activities in Canada, as well as making it easier for people to
relocate and settle in different parts of the country.
The development of the CPR also had a significant impact on Indigenous peoples
in Canada. The construction of the railway often involved the expropriation of land
and resources from Indigenous communities, which had a profound impact on their
way of life. Additionally, the railway contributed to the spread of European settlement
4Canadian Pacific Railway. (n.d.). Our history. https://www.cpr.ca/en/about-cp/our-history.
20
and colonization, which had far-reaching and negative consequences for Indigenous
peoples in Canada (Milloy, 2017, p. 29)5.
Overall, the construction of the CPR had a profound impact on the economic and
social development of Canada. The railway helped to stimulate economic growth and
promote the settlement and development of the western regions of Canada, while also
facilitating transportation and trade both within Canada and internationally. The
construction of the railway brought together people from different parts of Canada
and the world, but also had negative consequences for Indigenous peoples in Canada.
Despite this, the CPR remains a significant symbol of Canada's history and identity,
and a testament to the determination and perseverance of the workers who built it.
3. Impact of Chinese labor on the completion of the CPR
The completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) was a monumental
achievement in Canadian history, and the role of Chinese labor in its construction
cannot be overstated. Without the contributions of the Chinese workers, it is doubtful
that the CPR would have been completed as quickly or as efficiently as it was.
Chinese workers were brought over to Canada specifically to work on the CPR,
and they made up the majority of the workforce during its construction. They worked
long and grueling hours in often-dangerous conditions, including harsh weather and
difficult terrain. They also faced discrimination and racism from many of their
Canadian coworkers and were paid less than their non-Chinese counterparts.
Despite these challenges, Chinese workers persevered and played a vital role in
the completion of the CPR. They were responsible for building tunnels, laying track,
and performing other essential tasks. Their contributions helped to connect Canada
from coast to coast and paved the way for future economic growth and development.
The impact of Chinese labor on the completion of the CPR cannot be understated.
Without the contributions of Chinese workers, the project likely would have taken
much longer to complete, and the cost may have been much higher. Additionally, the
skills and knowledge that Chinese workers brought to the project helped to improve
the efficiency and safety of the construction process.
The impact of Chinese labor on the completion of the CPR also had far-reaching
effects on Canadian society as a whole. The completion of the railway helped to
connect communities across Canada and facilitated the movement of people and
goods. This, in turn, helped to stimulate economic growth and development and led to
increased opportunities for Canadians.
Overall, the impact of Chinese labor on the completion of the CPR was
5Milloy, J. S. (2017). A national crime: The Canadian government and the residential school system, 1879 to
1986. University of Manitoba Press.
21
significant and cannot be overlooked. The contributions of Chinese workers helped to
shape Canadian history and pave the way for future growth and development.
1.3 Early Chinese Immigration to Canada (1850s-1900s)
1.3.1 Settlement Patterns and Geographic Distribution
1. Overview of Chinese Immigrants' Settlement Patterns and Geographic
Distribution in Canada
The settlement patterns and geographic distribution of Chinese immigrants in
Canada during the 1850s-1900s were heavily influenced by government policies,
economic opportunities, and social networks. Initially, Chinese immigrants settled
primarily in British Columbia, particularly in the cities of Victoria and Vancouver, due
to the proximity of these cities to the ports of entry for Chinese immigrants. However,
with the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, Chinese immigrants began to
settle in other parts of Canada as well.
In British Columbia, Chinese immigrants initially settled in segregated
neighborhoods known as Chinatowns, which were often located in the city's
downtown areas. These Chinatowns were distinct communities that were
characterized by their own cultural practices, food, and language. They often had their
own businesses and organizations, such as Chinese schools and associations, and
provided support for Chinese immigrants who were new to Canada.
As Chinese immigrants moved to other parts of Canada, they often settled in
areas where there were economic opportunities, such as in the mining and lumber
industries. For example, in the late 1800s, Chinese immigrants began to settle in the
city of Nanaimo on Vancouver Island, where they worked in the coal mines. Similarly,
Chinese immigrants settled in other parts of British Columbia, such as the Fraser
Valley and the Okanagan region, where they worked in the fruit orchards and
vineyards.
Chinese immigrants also settled in other parts of Canada, particularly in urban
areas with large Chinese populations. In cities such as Toronto, Montreal, and Calgary,
Chinese immigrants often settled in Chinatowns, similar to those in British Columbia.
These Chinatowns were characterized by Chinese restaurants, grocery stores, and
other businesses that catered to the Chinese community. Chinese immigrants also
established social organizations and clubs in these cities, which helped to create a
sense of community and provided support for new immigrants.
In summary, the settlement patterns and geographic distribution of Chinese
immigrants in Canada were influenced by a variety of factors, including government
policies, economic opportunities, and social networks. While Chinese immigrants
initially settled in British Columbia, particularly in Chinatowns in Victoria and
Vancouver, they later moved to other parts of Canada, including urban areas with
22
large Chinese populations and regions with economic opportunities in mining and
agriculture. These settlement patterns contributed to the development of Chinese
Canadian communities, which played an important role in the social and economic
integration of Chinese immigrants into Canadian society.
2. Factors that Influenced Where Chinese Immigrants Settled
Chinese immigrants in Canada during the 1850s-1900s settled in distinct areas
based on various factors. These factors included the availability of employment
opportunities, the presence of established Chinese communities, and discriminatory
laws and attitudes.
Many Chinese immigrants initially settled in British Columbia, particularly in
Victoria and Vancouver, due to the availability of employment opportunities in the
gold rush and railway construction (Li, 2003, p. 67)6. The port cities of Victoria and
Vancouver also became important centers of trade and commerce, providing further
employment opportunities for Chinese immigrants.
In addition to economic factors, the presence of established Chinese
communities also played a role in where Chinese immigrants settled (Li, 2003, p. 70)6.
Many Chinese immigrants chose to settle in areas where there were already
established Chinese communities, as they could rely on the support and social
networks provided by these communities. For example, the Chinese community in
Victoria had been established since the 1850s, and many Chinese immigrants chose to
settle there.
However, discriminatory laws and attitudes towards Chinese immigrants also
influenced settlement patterns. The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 imposed a head
tax on Chinese immigrants and restricted their ability to bring over family members
(Li, 2003, p. 73)6. These discriminatory policies, combined with negative attitudes
towards Chinese immigrants, made it difficult for Chinese immigrants to settle in
certain areas. For example, the Chinese community in Toronto was small due to the
discriminatory attitudes of the time.
As Chinese immigrants continued to arrive in Canada, settlement patterns began
to shift. By the early 1900s, many Chinese immigrants had settled in other parts of
Canada, such as Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, where they worked in various
industries, including agriculture, mining, and forestry (Li, 2003, p. 85)6. Some
Chinese immigrants also settled in eastern Canada, particularly in Montreal and
Toronto, where they established businesses and became involved in the local
community.
Overall, settlement patterns and geographic distribution of Chinese immigrants
in Canada were influenced by a range of factors, including economic opportunities,
6Li, P. (2003). Destination Canada: Immigration debates and issues. Oxford University Press.
23
established Chinese communities, and discriminatory laws and attitudes. Despite
facing many challenges and obstacles, Chinese immigrants continued to establish
themselves and contribute to Canadian society in significant ways.
3. Formation of Chinese Communities in Different Regions of Canada
Chinese immigrants in Canada formed distinct communities in different regions
of the country, with each community exhibiting unique cultural practices and
traditions. These communities were often concentrated in urban areas, such as
Vancouver, Toronto, and Victoria, and in areas with a significant Chinese workforce,
such as mining towns and railroad camps.
The formation of Chinese communities in Canada was influenced by a variety of
factors, including language, culture, and economic opportunities. Many Chinese
immigrants settled in areas where they already had established social and economic
networks, such as family and friends, or where they could find employment. For
example, many Chinese immigrants were employed in the fishing industry in British
Columbia, which led to the development of Chinese communities in towns and cities
along the coast.
In addition, Chinese immigrants often faced discrimination and racism in Canada,
which led them to form their own communities as a means of protection and support.
These communities provided a sense of belonging and security, as well as a way to
maintain their cultural identity and traditions.
The formation of Chinese communities in Canada was also influenced by the
availability of social and cultural institutions, such as temples, community centers,
and schools. These institutions provided a place for Chinese immigrants to gather,
worship, and socialize, as well as a means of preserving their cultural heritage.
Over time, Chinese communities in Canada became more established and
developed their own distinct cultural traditions, such as Chinese New Year
celebrations, dragon boat races, and Chinese language schools. These communities
continue to play an important role in Canadian society and have contributed
significantly to the country's cultural diversity and economic growth.
1.3.2 Formation of Chinese Associations and Businesses
1. Description of Early Chinese Associations and Organizations in Canada
The early Chinese immigrants faced significant challenges in adapting to their
new lives in Canada, particularly due to the language and cultural barriers they
encountered. As a result, many Chinese associations and organizations were formed to
provide mutual support and assistance to Chinese immigrants. These organizations
were instrumental in helping the early Chinese immigrants adapt to Canadian society
and navigate the challenges they faced.
24
One of the earliest Chinese organizations formed in Canada was the Chee Kung
Tong, also known as the Chinese Freemasons. This organization was founded in San
Francisco in the mid-19th century and quickly spread to other Chinese communities in
North America, including Canada. The Chee Kung Tong provided a wide range of
services to Chinese immigrants, including mutual aid, protection, and social activities.
It also served as a cultural and political organization, promoting Chinese culture and
advocating for Chinese rights in Canada.
Other Chinese organizations were formed to provide more specific services to
Chinese immigrants. For example, the Chinese Benevolent Association was
established in Vancouver in 1895 to provide assistance to Chinese immigrants in need,
including those who were sick, destitute, or faced legal challenges. The Association
also provided burial services to deceased Chinese immigrants and worked to promote
Chinese culture and education in Canada.
In addition to these mutual aid organizations, early Chinese immigrants also
established businesses to provide services and goods to their community. For example,
Chinese grocery stores, restaurants, and laundries were established in many Canadian
cities to meet the needs of Chinese immigrants. These businesses provided
employment opportunities to Chinese immigrants and played a key role in the
development of Chinatowns in Canadian cities.
The early Chinese associations and businesses played a critical role in providing
social and economic support to Chinese immigrants, and also helped to preserve
Chinese culture and identity in Canada. Through their efforts, Chinese immigrants
were able to build a sense of community and resilience in the face of the challenges
they encountered.
2. Roles of Associations in Supporting the Chinese Community and Advocating
for Their Rights
The early Chinese associations and organizations that were formed in Canada
played a crucial role in supporting and advocating for the Chinese community during
a time when they faced significant discrimination and racism. These associations were
formed out of a need to provide support and resources for Chinese immigrants who
faced various challenges, such as finding employment, accessing healthcare, and
dealing with legal issues (Zhang & Guo, 2016, p. 27)7.
One of the most significant roles of these associations was to provide mutual aid
and support to their members. This involved providing financial assistance, such as
loans or emergency funds, to members who were in need. They also offered
educational programs, language classes, and job training to help members improve
7Zhang, L., & Guo, S. (2016). Chinese Canadian organizations and their roles in advocating for Chinese
immigrants' rights. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 48(1), 25-38.
25
their skills and increase their employability (Zhang & Guo, 2016, p. 27)7.
In addition to providing support to their members, these associations also played
a crucial role in advocating for the rights and interests of the Chinese community as a
whole. They worked to raise awareness about the challenges that Chinese immigrants
faced, and lobbied the government for changes to policies and laws that were
discriminatory towards Chinese people (Zhang & Guo, 2016, p. 29)7. They also
worked to combat negative stereotypes and portrayals of Chinese immigrants in the
media.
One of the most well-known Chinese associations in Canada was the Chinese
Benevolent Association (CBA), which was founded in Victoria in 1884. The CBA
played a key role in supporting the Chinese community during a time when they faced
significant discrimination and racism (Zhang & Guo, 2016, p. 30)7. They provided
legal assistance to Chinese immigrants who faced discrimination and worked to
ensure that their rights were protected. The CBA also played a key role in advocating
for the rights of Chinese immigrants to vote and become Canadian citizens.
Other notable Chinese associations that were formed during this time include the
Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA) in Vancouver, the Chinese
Freemasons in Victoria and Vancouver, and the Chinese Students' Athletic Association
in Toronto.
Overall, these early Chinese associations and organizations played a crucial role
in supporting and advocating for the Chinese community during a time when they
faced significant challenges and discrimination. They provided vital support and
resources to their members, and worked tirelessly to improve the rights and status of
Chinese immigrants in Canada.
3. Early Chinese Businesses in Canada and Their Impact on the Community
The early Chinese immigrants in Canada faced significant economic barriers,
including discrimination and exclusion from mainstream industries and trades. As a
result, many Chinese immigrants turned to entrepreneurship and established their
businesses. These businesses not only served the Chinese community's needs but also
had a significant impact on the Canadian economy.
Initially, Chinese businesses were established in Chinatowns in major cities, such
as Vancouver, Victoria, and Toronto. These businesses ranged from restaurants and
grocery stores to laundries and herbal medicine shops. The businesses provided
services and products that were familiar to the Chinese community and helped
establish a sense of community in a foreign land.
As the Chinese community grew, so did their businesses. They expanded into
new industries and established businesses in smaller cities and towns. Chinese
businesses, such as restaurants and laundries, were often the only services available in
26
small towns and remote areas, making them essential for local communities.
Chinese businesses also played a crucial role in the development of the Canadian
economy. For example, the Chinese community was instrumental in developing
British Columbia's fishing industry, with Chinese businesses providing fish
processing and marketing services. Chinese entrepreneurs also played a significant
role in the railway industry, providing services such as food and lodging for railway
workers.
The impact of Chinese businesses extended beyond their economic contributions.
They helped create a sense of community and provided a sense of familiarity for
Chinese immigrants in a foreign land. The businesses also served as a platform for
community building, allowing Chinese immigrants to gather and socialize.
Despite the challenges they faced, Chinese entrepreneurs persevered and made
significant contributions to Canadian society. Their businesses provided essential
services and products, created jobs, and contributed to the country's economic growth.
1.3.3 Religious and Cultural Practices
1. Overview of Religious and Cultural Practices of Early Chinese Immigrants
in Canada
Early Chinese immigrants in Canada brought with them a rich cultural heritage
and diverse religious beliefs. These immigrants came from various regions of China,
each with their own unique customs and traditions. As a result, the Chinese
community in Canada was culturally diverse, and their religious practices varied
widely.
One of the most prominent religious practices among early Chinese immigrants
was ancestor worship. Ancestor worship is the practice of offering sacrifices and
prayers to one's ancestors to honor and pay respects to them. This practice was deeply
rooted in Chinese culture and played an essential role in the daily lives of Chinese
immigrants. In addition, many Chinese immigrants practiced Taoism, Confucianism,
and Buddhism.
The early Chinese immigrants in Canada also celebrated several traditional
festivals, including the Lunar New Year, the Mid-Autumn Festival, and the Dragon
Boat Festival. During these festivals, Chinese communities would come together to
participate in traditional customs and practices such as dragon and lion dances,
fireworks displays, and traditional meals.
Chinese immigrants in Canada also faced challenges in preserving their cultural
practices due to discrimination and racism. They were often isolated from the larger
Canadian society and had limited access to resources and support. Despite these
challenges, early Chinese immigrants in Canada formed cultural associations and
27
organizations to preserve their heritage and promote their cultural practices.
Overall, the early Chinese immigrants in Canada brought with them a rich
cultural heritage and diverse religious beliefs. They faced challenges in preserving
their cultural practices, but their efforts to do so have contributed to the multicultural
landscape of Canada today.
2. Challenges Faced in Practicing Traditions in a New Country
Early Chinese immigrants faced numerous challenges in practicing their
religious and cultural traditions in Canada. One major challenge was the lack of
infrastructure and resources for these practices, particularly in smaller rural
communities where Chinese immigrants were more isolated. For example, early
Chinese immigrants may have had difficulty finding ingredients for traditional
Chinese dishes or accessing familiar religious materials and symbols.
Another major challenge was the discrimination and prejudice they faced from
the wider Canadian society. Chinese immigrants were often seen as foreign and exotic,
and their religious and cultural practices were sometimes viewed with suspicion and
disapproval. For example, early Chinese immigrants who practiced traditional
Chinese medicine were sometimes accused of being unlicensed practitioners or even
practicing quackery.
Furthermore, Chinese immigrants faced discrimination and restrictions on their
religious practices from Canadian laws and policies. For example, the Chinese
Immigration Act of 1885 prohibited Chinese immigrants from bringing in religious
books, and some Chinese immigrants were even banned from entering Canada on the
grounds of their religious beliefs.
Despite these challenges, Chinese immigrants were able to adapt and preserve
their cultural and religious traditions in Canada. They established their own religious
and cultural organizations and temples, which served as centers for community and
social support. These organizations also allowed Chinese immigrants to practice their
traditions and customs in a safe and supportive environment. Over time, Chinese
Canadians were able to contribute to Canadian society while also maintaining their
unique cultural and religious identities.
3. Influence of Chinese Cultural Practices on Canadian Society
The Chinese immigrants who settled in Canada brought with them a rich cultural
heritage, which they continued to practice despite the challenges they faced in a new
country. Over time, Chinese cultural practices have had a significant impact on
Canadian society, influencing everything from cuisine to art and literature.
One of the most significant ways in which Chinese culture has influenced
Canadian society is through cuisine. Chinese restaurants first began to appear in
28
Canada in the late 1800s, and they quickly became popular among non-Chinese
Canadians. Today, Chinese food is one of the most popular types of cuisine in Canada,
and many Canadians consider it to be a part of their national cuisine.
Chinese culture has also had an impact on Canadian art and literature.
Chinese-Canadian writers such as Wayson Choy, SKY Lee, and Larissa Lai have
produced works that explore the experiences of Chinese immigrants and their
descendants in Canada. Chinese-Canadian artists have also made significant
contributions to Canadian art, with their work being featured in galleries and
museums across the country.
Chinese cultural practices have also had an impact on Canadian society more
broadly. For example, the Chinese tradition of feng shui, which is the practice of
arranging one's living and work spaces in a way that promotes balance and harmony,
has become popular among many Canadians. The practice of tai chi, a form of martial
arts that emphasizes relaxation and meditation, is also practiced by many Canadians.
In addition to these cultural practices, Chinese immigrants have also made
significant contributions to Canadian society through their work ethic,
entrepreneurship, and community involvement. Chinese-Canadian businesses have
played a significant role in the Canadian economy, and Chinese immigrants have been
active in community organizations and political movements.
Overall, the influence of Chinese cultural practices on Canadian society is a
testament to the resilience and creativity of Chinese immigrants and their descendants.
Despite the challenges they faced in a new country, they were able to preserve and
adapt their cultural traditions, and in doing so, they enriched Canadian society as a
whole.
1.4 Discrimination and Exclusion
1.4.1 Hostility and Racism towards Chinese Immigrants
1. Overview of Hostility and Racism Experienced by Chinese Immigrants in
Canada
Chinese immigrants to Canada experienced significant hostility and racism in the
early years of their arrival. This hostility and racism were fueled by a combination of
factors, including economic competition, cultural differences, and xenophobia (Lai,
2017, p. 29).8
One significant factor that fueled hostility and racism towards Chinese
immigrants was economic competition. Many white Canadians saw Chinese
immigrants as a threat to their jobs and their livelihoods. Chinese immigrants were
often willing to work for lower wages and under harsher conditions than white
8Lai, D. (2017). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
29
workers, making them attractive to employers. As a result, Chinese immigrants were
often accused of taking jobs away from white Canadians, which led to resentment and
hostility towards them (Li, 2017, p. 109).9
Cultural differences also played a significant role in the hostility and racism
experienced by Chinese immigrants. Chinese immigrants often had different cultural
practices and beliefs than white Canadians, which led to misunderstandings and fear
(Li, 2017, p. 108).9For example, the practice of burning incense and paper money
during traditional Chinese ceremonies was often seen as strange and even threatening
by white Canadians. This fear of the unknown, combined with xenophobia, led to
hostility towards Chinese immigrants (Lai, 2017, p. 29).8
Chinese immigrants were also subjected to discriminatory laws and policies,
such as the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885, which imposed a head tax on Chinese
immigrants and effectively limited their ability to immigrate to Canada (Lai, 2017, p.
32).8This policy, which was in effect until 1923, made it more difficult for Chinese
immigrants to bring their families to Canada and further marginalized them within
Canadian society.
Overall, the hostility and racism experienced by Chinese immigrants in Canada
were significant and had a lasting impact on the Chinese Canadian community.
Despite these challenges, Chinese immigrants worked hard to build their lives and
communities in Canada, and their contributions to Canadian society are significant
and ongoing.
2. Stereotypes and Prejudices Contributing to Discrimination
The hostility and racism experienced by Chinese immigrants in Canada were
largely fueled by stereotypes and prejudices that were widespread in Canadian society
during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Chinese immigrants were viewed as
"yellow peril," a term coined by Western nations to describe the supposed threat posed
by East Asians (Gyory, 2013).10 This stereotype was based on the belief that Chinese
immigrants were morally and intellectually inferior to Caucasians and were
responsible for the economic and social problems faced by Canadian society.
Another prevalent stereotype was that of the Chinese immigrant as a laborer or
servant. This stereotype was perpetuated by the fact that many Chinese immigrants
were employed in low-paying jobs such as mining, fishing, and domestic service.
Chinese immigrants were also portrayed as unhygienic and disease-ridden, which
further fueled anti-Chinese sentiment.
The prejudices against Chinese immigrants were also fueled by a fear of the
9Li, P. S. (2017). The making of Asian America through political participation: Inclusion, integration, and
panethnicity. University of Illinois Press.
10 Gyory, A. (2013). Yellow Peril!: An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear. Verso Books.
30
"other." Canadian society was largely homogenous, and the arrival of large numbers
of Chinese immigrants was seen as a threat to this homogeneity. The cultural practices
of Chinese immigrants, such as their language, dress, and religion, were seen as exotic
and foreign, and were viewed with suspicion and fear.
These stereotypes and prejudices contributed to the discrimination faced by
Chinese immigrants in Canada. Chinese immigrants were subjected to discriminatory
laws, such as the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which effectively banned Chinese
immigration to Canada. Chinese immigrants were also subjected to physical violence,
discrimination in employment and housing, and social exclusion.
In conclusion, the hostility and racism experienced by Chinese immigrants in
Canada were fueled by stereotypes and prejudices that were prevalent in Canadian
society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These stereotypes and prejudices
contributed to discriminatory laws, physical violence, and discrimination in
employment and housing, and had a profound impact on the Chinese Canadian
community.
3. Impact of Discrimination on Daily Lives and Integration into Canadian
Society
Chinese immigrants in Canada faced a wide range of discrimination and hostility
from the moment they arrived. From the implementation of discriminatory policies
and laws, to outright violence and prejudice from the Canadian population, Chinese
immigrants were regularly subjected to significant obstacles in their daily lives and
efforts to integrate into Canadian society.
One of the most significant ways that discrimination affected Chinese
immigrants' daily lives was through economic exclusion. Many Chinese immigrants
were unable to find work outside of low-wage labor such as mining, fishing, and
agriculture. They faced significant barriers to entry in other industries, such as trades,
and were often forced to work in isolated communities with few opportunities to
socialize or participate in Canadian society more broadly. Discrimination in housing
also posed a significant challenge, with Chinese immigrants often being forced to live
in segregated neighborhoods, overcrowded tenements, and even substandard housing.
In addition to economic exclusion, Chinese immigrants were also subject to
social exclusion. They were often denied access to public spaces such as parks,
swimming pools, and libraries, and Chinese-owned businesses were frequently
boycotted by non-Chinese customers. Chinese immigrants were also excluded from
mainstream political processes and were frequently barred from becoming citizens or
voting, making it difficult for them to advocate for their rights and defend themselves
against discriminatory policies and practices.
Perhaps most significantly, the discrimination and hostility that Chinese
31
immigrants faced in Canada contributed to a sense of isolation and cultural distance
from the broader Canadian community. Chinese immigrants often formed their own
associations, businesses, and communities as a way to create a sense of belonging and
mutual support in the face of discrimination. While these organizations provided a
measure of support and solidarity, they also reinforced a sense of separateness from
the broader Canadian community.
In short, the discrimination and hostility that Chinese immigrants faced in
Canada had a profound impact on their daily lives and their ability to integrate into
Canadian society. Economic and social exclusion, along with political
disenfranchisement, limited their opportunities and created a sense of isolation and
cultural distance from the broader Canadian community. Despite these challenges,
however, Chinese immigrants in Canada demonstrated remarkable resilience and
resourcefulness, forging their own communities and cultural practices in the face of
discrimination and exclusion.
1.4.2 Anti-Chinese Legislation and Policies
1. Description of Anti-Chinese Legislation and Policies Enacted in Canada
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Canada enacted a series of
discriminatory laws and policies that targeted Chinese immigrants. These laws and
policies were driven by xenophobic attitudes and a desire to protect white Canadians
from perceived threats posed by Chinese immigrants. Some of the most notable
anti-Chinese legislation and policies include:
a. Head Tax: In 1885, the Canadian government introduced a head tax on
Chinese immigrants, which required them to pay a fee to enter the country.
The head tax started at $50 and increased to $500 by 1903, which was a
significant sum of money at the time.
b. Chinese Exclusion Act: In 1923, the Canadian government passed the
Chinese Exclusion Act, which banned almost all forms of Chinese
immigration to Canada. The law was designed to prevent Chinese
immigrants from entering the country and to force those already in Canada
to return to China.
c. Restrictions on Citizenship: Chinese immigrants were also subject to
restrictions on citizenship. Under the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923,
Chinese immigrants were not eligible for Canadian citizenship until 1947.
d. Segregation: Chinese immigrants were often segregated from the wider
community and forced to live in separate neighborhoods. In some cases, they
were restricted from owning property or operating businesses outside of
designated areas.
32
e. Discrimination in Employment: Chinese immigrants faced discrimination in
employment, with many industries refusing to hire them. This left many
Chinese immigrants with limited job opportunities and forced them to work
in low-paying, labor-intensive jobs.
These laws and policies had a significant impact on the Chinese community in
Canada. Chinese immigrants were subjected to discriminatory treatment and were
often seen as outsiders in Canadian society. The head tax and the Chinese Exclusion
Act, in particular, made it difficult for Chinese immigrants to bring their families to
Canada, which meant that many were separated from their loved ones for years or
even decades. This contributed to a sense of isolation and exclusion from Canadian
society.
In conclusion, the anti-Chinese legislation and policies that were enacted in
Canada during the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a profound impact on
Chinese immigrants and their families. These laws and policies perpetuated
discriminatory attitudes and created barriers to integration and full participation in
Canadian society. It wasn't until the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947 and
subsequent changes to Canadian immigration policy that Chinese immigrants were
able to fully participate in Canadian society without discrimination.
2. Reasons behind These Policies and Their Impact on Chinese Immigration to
Canada
The anti-Chinese legislation and policies enacted in Canada during the late 19th
and early 20th centuries were motivated by a combination of economic, social, and
political factors. One major factor was the economic competition between Chinese
immigrants and white Canadians. Chinese immigrants were willing to work for lower
wages and in more difficult and dangerous jobs, which threatened the job security of
white workers. Additionally, some Canadians believed that the Chinese were taking
jobs away from Canadians and were responsible for driving down wages.
Another factor was social and cultural prejudice against the Chinese. Many
Canadians viewed the Chinese as racially inferior and uncivilized. These attitudes
were reinforced by the media, which often portrayed the Chinese as a threat to
Canadian society. In particular, the Chinese were associated with opium use and
prostitution, which were seen as moral and social evils.
Finally, political considerations also played a role in the enactment of
anti-Chinese policies. The Canadian government feared that the influx of Chinese
immigrants would lead to a permanent Chinese presence in Canada and possibly even
Chinese control of Canadian territory. This fear was fueled by events such as the gold
rushes in British Columbia, which attracted large numbers of Chinese immigrants to
the province.
33
The impact of these policies on Chinese immigration to Canada was significant.
The first anti-Chinese legislation was the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885, which
imposed a head tax on Chinese immigrants. This tax was increased several times over
the years and eventually reached a peak of $500 per person in 1903. The head tax
made it difficult for Chinese immigrants to bring their families to Canada and created
a significant financial burden for those who did immigrate. The tax was not abolished
until 1923.
In addition to the head tax, other policies were enacted that restricted Chinese
immigration to Canada. For example, the 1906 "Gentlemen's Agreement" between
Canada and Japan restricted Japanese immigration to Canada, which led to an
increase in Chinese immigration. In response, the Canadian government introduced
the Continuous Journey Regulation in 1908, which required immigrants to travel to
Canada directly from their country of origin without stopping in a third country. This
policy was designed to prevent Chinese immigrants from entering Canada via the
United States.
The impact of these policies on the Chinese community in Canada was profound.
Chinese immigrants faced significant discrimination and were often treated as
second-class citizens. They were excluded from many professions and industries and
were forced to live in segregated areas of Canadian cities. The Chinese were also
subjected to physical violence and harassment, particularly during times of economic
hardship.
In summary, the anti-Chinese legislation and policies enacted in Canada were
motivated by economic, social, and political factors. These policies had a significant
impact on Chinese immigration to Canada and on the Chinese community in Canada.
The discrimination and prejudice faced by Chinese immigrants in Canada during this
time period were significant and have had long-lasting effects on the Chinese
community in Canada.
3. Contribution of Policies to Marginalization and Exclusion of Chinese
Immigrants in Canadian Society
The anti-Chinese legislation and policies that were enacted in Canada had a
significant impact on the marginalization and exclusion of Chinese immigrants in
Canadian society. These policies were designed to restrict Chinese immigration, limit
their economic opportunities, and deny them basic rights.
One of the most significant policies was the Chinese Head Tax, which was
implemented in 1885. This tax was a fee that Chinese immigrants had to pay to enter
Canada, and it was designed to discourage Chinese immigration (Chan, 1983, p. 53).11
The amount of the tax varied over the years, but it was initially set at $50, which was
11 Chan, A. B. (1983). Gold Mountain: The Chinese in the New World. Vancouver: New Star Books.
34
a considerable sum of money at the time. In 1903, the tax was increased to $500,
which effectively barred most Chinese immigrants from entering Canada.
Another policy that contributed to the exclusion of Chinese immigrants was the
Chinese Exclusion Act, which was enacted in 1923 (Li, 1998, p. 51).12 This act
prohibited Chinese immigrants from entering Canada and effectively ended Chinese
immigration for over 20 years. The act was only repealed in 1947, after the end of
World War II.
These policies not only limited the number of Chinese immigrants in Canada but
also had a profound impact on those who were already living in the country. Chinese
immigrants were denied the right to vote, to own property, and to work in certain
industries. They were also subjected to discriminatory laws, such as the prohibition of
interracial marriage and the segregation of schools (Li, 1998, p. 49).12
As a result of these policies, Chinese immigrants were forced to live in
segregated communities, such as Vancouver's Chinatown, where they faced poverty
and overcrowding. They were also subjected to racism and discrimination in their
daily lives, such as being denied service in stores and restaurants, being subjected to
violence and harassment, and being excluded from mainstream Canadian society (Li,
1998, p. 53).12
The legacy of these policies continues to affect Chinese Canadians today, with
many still feeling the effects of discrimination and marginalization. However, Chinese
Canadians have also worked hard to overcome these challenges and have made
significant contributions to Canadian society.
1.4.3 Effects on Chinese Families and Communities
1. Overview of Effects of Discrimination and Exclusion on Chinese Families
and Communities in Canada
Discrimination and exclusion had a significant impact on Chinese families and
communities in Canada. Chinese immigrants faced immense challenges in trying to
build a new life in a foreign country while also contending with hostile attitudes
towards their presence. As a result, many Chinese families were forced to live in
poverty, with limited access to education, healthcare, and other essential services.
One of the most significant effects of discrimination and exclusion was the
creation of a tightly-knit Chinese community. Due to their shared experiences of
discrimination, Chinese immigrants banded together for support and formed
close-knit communities. These communities provided a sense of belonging and
identity, as well as practical support, such as job referrals and assistance in finding
housing.
12 Li, P. S. (1998). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press.
35
At the same time, discrimination and exclusion also had negative effects on the
mental health and well-being of Chinese immigrants. Many suffered from depression
and anxiety, as well as other stress-related health problems. Discrimination also had a
negative impact on family relationships, as many Chinese families were forced to live
in cramped quarters and had limited access to resources.
Chinese children were particularly affected by discrimination and exclusion.
Many were unable to attend school or access quality education, which limited their
opportunities for upward mobility. As a result, many Chinese families relied on their
own networks to provide education and training to their children.
Overall, discrimination and exclusion had a profound impact on Chinese families
and communities in Canada. Despite facing immense challenges, Chinese immigrants
persevered and worked to create a better life for themselves and their families. Today,
their contributions to Canadian society are widely recognized and celebrated.
2. Impact on Family Life, Education, and Social and Economic Opportunities
The discrimination and exclusion faced by Chinese immigrants in Canada had
significant impacts on their family life, education, and social and economic
opportunities. Chinese families were often separated due to discriminatory
immigration policies, with men coming to Canada to work and support their families
while leaving their wives and children behind in China. This separation led to the
formation of bachelor societies, where Chinese men lived and worked together in
isolation from Canadian society.
Education was also limited for Chinese children, with segregated schools being
established specifically for Chinese students. These schools were often poorly funded
and had low-quality teaching, leading to limited educational opportunities for Chinese
children. As a result, many Chinese families prioritized work over education for their
children, believing that economic success would provide more opportunities for their
future.
In terms of social and economic opportunities, Chinese immigrants faced
significant discrimination in employment. They were often relegated to low-paying,
menial jobs such as laundry workers, cooks, and domestic servants. Chinese workers
were also subjected to long hours and poor working conditions, with little opportunity
for advancement or better pay. Discrimination in housing also limited the choices
available to Chinese families, with many being forced to live in substandard housing
in segregated areas.
These limitations on education, employment, and housing opportunities had
significant long-term impacts on Chinese families and communities in Canada. Many
Chinese immigrants struggled to provide for their families, and the lack of education
opportunities for their children perpetuated a cycle of limited economic success. The
36
discriminatory policies and attitudes towards Chinese immigrants also created a sense
of isolation and exclusion from Canadian society, which further hindered their ability
to fully participate and contribute.
3. Response of Chinese Canadians to These Challenges and Their Building of
Resilience and Solidarity within Their Communities
Despite facing discrimination and exclusion in Canadian society, Chinese
Canadians did not passively accept their situation. Instead, they developed various
strategies to cope with and resist the challenges they faced.
One of the primary ways in which Chinese Canadians built resilience and
solidarity within their communities was through the formation of Chinese associations
and organizations. As mentioned earlier, these associations played a crucial role in
providing support and advocating for the rights of Chinese immigrants. They also
served as a means of connection and community-building, as Chinese immigrants
often relied on each other for support and guidance in a hostile environment.
Chinese Canadians also developed their own social and cultural spaces, such as
Chinatowns and community centers, where they could maintain their traditions and
cultural practices. These spaces not only provided a sense of belonging and identity
but also allowed Chinese Canadians to create their own economic opportunities and
social networks.
Another way in which Chinese Canadians responded to discrimination was
through the development of transnational networks. Many Chinese immigrants
maintained connections to their homeland and established trade and business
relationships with other Chinese communities around the world. This allowed them to
circumvent some of the restrictions placed on them by Canadian authorities and to
maintain a sense of connection to their culture and heritage.
Despite the challenges they faced, Chinese Canadians were able to build strong
communities and maintain their cultural traditions. This resilience and solidarity
continue to shape the experiences of Chinese Canadians in Canada today.
Chapter Summary
Chapter I of the book delves into the early history of Chinese immigration to
Canada from the 1850s to the 1900s. The chapter is divided into four main sections
that explore the push and pull factors behind Chinese immigration, the role of Chinese
labor in building the Canadian Pacific Railway, the formation of early Chinese
communities in Canada, and the discrimination and exclusion faced by Chinese
immigrants.
Section 1.1 examines the reasons behind Chinese immigration to Canada.
Economic and political conditions in China, such as poverty, famine, and political
37
instability, motivated many Chinese to seek opportunities abroad. Canadian
businesses and government also actively recruited Chinese laborers to work in
industries such as mining, fishing, and agriculture, promising a better life and
economic opportunity.
Section 1.2 focuses on the significant role played by Chinese laborers in
constructing the transcontinental railway. The chapter explores the living and working
conditions of Chinese workers, including discrimination and violence, and their
contributions to Canadian development and transportation.
Section 1.3 details the formation of early Chinese communities in Canada.
Chinese immigrants settled in specific areas and formed associations and businesses
that catered to their needs. The chapter also explores the religious and cultural
practices that Chinese immigrants brought with them to Canada.
Section 1.4 highlights the racism and discrimination that Chinese immigrants
faced in Canada. Hostility towards Chinese immigrants was fueled by anti-Chinese
legislation and policies, such as the Chinese Head Tax and the Chinese Exclusion Act.
These discriminatory laws had devastating effects on Chinese families and
communities, leading to separation, hardship, and exclusion.
Overall, Chapter I provides a comprehensive overview of the early history of
Chinese immigration to Canada. It explores the push and pull factors that motivated
Chinese immigration, the role of Chinese labor in building the Canadian Pacific
Railway, the formation of early Chinese communities in Canada, and the
discrimination and exclusion faced by Chinese immigrants.
38
CHAPTER II. CHINESE IMMIGRATION DURING THE EXCLUSION ERA
(1923-1947)
Between 1923 and 1947, the Chinese Immigration Act, also known as the
Exclusion Act, severely restricted the number of Chinese immigrants allowed into
Canada. The Act was a reflection of the racist and discriminatory attitudes towards
Chinese immigrants that existed at the time, and had lasting impacts on
Chinese-Canadian communities. In this chapter, we will explore the history of
Chinese immigration during the Exclusion Era, including the political and social
contexts that led to the Act, the experiences of Chinese immigrants in Canada during
this time, and the ways in which Chinese-Canadian communities persisted and
adapted despite the discriminatory policies they faced. Through this examination, we
will gain a deeper understanding of the struggles and triumphs of early Chinese
immigrants in Canada, and the enduring legacy of the Exclusion Act on
Chinese-Canadian communities today.
2.1 The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923
2.1.1 Context and History of the Act
1. Historical and political context of the Chinese Immigration Act
The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Act,
was a federal law passed by the Canadian government in 1923. It effectively banned
all immigration from China to Canada, except for a few exemptions, such as
merchants, diplomats, and students. The law remained in effect until 1947, when it
was repealed.
The passing of the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 was influenced by several
historical and political factors. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Chinese
immigrants in Canada faced significant discrimination and racism. They were often
subject to violence, harassment, and exclusion from various areas of Canadian society,
including employment, housing, and political participation. This discrimination was
fueled by a range of factors, including anti-Asian sentiment, economic competition,
and fears of Chinese immigrants "taking over" Canada.
Another factor that contributed to the passing of the Act was the geopolitical
context of the time. In the early 20th century, there was a growing tension between
Canada and China, which was seen as a rising power in Asia. Canada was concerned
about its own economic and political interests in the region and saw Chinese
immigration as a threat to its sovereignty. Additionally, Canada was under pressure
from the United States, which had already passed a series of discriminatory laws
targeting Chinese immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Canadian
government believed that following the lead of the United States would help protect
Canada's economic and political interests in the region.
39
The Act was also passed against a backdrop of economic uncertainty and
political instability in Canada. The country was facing a post-war economic recession,
and many Canadians believed that the presence of Chinese immigrants was
exacerbating economic problems. Additionally, there was a growing nationalist
sentiment in Canada, which sought to define Canada as a homogenous and exclusive
nation, free from the influence of "foreign" elements. This sentiment was reflected in
the passage of other laws during this time, such as the Indian Act of 1920, which
restricted the rights of Indigenous peoples in Canada.
Overall, the passing of the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 was the result of a
complex set of historical and political factors, including anti-Asian sentiment,
geopolitical tensions, economic concerns, and nationalist sentiment. The Act had a
significant impact on Chinese immigration to Canada and the Chinese Canadian
community, and its legacy is still felt today.
2. Reasons and factors behind the enactment of the Act
The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Act,
was enacted by the Canadian government in response to a growing anti-Chinese
sentiment among the general public and political elites in Canada. The Act was passed
at a time when Chinese immigration to Canada had already been significantly
restricted by the head tax and continuous journey regulations.
One of the main reasons behind the Act was the perception among many
Canadians that Chinese immigrants were taking jobs away from Canadian workers
and driving down wages. This perception was fueled by the economic depression of
the 1920s, which led to increased unemployment and job insecurity among Canadians.
Additionally, some Canadians believed that Chinese immigrants were culturally and
racially inferior, and therefore posed a threat to the Canadian way of life.
Another factor that contributed to the enactment of the Act was pressure from the
government of British Columbia, which had been lobbying for greater restrictions on
Chinese immigration for several years. British Columbia was home to the largest
number of Chinese immigrants in Canada, and many Canadians in the province
resented the Chinese presence and saw them as a threat to their economic and cultural
interests.
The Canadian government also faced pressure from the United States, which had
passed its own Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 (Li, 2016).13 The U.S. government had
been pressuring Canada to enact similar legislation to prevent Chinese immigrants
from entering Canada and then crossing the border into the United States.
Overall, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 was a reflection of the prevailing
13 Li, P. S. (2016). The Chinese in Canada. In J. Wright (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of social and
behavioral sciences (2nd ed., pp. 1-6). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.30013-2
40
attitudes and prejudices towards Chinese immigrants in Canada at the time. It was
driven by economic concerns, racial and cultural prejudices, and political pressure
from British Columbia and the United States. The Act would remain in effect for more
than two decades, severely limiting the number of Chinese immigrants who were
allowed to enter Canada and contributing to the marginalization and discrimination
faced by Chinese Canadians during the exclusion era.
3. Attitudes and beliefs about Chinese immigrants shaping the Act
The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 was driven by deeply held prejudices and
fears about Chinese immigrants that had been building for decades. One of the key
beliefs held by many Canadians at the time was that Chinese immigrants were
fundamentally incompatible with Canadian society and culture. This belief was rooted
in racism and a lack of understanding about Chinese culture and traditions.
Another factor that contributed to the Act's provisions was the belief that Chinese
immigrants were taking jobs away from white Canadians. This fear was fueled by
economic competition and a perception that Chinese immigrants were willing to work
for lower wages than white workers. This perception was also rooted in racism and a
lack of understanding about the conditions and circumstances that Chinese
immigrants faced in Canada.
The Act was also shaped by a fear of the "Yellow Peril," a racist and xenophobic
idea that portrayed people of Asian descent as a threat to Western civilization. This
fear was fueled by stereotypes and propaganda that portrayed Chinese immigrants as
unclean, disease-ridden, and immoral. These ideas were not unique to Canada, but
were part of a broader cultural and political context that was present in many Western
countries at the time.
Finally, the Act was driven by political considerations, as politicians sought to
appeal to anti-Chinese sentiment among their constituents. The Act was passed at a
time when many Canadians were feeling economic uncertainty and social unrest, and
politicians saw the Act as a way to channel these concerns into political support.
Overall, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 was shaped by a complex set of
beliefs, fears, and political considerations that reflected the cultural and political
context of the time. These attitudes and beliefs about Chinese immigrants contributed
to the Act's provisions and the exclusion of Chinese immigrants from Canada for
more than two decades.
2.1.2 Provisions and Restrictions on Chinese Immigration
1. Specific provisions and restrictions in the Chinese Immigration Act
The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Act,
was a federal law passed by the Canadian government on July 1, 1923. The act was
41
designed to significantly limit and eventually eliminate the entry of Chinese
immigrants to Canada. It contained several provisions and restrictions that were
specifically targeted at Chinese immigrants, including the following:
a. Complete Ban on Chinese Immigration: The most significant provision of
the act was the complete ban on Chinese immigration to Canada. The act
prevented Chinese immigrants from entering Canada, even as visitors or
tourists (Ouimet, 2018, p. 163)14. The ban remained in place until its repeal
in 1947.
b. Limited Entry of Chinese Immigrants: The act also imposed restrictions on
the number of Chinese immigrants who could enter Canada. Only a limited
number of Chinese immigrants were allowed to enter Canada each year, and
this number was set by the Canadian government.
c. Exclusion of Chinese Immigrants from Canadian Citizenship: The act also
prevented Chinese immigrants from obtaining Canadian citizenship. Chinese
immigrants who were already in Canada were denied the right to vote or
hold public office (Lai, 2015, p. 2).15
d. Requirement for Special Certificates: Chinese immigrants who were
exempted from the ban on Chinese immigration were required to obtain
special certificates from the Canadian government before entering the
country (Li, 2008, p. 209).16 These certificates were only issued to Chinese
immigrants who could demonstrate that they had close family members in
Canada or who could prove that they were business people, diplomats, or
students.
e. Penalty for Smuggling Chinese Immigrants: The act also imposed penalties
on people who smuggled Chinese immigrants into Canada (Li, 2008, p.
209).16 Anyone caught smuggling Chinese immigrants faced fines and
imprisonment.
f. Exemption for Canadian-born Chinese: The act contained an exemption for
Canadian-born Chinese, who were allowed to enter and leave the country
freely. However, this exemption did not apply to Chinese immigrants who
had left Canada and returned later (Hawkins, 1988, p. 116).17
These provisions and restrictions were specifically designed to limit the entry of
Chinese immigrants to Canada and to prevent them from settling in the country. The
14 Ouimet, M. (2018). The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923: The State, Resistance, and the Making of the
Chinese Canadian “Problem”. Journal of Canadian Studies/Revue d'études canadiennes, 52(2), 159-184.
15 Lai, D. (2015). The Chinese in Canada. Canadian Historical Association.
16 Li, P. S. (2008). Chinese in Canada. Oxford University Press.
17 Hawkins, F. J. (1988). The Chinese community in Canada (Vol. 18). Oxford University Press.
42
act was a reflection of the deeply held prejudices and discriminatory attitudes towards
Chinese immigrants that were prevalent in Canadian society at the time.
2. Impact of provisions on Chinese immigration to Canada
The provisions and restrictions outlined in The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923
had a significant impact on Chinese immigration to Canada (Li, 2000; Lui, 2017;
Wong, 2006)181920. Firstly, the Act effectively ended Chinese immigration to Canada
for over two decades. Under the Act, Chinese individuals were only allowed to enter
Canada if they fell under one of a few specific categories, such as being a diplomat or
a student. However, even those who were eligible under these categories still faced
discrimination and barriers to entry.
Secondly, the Act introduced a head tax of $500 on Chinese immigrants, which
was a significant sum of money at the time. The head tax was later increased to $1000
in 1923, and then again to $5000 in 1928. This made it nearly impossible for many
Chinese individuals to afford to immigrate to Canada, effectively limiting the number
of Chinese immigrants to Canada to a trickle.
Finally, the Act also gave the government of Canada the power to deport Chinese
immigrants who had entered Canada unlawfully. This gave the government the ability
to deport Chinese immigrants who had arrived in Canada through means such as
smuggling or who had overstayed their visas, further limiting Chinese immigration to
Canada.
These provisions and restrictions had a profound impact on Chinese communities
in Canada, as many families were separated for years or even decades due to the
restrictions on immigration. The head tax was also a significant financial burden for
many Chinese families who wanted to immigrate to Canada, further limiting their
ability to do so. The Act effectively created a climate of fear and discrimination
against Chinese individuals, which persisted for many years. It wasn't until the Act
was finally repealed in 1947 that Chinese immigration to Canada began to increase
once again.
3. Effects of the Act on Chinese-Canadian families and communities
The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 had a significant impact on
Chinese-Canadian families and communities. The Act was designed to prevent further
Chinese immigration and limit the growth of the existing Chinese population in
18 Li, P. S. (2000). The Chinese in Canada. Toronto: Oxford University Press.
19 Lui, J. (2017). The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/chinese-immigration-act
20 Wong, H. (2006). Chinese immigration to Canada. In P. Li, L. Guo, & J. Chiu (Eds.), Chinese in Canada
(pp. 53-70). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
43
Canada. As a result, families were separated, and communities were disrupted.
One of the primary ways the Act affected families was by preventing Chinese
men from bringing their wives and children to Canada. Before the Act, many Chinese
men had come to Canada to work, with the intention of bringing their families over
once they were established. However, the Act prevented this from happening, and
many families were separated for years, even decades. This separation had a profound
impact on the emotional well-being of the Chinese-Canadian community, as well as
the ability of Chinese-Canadians to maintain traditional family values and practices.
The Act also had economic consequences for Chinese-Canadian communities.
The restrictions on Chinese immigration meant that there were fewer opportunities for
Chinese-Canadians to start businesses, obtain higher-paying jobs, and contribute to
the economic development of the country. This economic marginalization further
reinforced the social marginalization that Chinese-Canadians experienced, as they
were unable to fully participate in Canadian society.
Moreover, the Act led to the formation of a large population of "bachelor
society" Chinese men who were unable to bring their families over. These men were
often seen as undesirable and faced significant discrimination in Canadian society.
They were relegated to low-paying jobs and were unable to participate in many
aspects of Canadian life. This further reinforced the social isolation of
Chinese-Canadians and contributed to a sense of alienation from Canadian society.
In addition to the separation of families and the economic consequences, the Act
also had a significant impact on the education of Chinese-Canadian children. Because
the Act prevented Chinese men from bringing their families to Canada, many children
were left behind in China to be educated. This led to a generation of
Chinese-Canadian children who were educated in Chinese schools and had little
exposure to Canadian culture or values. This further reinforced the sense of alienation
that many Chinese-Canadians felt from Canadian society and made it more difficult
for them to fully integrate into Canadian life.
Overall, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 had a profound and lasting impact
on Chinese-Canadian families and communities. Its provisions and restrictions caused
families to be separated, limited economic opportunities for Chinese-Canadians, and
reinforced social isolation and discrimination.
2.1.3 Political and Social Factors Behind the Act
1. Political and social factors contributing to the passage of the Act
The Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Act,
was a response to a growing anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada. This sentiment was
fueled by various political and social factors, including economic competition, racial
stereotypes, and fear of a so-called "Yellow Peril."
44
Economic competition played a significant role in the anti-Chinese sentiment
that led to the passage of the Act. Chinese immigrants were seen as a threat to the jobs
of white Canadians, particularly in the mining, fishing, and lumber industries. As the
economy struggled in the wake of World War I, many Canadians became more hostile
to Chinese immigrants, whom they saw as a drain on scarce resources.
Racial stereotypes also played a role in the passage of the Act. Chinese
immigrants were often portrayed as unclean, uncivilized, and disease-ridden, and
were accused of bringing down the moral standards of Canadian society. These
stereotypes were perpetuated by newspapers, politicians, and social organizations, and
served to justify discriminatory policies against Chinese immigrants.
Finally, fear of a so-called "Yellow Peril" contributed to the passage of the Act.
This term referred to the perceived threat of East Asian immigration to Western
countries, and was based on the belief that Chinese and other Asian immigrants were
racially inferior and posed a danger to the white race. This fear was stoked by the rise
of Japanese military power in the Pacific, and by concerns about Communist
influence in China.
Together, these political and social factors created a climate of hostility towards
Chinese immigrants in Canada, and contributed to the passage of the Chinese
Immigration Act of 1923. The Act represented a significant setback for
Chinese-Canadians, who were effectively excluded from the country for the next 24
years. It was not until 1947 that the Act was repealed, and Chinese immigrants were
once again allowed to enter Canada.
2. Role of racism, xenophobia, and economic factors
The enactment of the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 was influenced by
various political and social factors. Racism and xenophobia were two key factors that
contributed to the anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada during this period. Many
Canadians believed that Chinese immigrants were taking away jobs from Canadians
and were responsible for driving down wages. Additionally, the influx of Chinese
immigrants was seen as a threat to Canadian society and culture, as they were seen as
"foreign" and "unassimilable."
Economic factors also played a role in the Act's enactment. During the early
1900s, Canada experienced a period of economic depression and high unemployment
rates. Many Canadians believed that restricting Chinese immigration would alleviate
these economic woes by reducing competition for jobs and resources. The Canadian
government also saw the restriction of Chinese immigration as a way to appease the
United States, which had passed its own Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882.
Furthermore, political factors contributed to the passage of the Act. The
government of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King was facing pressure
45
from various interest groups, such as labor unions and anti-immigrant organizations,
to restrict Chinese immigration. The government also saw the passage of the Act as a
way to bolster its nationalist credentials and demonstrate its commitment to protecting
Canadian interests.
In summary, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 was enacted due to a
combination of political, social, and economic factors, including racism, xenophobia,
economic depression, and political pressure from interest groups. The Act was a
product of its time and reflected the prevailing attitudes and beliefs of many
Canadians towards Chinese immigrants during the exclusion era.
3. Social and political climate enabling the passage of the Act
The social and political climate in Canada during the early 20th century played a
significant role in the passage of the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923. At the time,
there was a widespread belief among Canadians that the country was facing a threat of
being "overrun" by Chinese immigrants, who were perceived as undesirable and a
threat to Canada's economic and social order. This sentiment was fueled by a
combination of factors, including racist attitudes towards people of Asian descent,
economic competition for jobs, and fear of cultural assimilation (Li, 2005, p. 82)21.
Racism and xenophobia towards Chinese immigrants were deeply entrenched in
Canadian society at the time, with many Canadians viewing Chinese immigrants as an
inferior race. This sentiment was fueled by anti-Asian sentiment that was prevalent in
the United States, as well as by a fear of "yellow peril" or the perceived threat of
Asian domination. Economic factors also played a role, as Chinese workers were
often willing to work for lower wages than their Canadian counterparts, leading to
resentment and competition for jobs.
The political climate in Canada during the early 20th century was also
characterized by a sense of nationalism and a desire to protect Canadian identity and
culture. This was particularly true in the aftermath of World War I, which had left
many Canadians feeling a sense of national pride and identity. This sense of
nationalism was often linked to a fear of cultural assimilation and a desire to maintain
a "pure" Canadian identity that was free from outside influences.
All of these factors combined to create a climate in which the passage of the
Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 was seen as necessary to protect Canada's economic
and social order. The Act was viewed by many Canadians as a way to preserve
Canadian identity and culture and to ensure that the country remained free from
outside influences. While the Act had a devastating impact on Chinese-Canadian
families and communities, its passage was a reflection of the deeply ingrained racism
and xenophobia that characterized Canadian society at the time.
21 Li, P. S. (2005). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
46
2.2 Life Under the Exclusion Policy
2.2.1 Effects on Chinese Communities and Families
1. Impact of exclusion policy on Chinese communities and families
The Exclusion Policy of 1923 had a profound impact on Chinese communities
and families in Canada. The Act severely restricted Chinese immigration to Canada
and prevented Chinese immigrants from bringing their families over, leading to the
formation of bachelor societies and families being separated for years or even decades
(Ward, 2002, p. 61).22 Chinese immigrants who were already in Canada were
prevented from reuniting with their families and were often subjected to
discriminatory policies and practices.
The Act also created a sense of fear and insecurity among the Chinese
community in Canada, as they were constantly subjected to discrimination, violence,
and harassment. Chinese immigrants were forced to live in segregated areas of cities,
such as Vancouver's Chinatown, and were subjected to strict curfews and other
regulations (Roy, 2017, p. 42).23
Furthermore, the Exclusion Policy also had a significant impact on the Chinese
economy in Canada. Chinese immigrants played an important role in the country's
early economic development, particularly in the areas of agriculture, mining, and
fishing. The policy severely limited the number of Chinese immigrants who could
come to Canada, which in turn limited their ability to contribute to the country's
economic growth (Ward, 2002, p. 64).22
The policy also had long-term effects on the Chinese-Canadian community. The
separation of families and the inability to bring over spouses or children led to a
decline in the population of Chinese Canadians (Roy, 2017, p. 46).23 Additionally, the
discriminatory policies and practices that were enforced during the Exclusion era had
lasting impacts on the Chinese-Canadian community's sense of belonging and identity
(Ward, 2002, p. 69).22 Many Chinese Canadians faced discrimination and racism well
into the latter half of the 20th century, which hindered their ability to fully participate
in Canadian society (Li, 2016, p. 105).24
Overall, the Exclusion Policy had a profound impact on Chinese communities
and families in Canada. Its effects were felt for decades and contributed to the
marginalization of the Chinese-Canadian community.
2. Challenges and difficulties faced by Chinese immigrants and their families
22 Ward, W. P. (2002). White Canada forever: Popular attitudes and public policy toward Orientals in British
Columbia. McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP.
23 Roy, P. (2017). Beyond the nation?: Immigrant China and the Chinese diaspora in Canada. UBC Press.
24 Li, P. S. (2016). Chinese in Canada. Oxford University Press.
47
The Exclusion Policy had a significant impact on the Chinese communities and
families in Canada. Chinese immigrants faced numerous challenges and difficulties,
including social isolation, economic hardship, and political discrimination. The policy
limited their ability to reunite with family members and restricted their mobility
within the country, causing many families to be separated for long periods (Li, 2017,
p. 23).25
One of the most significant challenges faced by Chinese immigrants was the
inability to bring their families to Canada. Under the policy, only a limited number of
Chinese immigrants were allowed to enter Canada each year, and family reunification
was not a priority. This meant that many families were forced to live apart for years,
even decades, and some were never able to reunite at all. This separation caused
significant emotional and psychological distress for families, particularly for children
who grew up without their parents.
Chinese immigrants also faced economic discrimination, with many being unable
to find work or being forced to take on low-paying jobs. This discrimination was
partly due to the policy's restrictions on the types of jobs that Chinese immigrants
could hold, with many being barred from working in professions such as law,
medicine, and engineering. The policy also restricted their ability to own property or
start businesses, limiting their economic opportunities and leaving many families in
poverty.
Additionally, Chinese immigrants faced social discrimination and isolation. The
policy created a climate of fear and mistrust towards Chinese immigrants, with many
Canadians viewing them as a threat to their way of life. This fear and mistrust led to
Chinese immigrants being ostracized from Canadian society, with many facing
harassment and discrimination in their daily lives.
Finally, the policy also had political implications for Chinese immigrants. The
government of Canada viewed Chinese immigrants as a political threat and feared that
they would organize and advocate for their rights. As a result, Chinese immigrants
were denied the right to vote and were excluded from many aspects of Canadian
political life.
Overall, the Exclusion Policy had a devastating impact on Chinese communities
and families in Canada. The policy's restrictions on immigration, economic
opportunities, and social and political rights left many Chinese immigrants struggling
to survive and facing significant challenges to their well-being and sense of belonging
in Canada.
3. Psychological and emotional toll of exclusion and discrimination
25 Li, P. S. (2017). The Chinese in Canada. In R. Trumper-Heritage (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Canadian
Ethnic Studies (pp. 19-32). Oxford University Press.
48
The psychological and emotional toll of exclusion and discrimination on Chinese
immigrants and their families during the Exclusion Era cannot be overstated. The
Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 and its subsequent amendments effectively barred
most Chinese immigrants from entering Canada for over two decades, leading to
family separation and a sense of alienation and isolation.
Many Chinese immigrants who were already in Canada before the Act's
enactment were unable to bring their families over due to the strict quota system,
which allowed only a limited number of family members to enter the country (Moy,
2012, p. 116).26 This forced families to be separated for years or even decades,
causing immense emotional and psychological distress. Children grew up without
their parents, and spouses were forced to live apart for extended periods. This
separation had a long-lasting impact on family dynamics, as many Chinese-Canadian
families struggled to reconnect and rebuild relationships after being separated for so
long.
Furthermore, the discrimination and racism faced by Chinese immigrants in
Canada during this time took a significant toll on their mental health. Chinese
immigrants were subject to discriminatory laws, policies, and social attitudes that
viewed them as second-class citizens (Wong, 2017, p. 28).27 They were often denied
access to basic rights and services, such as healthcare and education, and faced
significant employment barriers. This discrimination and marginalization led to
feelings of shame, embarrassment, and low self-esteem among Chinese immigrants,
which contributed to higher rates of depression, anxiety, and other mental health
issues (Li, 2018, p. 163).28
The psychological and emotional toll of exclusion and discrimination also
extended to future generations of Chinese-Canadians. Children of Chinese immigrants
grew up in an environment where they were seen as different and often faced bullying
and discrimination in schools and other social settings (Lai, 2017, p. 99).29 This,
coupled with the intergenerational trauma resulting from family separation and
discrimination, had a long-lasting impact on the mental health and well-being of
Chinese-Canadian communities.
In conclusion, the psychological and emotional toll of exclusion and
discrimination on Chinese immigrants and their families during the Exclusion Era was
significant and cannot be underestimated. The effects of family separation and
26 Moy, D. (2012). The legacy of the Chinese exclusion act: Canada’s industrial Chinese communities.
Canadian Journal of Sociology, 37(1), 111-138.
27 Wong, L. (2017). Discrimination and Racialization. In Race and Ethnicity in Canada: A Critical
Introduction (3rd ed., pp. 20-40). Oxford University Press.
28 Li, W. (2018). Mental health and mental health services for Chinese immigrants in Canada. In Immigration,
Diversity, and Mental Health (pp. 157-176). Springer.
29 Lai, D. (2017). The limits of white supremacy: Vietnamese Americans and the national question.
University of Minnesota Press.
49
discrimination continue to impact Chinese-Canadian communities to this day,
highlighting the need for continued efforts to promote inclusivity, equality, and
cultural diversity in Canadian society.
2.2.2 Economic and Social Hardships
1. Economic and social hardships experienced by Chinese immigrants
The Exclusion Policy had a significant impact on the economic and social
well-being of Chinese immigrants in Canada. The restrictions on Chinese immigration
under the Act of 1923 reduced the number of Chinese immigrants coming to Canada
to a trickle, and the few who managed to enter faced discrimination and limited
economic opportunities.
Chinese immigrants who had already settled in Canada before the policy's
enactment faced economic hardships due to job discrimination, lower wages, and
limited access to education and healthcare. They were often relegated to low-wage
jobs, such as working in laundries, restaurants, and other service industries.
Chinese-owned businesses also suffered, as the community faced boycotts and
intimidation from non-Chinese competitors and customers.
In addition to economic difficulties, Chinese immigrants faced social hardships
as a result of the policy. The policy institutionalized racism against Chinese
immigrants, leading to social exclusion, stigmatization, and discrimination. Chinese
Canadians were subject to discriminatory practices, such as being denied the right to
vote, owning property, and intermarrying with non-Chinese Canadians. The policy
created a sense of isolation among the Chinese community and a feeling of being
unwanted and unwelcome in Canada.
The hardships and discrimination experienced by Chinese immigrants had a
significant impact on their mental health and well-being. Many Chinese immigrants
experienced social isolation, depression, anxiety, and other psychological distress as a
result of discrimination and exclusion. The policy's impact was felt not only by the
immigrants themselves but also by their families and subsequent generations.
The Exclusion Policy also had a long-term economic impact on the Chinese
community in Canada. The limited economic opportunities and discrimination against
Chinese immigrants prevented them from accumulating wealth and assets, leading to
long-term economic disadvantage. Even after the policy's repeal, Chinese Canadians
faced ongoing discrimination, limiting their economic and social mobility.
In conclusion, the Exclusion Policy had a significant economic and social impact
on Chinese immigrants in Canada. The policy created a sense of isolation and
discrimination that affected the mental health and well-being of Chinese immigrants
and their families. The economic and social hardships faced by Chinese immigrants
had long-lasting effects on their economic and social well-being, leading to ongoing
50
economic disadvantage for the Chinese community in Canada.
2. Impact of the policy on employment, education, and social mobility
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1923 had a profound impact on the economic and
social opportunities available to Chinese immigrants in Canada. The Act explicitly
prohibited Chinese immigrants from working in certain professions, such as law,
medicine, and engineering. They were also barred from working in the public sector
and in industries such as mining and lumber. These restrictions forced many Chinese
immigrants to work in low-paying jobs with little opportunity for advancement, such
as laundry, restaurant, or domestic work. This not only limited their income but also
restricted their social mobility.
In addition to employment restrictions, Chinese immigrants were also denied
access to education and other opportunities for advancement. Chinese children were
often excluded from public schools, and Chinese-language schools were subject to
frequent harassment and vandalism. Chinese students were also excluded from higher
education institutions, as many universities implemented policies that limited or
banned the admission of Chinese students.
These restrictions on employment and education had a significant impact on
Chinese families' economic and social well-being, leading to poverty and social
isolation. Many Chinese immigrants were unable to achieve upward mobility and
were forced to remain in low-paying jobs, leading to generational poverty and limited
opportunities for their children. The exclusionary policies also created a social stigma
and discrimination against Chinese immigrants that persisted long after the policy's
repeal.
The impact of the Exclusion Policy on social mobility and opportunities for
Chinese immigrants and their families continued even after the policy's repeal in 1947.
Chinese immigrants continued to face discrimination and limited access to education
and employment opportunities. The policy's legacy continues to be felt today, as the
Chinese Canadian community continues to advocate for recognition and redress for
the harm caused by the Exclusion Policy.
3. Contribution to poverty and social marginalization of Chinese immigrants
The Chinese Exclusion Policy had a significant impact on the economic and
social status of Chinese immigrants in Canada. The policy effectively barred Chinese
immigrants from most job opportunities, limiting their ability to provide for
themselves and their families. This economic marginalization contributed to a cycle of
poverty, making it difficult for many Chinese immigrants to access basic necessities
such as housing and healthcare.
In terms of employment, the Chinese Exclusion Policy had a significant impact
51
on the types of jobs available to Chinese immigrants. Many employers were hesitant
to hire Chinese immigrants, even for low-skilled jobs, due to widespread prejudice
and discrimination. As a result, many Chinese immigrants were forced to take on
menial and low-paying jobs, such as working in laundries or as domestic servants.
These jobs were often unstable, and wages were meager, making it challenging for
Chinese immigrants to establish financial security or upward mobility.
Education was another area in which the Chinese Exclusion Policy had a
significant impact. Chinese immigrants were effectively barred from accessing
educational opportunities, as many schools and universities had quotas limiting the
number of Chinese students who could enroll. This lack of access to education further
limited opportunities for upward mobility and perpetuated the cycle of poverty
experienced by many Chinese immigrants.
The social marginalization experienced by Chinese immigrants under the
Exclusion Policy also had economic consequences. Chinese immigrants were often
excluded from mainstream society and faced significant social barriers. This
exclusion made it difficult for Chinese immigrants to access social networks and
opportunities that could have led to better economic outcomes. Additionally, the lack
of social integration often resulted in further prejudice and discrimination,
exacerbating the economic and social marginalization experienced by Chinese
immigrants.
Overall, the Chinese Exclusion Policy had a significant and lasting impact on the
economic and social status of Chinese immigrants in Canada. The policy effectively
barred them from many job opportunities, limited access to education, and contributed
to poverty and social marginalization. These factors combined to make it challenging
for Chinese immigrants to establish financial security or achieve upward mobility,
perpetuating cycles of poverty and exclusion within Chinese-Canadian communities.
2.2.3 Resistance and Coping Strategies
1. Resistance and coping strategies used by Chinese immigrants and their
families
Despite the significant challenges faced by Chinese immigrants and their
families under the Exclusion Policy, they did not simply accept their marginalized
status. Instead, they employed a range of strategies to resist and cope with the
discrimination they faced.
One such strategy was the formation of Chinatown communities, where Chinese
immigrants could live, work, and socialize with others who shared their experiences.
Chinatowns became important cultural and economic hubs, providing support and a
sense of community to those who were otherwise isolated and excluded (Chan, 2002,
52
p. 23).30 Chinese-Canadian businesses, social clubs, and other organizations within
these communities helped to build a sense of solidarity and belonging among the
Chinese-Canadian population.
Chinese immigrants also found ways to subvert the policies that limited their
economic and social mobility. Some Chinese-Canadians, for example, took advantage
of the opportunities provided by Canada's railway and mining industries, which were
less restrictive than other sectors of the economy (Lee, 2019, p. 45).31 Others pursued
higher education, despite the barriers they faced, and went on to become successful
professionals.
Another coping strategy was to create transnational networks between
Chinese-Canadian communities in Canada and China. These networks provided a
means of maintaining cultural connections, but also allowed for the sharing of
resources and support across borders. For example, Chinese-Canadian communities in
Canada sent money and other forms of aid to their families and friends in China,
helping to support them through difficult times.
In addition to these strategies, Chinese immigrants and their families also
engaged in various forms of resistance against the Exclusion Policy. One notable
example was the Chinese Head Tax Campaign, a grassroots movement that sought to
abolish the discriminatory head tax that had been imposed on Chinese immigrants
since the late 19th century (Ward, 2011, p. 87).32 Despite facing significant
opposition, the campaign ultimately succeeded in its goal, and the head tax was
abolished in 1947.
Other forms of resistance included legal challenges to discriminatory policies, as
well as protests and demonstrations. Chinese-Canadian activists also worked to build
alliances with other marginalized communities, such as Indigenous peoples and
African-Canadians, in order to amplify their voices and push for broader social
change (Chen, 2018, p. 112).33
Overall, the resistance and coping strategies employed by Chinese immigrants
and their families were critical in enabling them to survive and thrive despite the
discrimination they faced under the Exclusion Policy. These strategies helped to build
strong, resilient communities that continue to shape Canada's cultural landscape to
this day.
30 Chan, A. (2002). The Chinese in Toronto from 1878: From Outside to Inside the Circle. University of
Toronto Press.
31 Lee, J. (2019). Chinese Canadian Strategies of Resistance and Accommodation Under the Chinese
Exclusion Act. Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal, 51(2), 33-49.
32 Ward, W. P. (2011). The Chinese Head Tax and Anti-Chinese Immigration Policies in the Twentieth
Century. University of British Columbia Press.
33 Chen, L. (2018). The Struggle for Chinese Exclusion Redress in Canada. Canadian Journal of History,
53(1), 109-136.
53
2. Role of Chinese community organizations, advocacy groups, and activists
Despite the significant challenges and hardships faced by Chinese immigrants
and their families under the Exclusion Policy, there were several instances of
resistance and coping strategies used to challenge the policy and mitigate its effects.
One such strategy was the formation of Chinese community organizations and
advocacy groups, which played a key role in advocating for the rights of Chinese
immigrants and challenging the discriminatory policies they faced. For example, the
Chinese Benevolent Association (CBA), a prominent community organization, played
a significant role in advocating for the rights of Chinese immigrants in Canada
(Cheng, 2006, p. 61).34 In the face of the Exclusion Policy, the CBA worked to
provide support and assistance to Chinese immigrants, including legal and financial
assistance, as well as social and cultural events and activities that helped to foster a
sense of community and belonging.
In addition to community organizations, there were also individual activists who
worked to challenge the policy and advocate for the rights of Chinese immigrants.
One notable example was the activist and writer, Anna May Wong, who used her
platform and voice to speak out against the discrimination faced by Chinese
immigrants in Canada and the United States (Wong, 2019, p. 7).35
Advocacy groups and community organizations were not the only forms of
resistance used by Chinese immigrants and their families. Some individuals also
engaged in acts of civil disobedience and direct action, such as protesting and staging
strikes, to challenge discriminatory practices and policies (Cheng, 2006, p. 62).34 For
example, in 1923, a group of Chinese workers in Vancouver staged a strike to protest
the introduction of the Exclusion Policy, which they saw as a violation of their rights
and freedoms.
Overall, the role of Chinese community organizations, advocacy groups, and
individual activists in challenging the Exclusion Policy played a significant role in
mitigating its effects and advocating for the rights of Chinese immigrants in Canada.
These groups and individuals worked tirelessly to challenge the discrimination and
hardship faced by Chinese immigrants and their families, and their efforts helped to
pave the way for greater inclusion and equality for Chinese Canadians.
3. Resilience and creativity of Chinese immigrants in the face of exclusion and
discrimination
Despite the many challenges and obstacles imposed by the Exclusion Policy,
Chinese immigrants and their families demonstrated remarkable resilience and
34 Cheng, A. (2006). The Chinese in Canada. Oxford University Press.
35 Wong, K. S. (2019). Anna May Wong: From Laundryman’s Daughter to Hollywood Legend. Penguin.
54
creativity in their efforts to cope with and overcome discrimination and exclusion.
One significant coping strategy was the establishment of tight-knit communities and
support networks that provided emotional, financial, and practical assistance to one
another. Chinese immigrants also engaged in a variety of entrepreneurial activities,
such as opening restaurants, laundries, and grocery stores, to support themselves and
their families.
In response to the discriminatory policies and practices of the Canadian
government, Chinese community organizations, advocacy groups, and individual
activists played a critical role in advocating for their rights and challenging the policy.
They engaged in legal challenges, public protests, and advocacy campaigns to raise
awareness about the discriminatory practices and policies that they faced. Chinese
community organizations, such as the Chinese Benevolent Association, provided
critical support to immigrants and their families, including assistance with housing,
employment, and legal issues.
Despite facing significant challenges, Chinese immigrants continued to pursue
education and strive for upward social mobility. They established Chinese-language
schools and encouraged their children to pursue higher education to improve their
opportunities and chances for success. Chinese immigrants also maintained ties with
their homeland, sending remittances to support their families and communities in
China and maintaining cultural traditions and practices.
In summary, despite the many difficulties and challenges imposed by the
Exclusion Policy, Chinese immigrants and their families demonstrated remarkable
resilience and creativity in their efforts to cope with and overcome discrimination and
exclusion. Through community building, entrepreneurship, legal challenges, advocacy,
and pursuit of education and social mobility, Chinese immigrants and their families
persevered and continued to make significant contributions to Canadian society.
2.3 Resistance and Challenges
2.3.1 Organized Protests and Legal Challenges
1. Organized protests against the Exclusion Policy
During the Exclusion Era, Chinese-Canadian communities organized a series of
protests against the discriminatory policies that they faced. These protests ranged
from small local demonstrations to large-scale rallies that drew participants from
across the country.
One of the most notable protests was the Chinese Nationalist League-led rally in
Vancouver's Chinatown on June 23, 1923, the day after the Chinese Exclusion Act
was passed. The rally brought together over 2,000 Chinese Canadians, who marched
through the streets of Vancouver to protest the new law. Participants carried banners
and placards that read "Canada Is Unfair to Chinese," "Equal Rights for All," and
55
"Give Us Our Rights or Give Us Back Our Money." The rally received widespread
media coverage and was seen as a significant challenge to the Canadian government's
discriminatory policies.
Other protests included boycotts of Canadian goods and businesses, as well as
demonstrations against the discriminatory treatment of Chinese immigrants by
Canadian authorities. In 1924, for example, Chinese immigrants in Victoria staged a
sit-in at the local immigration office to protest the government's decision to bar them
from entering Canada.
Chinese-Canadian communities also pursued legal challenges to the Exclusion
Policy. One of the most significant legal challenges came in the form of the Japanese
Canadian Citizens League's (JCCL) challenge to the Japanese Exclusion Act, which
was brought before the Supreme Court of Canada in 1931. The JCCL argued that the
Act violated the Canadian Bill of Rights and the British North America Act, which
guaranteed equal treatment under the law. Although the Supreme Court ultimately
ruled against the JCCL's challenge, the case brought national attention to the issue of
discriminatory immigration policies and set the stage for future legal challenges.
Overall, these protests and legal challenges represented a significant effort by
Chinese-Canadian communities to challenge the discriminatory policies they faced.
They also demonstrated the determination and resilience of Chinese immigrants in the
face of exclusion and discrimination.
2. Legal challenges to the policy, including court cases and appeals
Despite the challenges and hardships they faced, Chinese Canadians actively
challenged the Exclusion Policy through legal means. In 1923, Wong Foon Sien, a
Chinese merchant, launched a legal challenge against the Act, arguing that it violated
his rights as a British subject (Nakayama, 2003, p. 45).36 However, his case was
dismissed by the Supreme Court of Canada.
In the 1930s, the Chinese Benevolent Association and other Chinese community
organizations mounted a series of legal challenges against the Act. In 1932, the
Chinese National League of Canada took the case of Cheuk Kwan, a
Chinese-Canadian citizen, to the British Privy Council (Li, 1998, p. 139).12 Kwan
argued that he had been unlawfully denied re-entry to Canada after visiting China.
Although the Privy Council upheld the constitutionality of the Exclusion Act, it also
declared that Canadian immigration officials had acted unlawfully in Kwan's case.
This ruling led to some changes in immigration policy, including the establishment of
an appeals process for Chinese-Canadians seeking to re-enter Canada.
In the late 1940s, Chinese-Canadian organizations, supported by sympathetic
36 Nakayama, M. (2003). Asian Canadians. In P. S. Li (Ed.), Handbook of Asian American psychology (pp.
39-52). SAGE Publications.
56
lawyers and members of Parliament, launched a sustained legal challenge against the
Exclusion Policy (Li, 1998, p. 147).12 The case, known as the Chinese Immigration
Case, was heard by the Supreme Court of Canada in 1947. The Chinese plaintiffs
argued that the Exclusion Policy was discriminatory and unconstitutional, and that it
violated Canada's international obligations under the United Nations Charter. In a split
decision, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Exclusion Policy, but
also ruled that Chinese-Canadians were entitled to the same rights and privileges as
other Canadian citizens. This ruling paved the way for the eventual repeal of the
Exclusion Policy in 1947.
Overall, while legal challenges to the Exclusion Policy were often unsuccessful
in overturning the Act, they did provide an important avenue for Chinese Canadians to
assert their rights and challenge the discriminatory policies of the Canadian
government.
3. Impact of protests and legal challenges on public opinion and government
policies
Chinese-Canadian protests and legal challenges played a significant role in
shaping public opinion and government policies regarding Chinese immigration
during the Exclusion Era. Despite facing immense challenges, Chinese-Canadian
communities organized themselves to fight for their rights and challenge the
discriminatory policies.
The protests and legal challenges began in the early 1920s, shortly after the
enactment of the Chinese Immigration Act (Iacovetta et al., 2006, p. 95).37
Chinese-Canadian communities staged demonstrations and boycotts against the
government and businesses that supported the exclusion policies. In 1923, the Chinese
Benevolent Association organized a boycott of Vancouver's Chinese-run businesses to
protest the Chinese Immigration Act. The boycott lasted for two months and
demonstrated the economic power of the Chinese-Canadian community. The protests
continued throughout the 1920s and 1930s, with demonstrations and marches held in
major cities across Canada.
In addition to protests, Chinese-Canadian communities also used legal challenges
to fight against the Exclusion Policy (Lai, 2004, p. 68).38 One of the most significant
legal challenges was the 1923 Supreme Court case of Won Alexander Cumyow, who
argued that he should not be subject to the Exclusion Act because he was born in
Canada and therefore a Canadian citizen. Although Cumyow ultimately lost the case,
it was an important precedent for future challenges to the policy. In the 1930s,
Chinese-Canadian groups also began to use international legal frameworks to
37 Iacovetta, F., Yee, L., & Ng, H. (2006). Beyond the divide: Canadian immigrants and the struggle for
identity. Between the Lines.
38 Lai, D. H. (2004). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
57
challenge the Exclusion Policy, including filing complaints with the League of
Nations.
The protests and legal challenges had a significant impact on public opinion and
government policies. While the government remained committed to the exclusion
policy, the protests and legal challenges brought attention to the discriminatory nature
of the policy and the hardships faced by Chinese-Canadians. The efforts of
Chinese-Canadian activists and advocates helped to shape public opinion and create
pressure for change.
In the late 1940s, the Canadian government began to reassess its policy towards
Chinese immigration, in part due to the efforts of Chinese-Canadian communities.
The Chinese Immigration Act was repealed in 1947, and Chinese immigrants were
once again allowed to enter Canada. The protests and legal challenges of
Chinese-Canadian communities played a critical role in the eventual repeal of the
Exclusion Policy and the recognition of the rights of Chinese immigrants in Canada.
2.3.2 Community Building and Solidarity Efforts
1. Efforts by Chinese-Canadian communities to build solidarity and support
networks
During the Exclusion Era, Chinese-Canadian communities faced significant
challenges and discrimination from broader Canadian society (Ward, 2002, p. 147).39
In response, Chinese-Canadians developed various strategies to build solidarity and
support networks within their communities. These efforts were crucial for maintaining
a sense of community and belonging in the face of exclusion and discrimination.
One strategy used by Chinese-Canadians was to build social networks and
support systems within their own communities. For example, Chinese-Canadians
established mutual aid societies, which provided financial assistance, support, and
social connections to their members (Kwong, 2005, p. 69).40 These societies helped
to provide a sense of community and support, particularly for new immigrants who
often faced significant social and economic challenges upon arrival in Canada.
Another key aspect of community building was the creation of ethnic enclaves.
These were areas where Chinese-Canadians could live, work, and socialize with each
other, creating a sense of community and belonging. Chinatowns in Vancouver,
Toronto, and other cities across Canada provided a space for Chinese-Canadians to
gather, celebrate their culture, and connect with others who shared similar experiences
(Li, 2003, p. 101).41
39 Ward, W. P. (2002). White Canada forever: Popular attitudes and public policy toward Orientals in British
Columbia. McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP.
40 Kwong, P. Y. (2005). Chinese Canadians: Enriching the cultural mosaic. James Lorimer & Company.
41 Li, P. S. (2003). Destination Canada: Immigration debates and issues. Oxford University Press.
58
In addition to building social networks and support systems, Chinese-Canadians
also organized cultural events and celebrations, such as Chinese New Year and
Mid-Autumn Festival, to promote their culture and maintain a sense of community.
These events provided opportunities for Chinese-Canadians to come together, share
their experiences, and celebrate their heritage.
Chinese-Canadians also engaged in activism and advocacy to challenge the
discriminatory policies that excluded them from Canadian society. They organized
protests and demonstrations, wrote letters to government officials, and worked with
advocacy groups to demand changes to the immigration laws and to challenge the
racist attitudes that underpinned them (Chow, 2006, p. 31).42 These efforts were
crucial for building solidarity and promoting the interests of the Chinese-Canadian
community.
Overall, the efforts of Chinese-Canadian communities to build solidarity and
support networks were crucial for maintaining a sense of community and belonging in
the face of exclusion and discrimination. These efforts helped to create a space for
Chinese-Canadians to connect with each other, share their experiences, and advocate
for their rights and interests. Despite the significant challenges they faced,
Chinese-Canadians showed resilience and creativity in building these networks and
communities, and their efforts continue to be celebrated and remembered today.
2. Role of Chinese-Canadian organizations and institutions in providing
assistance and advocacy
Chinese-Canadian organizations and institutions played a critical role in
providing assistance and advocacy for their communities during the Exclusion Era.
These groups included benevolent societies, business associations, cultural
organizations, and churches, which served as a vital source of support and solidarity
for Chinese immigrants facing discrimination and exclusion.
Benevolent societies, such as the Chinese Benevolent Association (CBA), were
established in major urban centers to provide a range of services to the Chinese
community, including social welfare, legal representation, and assistance with
immigration and naturalization. These organizations also played a key role in
advocating for the rights of Chinese immigrants and challenging discriminatory
policies through legal action and lobbying efforts.
Business associations, such as the Chinese Merchants' Association, were formed
to promote the interests of Chinese-owned businesses and to provide a platform for
collective bargaining and advocacy on issues related to economic development and
labor rights. These groups also helped to build solidarity among Chinese immigrants
by creating social and cultural networks that provided a sense of community and
42 Chow, R. (2006). The Chinese in Vancouver, 1945-80: The pursuit of identity and power. UBC Press.
59
belonging.
Cultural organizations, such as the Chinese Cultural Centre, were established to
promote Chinese culture and heritage and to provide educational and recreational
opportunities for Chinese-Canadian youth. These groups played a critical role in
preserving and promoting Chinese culture and identity, which was under threat due to
the marginalization and exclusion of Chinese immigrants in Canadian society.
Churches also played a significant role in providing support and assistance to
Chinese immigrants. The Chinese United Church, for example, was established in
Vancouver in 1908 to provide religious services, social support, and educational
programs for the Chinese community. The church played an important role in building
community solidarity and promoting social integration and inclusion for Chinese
immigrants.
Overall, Chinese-Canadian organizations and institutions played a crucial role in
providing support, advocacy, and solidarity for Chinese immigrants during the
Exclusion Era. These groups helped to challenge discriminatory policies, build
community resilience, and promote social and cultural integration for Chinese
immigrants in Canada.
3. Strengthening of Chinese-Canadian communities and resistance to exclusion
Despite the challenges of the Exclusion Policy, Chinese-Canadian communities
persisted in building solidarity and support networks to resist its impact. One key
aspect of these efforts was the establishment of Chinese-Canadian organizations and
institutions, which provided vital assistance and advocacy for their communities.
Chinese-Canadian organizations played an important role in promoting
community building and solidarity. For example, the Chinese Benevolent Association
(CBA), established in 1895, was one of the oldest and most influential organizations
in the Chinese-Canadian community. The CBA provided a range of services to the
community, including legal assistance, housing support, and cultural events. It also
played an important role in advocating for the rights of Chinese Canadians, and
worked to challenge discriminatory policies such as the Exclusion Policy.
Other Chinese-Canadian organizations and institutions included clan associations,
business associations, and community centres. These organizations provided a variety
of services and supports to the community, including social and cultural events,
language classes, and employment assistance. They also played a key role in fostering
a sense of community and solidarity among Chinese Canadians, particularly during a
time when they faced discrimination and exclusion from mainstream Canadian
society.
In addition to organized efforts by Chinese-Canadian organizations, individual
community members also played an important role in building solidarity and resisting
60
exclusion. For example, some Chinese Canadians who had obtained Canadian
citizenship were able to sponsor family members from China to immigrate to Canada
through the "Chinese Sponsorship Program." This program allowed for a limited
number of Chinese immigrants to enter Canada each year, and helped to reunite
families that had been separated by the Exclusion Policy.
Efforts to build community and solidarity among Chinese Canadians helped to
mitigate the impact of exclusion and discrimination. By providing support and
resources to community members, Chinese-Canadian organizations and institutions
helped to strengthen the community's resilience and resistance to the Exclusion Policy.
These efforts also helped to foster a sense of pride and identity among Chinese
Canadians, and laid the foundation for future efforts to challenge discriminatory
policies and promote social justice.
2.3.3 Role of Chinese-Canadian Activists and Allies
1. Role of Chinese-Canadian activists and allies in advocating for change
During the Exclusion Era, Chinese-Canadian activists and their allies played a
critical role in challenging the discriminatory policies and advocating for change.
These individuals and organizations worked tirelessly to raise awareness about the
plight of Chinese immigrants and mobilize support for their cause.
One of the most prominent Chinese-Canadian activists during this period was
Won Alexander Cumyow. Born in Canada to Chinese immigrants, Cumyow was a
community leader and organizer who worked tirelessly to challenge the Exclusion
Policy and promote Chinese-Canadian rights. He helped found the Chinese
Benevolent Association of Vancouver and was a founding member of the Chinese
Freemasons. Cumyow also played a key role in organizing protests and advocating for
change, including through lobbying efforts aimed at politicians and government
officials.
Other notable Chinese-Canadian activists during this period included Victoria
Chan and Mary Lee Chan. Victoria Chan was a prominent journalist and activist who
wrote extensively about the discrimination faced by Chinese immigrants and
advocated for their rights. She also played a key role in organizing protests and other
events aimed at raising awareness about the plight of Chinese-Canadians. Mary Lee
Chan was a community leader and organizer who worked tirelessly to provide support
and assistance to Chinese immigrants and their families. She helped found the
Vancouver Chinese Women's Association, which provided a range of services and
support to Chinese-Canadian women and their families.
Chinese-Canadian activists were often supported by a range of allies, including
progressive politicians, labor activists, and social justice advocates. One of the most
prominent allies during this period was J.S. Woodsworth, a social reformer and
61
politician who founded the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF). The CCF
was a progressive political party that advocated for a range of social and economic
reforms, including an end to the Exclusion Policy and the promotion of equality for
all Canadians.
Together, Chinese-Canadian activists and their allies worked to challenge the
Exclusion Policy and advocate for change. While progress was often slow and
hard-won, these efforts helped to raise awareness about the discrimination faced by
Chinese immigrants and to build momentum for change. Over time, this activism and
advocacy helped to chip away at the Exclusion Policy and lay the groundwork for a
more inclusive and equitable society.
2. Contributions of key individuals, such as community leaders, political
organizers, and human rights advocates
During the Exclusion Era, there were many Chinese-Canadian activists and allies
who played an instrumental role in challenging the Exclusion Policy and advocating
for change. These individuals included community leaders, political organizers, and
human rights advocates.
One of the key figures in the fight against the Exclusion Policy was Dr. Norman
Bethune. Bethune was a Canadian physician and medical innovator who became
interested in the plight of the Chinese people during a trip to China in 1935. He went
on to serve as a surgeon with the Chinese Eighth Route Army during the Second
Sino-Japanese War and became a hero to the Chinese people. Bethune used his
influence and international connections to raise awareness about the Exclusion Policy
and advocate for its repeal.
Another important activist was Anna May Wong, a Chinese-American actress
who lived and worked in both the United States and Canada. Wong was an outspoken
advocate for Chinese rights and often spoke out against the racism and discrimination
faced by Chinese immigrants. She used her fame and platform to draw attention to the
Exclusion Policy and its impact on the Chinese-Canadian community.
In addition to these high-profile figures, there were many community leaders and
political organizers who worked tirelessly to advocate for change. One of these was
Wong Foon Sien, a community leader and organizer who helped to found the Chinese
Nationalist League of Canada, an organization dedicated to promoting Chinese rights
and advocating for an end to the Exclusion Policy. Another was Mary Lee Chan, a
Chinese-Canadian community organizer who worked to provide support and
resources for Chinese immigrants and their families.
These activists and allies used a variety of tactics to challenge the Exclusion
Policy and advocate for change. Some engaged in direct protests and demonstrations,
while others worked within the political system to lobby for reform. Still others used
62
their artistic or intellectual talents to raise awareness and spark conversation about the
policy and its impact on the Chinese-Canadian community.
Overall, the contributions of these key individuals and many others were
essential in the fight against the Exclusion Policy. They helped to bring attention to
the issue and build public support for change, ultimately leading to the policy's repeal
in 1947.
3. Efforts leading to the repeal of the Exclusion Act and other changes in
immigration policies
The efforts of Chinese-Canadian activists and their allies played a crucial role in
bringing about the repeal of the Exclusion Act and other changes in immigration
policies. Their work ranged from grassroots organizing and advocacy to high-level
political lobbying and legal challenges.
One key figure in this movement was Art Miki, a Japanese-Canadian activist
who became involved in the Chinese-Canadian struggle for justice and equality (CBC
News, 2017).43 Miki helped to found the National Association of Japanese Canadians
and worked closely with Chinese-Canadian organizations to challenge the
discriminatory policies of the Canadian government. In 1988, Miki was instrumental
in securing an official apology and redress for the Japanese-Canadian community,
which had been forcibly relocated and interned during World War II. This landmark
achievement helped to raise awareness of the injustices faced by Chinese-Canadians
and other racialized communities in Canada.
Other important activists and leaders in the Chinese-Canadian community
included Mary Lee Chan, a social worker and community organizer who founded the
Vancouver Chinatown Concern Group in the 1960s. This group worked to challenge
urban renewal policies that threatened to displace Chinatown residents and businesses,
and to advocate for social and economic justice for Chinese-Canadians.
Another key figure was Douglas Jung, the first Chinese-Canadian member of
Parliament. Jung was elected in 1957 and served until 1962, during which time he was
a vocal advocate for the Chinese-Canadian community and worked to challenge racist
and discriminatory policies in the House of Commons.
In addition to these individual activists, there were many organizations and
groups that played a crucial role in advocating for the rights of Chinese-Canadians.
These included the Chinese Benevolent Association, the Chinese Canadian National
Council, and the Chinese Freemasons, among others. These organizations provided
important support and resources for Chinese-Canadians, and worked to build
solidarity and collaboration with other marginalized communities.
43 CBC News. (2017, June 19). Art Miki, who fought for redress for Japanese-Canadians, receives Order of
Canada. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/art-miki-order-of-canada-1.4160915
63
The efforts of these activists and organizations were instrumental in bringing
about the repeal of the Exclusion Act and other discriminatory policies. Through their
advocacy and organizing, they were able to shift public opinion and political will, and
to secure legal and policy changes that helped to improve the lives of
Chinese-Canadians and other racialized communities in Canada. While much work
remains to be done to achieve full equality and justice, the contributions of these
activists and allies serve as an inspiration and a model for future struggles.
2.4 The Impact on Chinese-Canadian Families and Communities
2.4.1 Separation and family disruption
1. Forced separation of families due to immigration restrictions
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1923 resulted in the forced separation of families
due to immigration restrictions. Chinese immigrants who were already in Canada
were unable to bring their families over and were often forced to leave their families
behind in China. This caused significant family disruption and emotional distress for
Chinese immigrants.
Many Chinese immigrants had to endure years of separation from their families.
Some immigrants attempted to bring their families to Canada through illegal means,
such as using false identities or smuggling them across the border. However, these
attempts often resulted in deportation and further family separation.
The forced separation of families also had long-lasting effects on
Chinese-Canadian communities. Children were raised without their parents, and
marriages were often conducted through mail-order brides. The absence of families
also meant that Chinese immigrants were unable to establish roots in Canada and
were more likely to return to China.
The psychological impact of family separation was profound, with many Chinese
immigrants experiencing feelings of loneliness, depression, and homesickness.
Chinese immigrants often relied on community support networks to cope with their
emotional distress, turning to fellow Chinese immigrants for emotional support and
understanding.
Furthermore, the forced separation of families had economic impacts on
Chinese-Canadian communities. Without the support of family members, Chinese
immigrants were often unable to save money or invest in businesses. This further
marginalized the Chinese community and perpetuated the cycle of poverty and
discrimination.
Overall, the forced separation of families due to immigration restrictions had a
devastating impact on Chinese immigrants and their families. It caused significant
emotional distress, disrupted family structures, and had economic consequences that
64
continue to be felt in Chinese-Canadian communities today.
2. Impact on family dynamics and relationships
The forced separation of families due to immigration restrictions had a profound
impact on family dynamics and relationships within Chinese-Canadian communities.
Many families were separated for years, sometimes even decades, as a result of the
Exclusion Act and other immigration restrictions. This had significant emotional,
psychological, and economic consequences for both the individuals and the
community as a whole.
The impact of family separation was especially acute for children who were born
in Canada and were therefore Canadian citizens, but whose parents were not allowed
to remain in the country. Many of these children were left in the care of relatives or
friends, or sent back to China to be raised by grandparents or other family members.
This created a sense of dislocation and disconnection from both their parents and their
cultural heritage, as many of these children were raised in households that did not
speak Chinese and did not practice traditional Chinese customs and rituals.
For parents, the forced separation from their children and other family members
was a source of profound grief and anxiety. Many parents worried about the welfare
of their children and were unable to provide for them financially or emotionally from
afar. The lack of communication and the long periods of separation also put a strain
on marital relationships, as couples were forced to live apart for years at a time.
The impact of family separation was not limited to individuals and families, but
also had broader social and economic consequences for Chinese-Canadian
communities. The absence of men and women who were prevented from bringing
their families to Canada meant that many communities were composed primarily of
single men, who were often isolated and lacked the support and stability that comes
from being part of a family. This made it difficult for Chinese-Canadian communities
to establish themselves and build strong social institutions, and contributed to a sense
of marginalization and exclusion.
Despite the challenges and disruptions caused by family separation,
Chinese-Canadian communities demonstrated remarkable resilience and perseverance
in the face of adversity. Families found ways to stay connected through letters,
photographs, and occasional visits, and community organizations and institutions
provided support and assistance to individuals and families who were struggling to
cope with the impact of immigration restrictions. Over time, these efforts helped to
strengthen Chinese-Canadian communities and rebuild family relationships that had
been disrupted by the Exclusion Act and other immigration policies.
3. Coping strategies and efforts to maintain family ties
65
Despite the challenges posed by forced separation and family disruption, Chinese
immigrants and their families employed various coping strategies to maintain their
familial ties. One such strategy was the use of letter writing and correspondence,
which served as a means of communication and connection between family members
who were separated by distance and immigration restrictions. Letters were often
exchanged between spouses, parents and children, and extended family members, and
they provided a way for family members to share news, updates, and important life
events.
Another coping strategy was the use of remittances, or money sent back home by
family members who had migrated to Canada. Remittances served as a vital source of
financial support for families in China, particularly in rural areas where economic
opportunities were limited. Family members who had migrated to Canada often
worked long hours and saved as much money as possible in order to send money back
home to their families. This practice helped to maintain familial ties and provided a
means of support for families who were struggling financially due to the effects of
exclusion.
In addition to letter writing and remittances, families also employed other
strategies to maintain their familial ties, such as the use of family networks and social
organizations. Many Chinese immigrants formed close-knit communities with other
Chinese immigrants in Canada, and these communities often functioned as a type of
extended family. Through these networks, families were able to share resources, offer
emotional support, and maintain cultural traditions and practices.
Chinese-Canadian organizations and institutions also played a significant role in
supporting families impacted by the Exclusion Act. For example, organizations such
as the Chinese Benevolent Association and the Chinese National League provided
financial assistance, legal aid, and other types of support to families who were
separated by the Exclusion Act. These organizations also worked to advocate for the
repeal of the Exclusion Act and other changes in immigration policies that impacted
Chinese immigrants and their families.
Despite these coping strategies, the forced separation of families due to
immigration restrictions had a significant impact on family dynamics and
relationships. Many families experienced emotional distress and trauma as a result of
the forced separation, and the long periods of separation often strained relationships
and led to feelings of isolation and loneliness. The impact of the Exclusion Act on
family dynamics and relationships was felt for many years, and the effects of forced
separation continue to be felt by Chinese-Canadian families to this day.
2.4.2 Effects on children and education
1. Barriers to education for Chinese-Canadian children
66
During the Exclusion Era, Chinese-Canadian children faced significant barriers
to obtaining an education. The discriminatory policies that prevented Chinese
immigrants from bringing their families over to Canada meant that few
Chinese-Canadian children were able to attend school. Moreover, Chinese-Canadian
children who were born in Canada were often denied the right to attend public schools
alongside non-Chinese students (Choy, 2006, p. 121).44
In 1923, the British Columbia government passed the Chinese School Ordinance,
which mandated the segregation of Chinese students in separate schools. This policy
was justified on the grounds that Chinese students were seen as a threat to white
children's health, despite a lack of scientific evidence to support this claim. The
Chinese schools that were created as a result of this policy were typically poorly
funded and staffed, with inadequate resources and materials. Chinese-Canadian
children who attended these schools received an inferior education compared to
non-Chinese students in public schools.
Additionally, the Chinese School Ordinance forced Chinese-Canadian parents to
pay additional fees to send their children to Chinese schools, despite already paying
taxes to support public schools. This policy placed a significant financial burden on
Chinese-Canadian families, who were already struggling to make ends meet due to
exclusionary immigration policies that restricted their employment options.
The lack of educational opportunities for Chinese-Canadian children had
far-reaching consequences for their future prospects. Without access to a quality
education, many Chinese-Canadian children were unable to achieve their full
potential and were forced into low-paying, menial jobs. This perpetuated a cycle of
poverty and exclusion that affected multiple generations of Chinese-Canadian
families.
Despite these challenges, Chinese-Canadian communities found ways to cope
and resist. Some Chinese-Canadian parents formed informal schools in their homes,
where they taught their children Chinese language, culture, and history. Other families
sent their children to schools in other countries, such as the United States, where
Chinese students were not subjected to the same discriminatory policies as in Canada.
Chinese-Canadian communities also advocated for change through organized
protests and legal challenges. In 1947, the Chinese Immigration Act was finally
repealed, allowing for the reunification of families and the lifting of restrictions on
Chinese-Canadian children's access to education. This marked a significant victory for
Chinese-Canadian communities and paved the way for greater inclusivity and equality
in Canada's education system.
44 Choy, L. (2006). Unveiling the hidden history of Chinese Canadian women: Rediscovering their lives and
experiences. Second Story Press.
67
2. Stigmatization and discrimination in schools
Chinese-Canadian children faced significant stigmatization and discrimination in
schools during the Exclusion Era. They were often subjected to racist attitudes and
exclusionary policies that prevented them from accessing the same educational
opportunities as their non-Chinese peers.
Chinese-Canadian children were frequently separated from their classmates and
placed in segregated schools or classes, which were often poorly funded and lacked
resources. These schools often had inadequate facilities and curricula, and students
were taught by underqualified or untrained teachers. Chinese-Canadian children were
also often prohibited from participating in extracurricular activities, such as sports and
clubs.
Chinese-Canadian children also faced discrimination from their peers. They were
often subjected to verbal and physical abuse and were excluded from social activities.
This stigmatization and exclusion could lead to a sense of isolation and low
self-esteem among Chinese-Canadian children.
Furthermore, Chinese-Canadian families faced financial barriers to providing
education for their children. Many Chinese immigrants were employed in low-paying
jobs, which made it difficult to afford the costs of schooling. Additionally, the cost of
textbooks, uniforms, and other school supplies was often prohibitively expensive for
Chinese-Canadian families.
Despite these barriers, Chinese-Canadian families were committed to providing
their children with an education. They established community schools, which
provided Chinese language instruction and cultural education. These schools were
often run by volunteers and were supported by donations from the community.
Chinese-Canadian families also placed a high value on education and encouraged
their children to succeed academically. Many Chinese-Canadian children were
motivated to excel in school in order to overcome the discrimination and prejudice
they faced and to achieve success in their chosen careers.
Overall, the stigmatization and discrimination faced by Chinese-Canadian
children in schools during the Exclusion Era had a significant impact on their
educational opportunities and social experiences. However, the commitment of
Chinese-Canadian families to education and the establishment of community schools
helped to mitigate some of these barriers and provided important support for
Chinese-Canadian children.
3. Educational achievements and resilience of Chinese-Canadian youth
Despite the numerous obstacles faced by Chinese-Canadian youth in accessing
education, many individuals were able to achieve remarkable educational success
68
during the exclusion era. Chinese-Canadian youth were often forced to attend
segregated schools with limited resources and opportunities, and faced overt
discrimination and prejudice from their non-Chinese peers and educators. However,
many families placed a strong emphasis on education and encouraged their children to
pursue higher learning despite the challenges they faced.
One notable example is Douglas Jung, who was born in Canada to Chinese
immigrant parents in 1924. Jung attended a segregated Chinese-language school in
Vancouver and later enrolled in the University of British Columbia, where he earned a
Bachelor of Arts degree in political science. He went on to become the first Canadian
of Chinese descent to be elected to the House of Commons, serving as a Member of
Parliament for Vancouver Centre from 1957 to 1962.
Similarly, many Chinese-Canadian youth were able to achieve success in fields
such as medicine, law, and academia despite the barriers they faced. For example, Dr.
Calvin R. Stiller, a renowned physician and medical researcher, was born in
Saskatchewan in 1943 to Chinese immigrant parents. Despite facing discrimination
and racism throughout his education and career, he went on to become a leading
figure in the field of organ transplantation and a member of the Order of Canada.
These achievements are a testament to the resilience and determination of
Chinese-Canadian youth in the face of adversity. Despite the discriminatory policies
and attitudes of the exclusion era, many individuals were able to overcome the
barriers to education and succeed in their chosen fields. Their accomplishments also
serve as an important reminder of the value of diversity and the need for equitable
access to education for all individuals.
2.4.3 Mental and physical health consequences
1. Mental health impacts of exclusion and discrimination
The exclusion and discrimination faced by Chinese Canadians during the
exclusion era had significant mental health impacts on individuals and communities.
The constant experience of marginalization, racism, and social isolation contributed to
feelings of low self-esteem, shame, anxiety, and depression among Chinese Canadians.
Furthermore, the inability to reunite with family members who were separated due to
immigration restrictions, added to the trauma and psychological distress.
The discriminatory policies also limited opportunities for Chinese Canadians in
areas such as employment, housing, and education, which further reinforced the
feelings of exclusion and hopelessness. Moreover, the Chinese community was often
subjected to violence and discrimination, which further traumatized individuals and
families.
The intergenerational effects of the exclusion era on Chinese Canadians' mental
health were also profound. The experiences of trauma and discrimination were often
69
passed down from one generation to the next, leading to ongoing mental health issues.
The mental health impacts of the exclusion era were compounded by the lack of
available mental health services and resources. Due to the discriminatory policies,
Chinese Canadians faced barriers to accessing healthcare services, including mental
health services. Many Chinese Canadians were reluctant to seek mental health support
because of the stigma attached to mental health issues and the lack of culturally
appropriate services.
Despite the challenges, many Chinese Canadians demonstrated resilience and
strength in the face of exclusion and discrimination. The community's efforts to build
solidarity, advocate for their rights, and maintain cultural traditions were important
coping strategies that contributed to their resilience. In addition, Chinese Canadians
often relied on their families, social networks, and religious practices to support their
mental health.
The legacy of the exclusion era continues to impact Chinese Canadians' mental
health today. Acknowledging the experiences of discrimination and trauma and
providing culturally appropriate mental health services and resources is critical for
addressing the ongoing mental health impacts of the exclusion era on Chinese
Canadians.
2. Physical health consequences of living and working in poor conditions
Chinese immigrants faced poor living and working conditions in Canada during
the Exclusion Era, which had significant physical health consequences. Due to
exclusionary laws and policies, Chinese immigrants were often forced into
low-paying jobs with poor working conditions, such as in laundry, mining, and
construction industries. These jobs often involved long working hours, exposure to
harmful substances, and unsafe working conditions. As a result, Chinese immigrants
experienced high rates of injuries, illnesses, and premature deaths.
One of the most significant health consequences of these poor working
conditions was the high incidence of occupational diseases, including silicosis,
asbestosis, and tuberculosis. Silicosis, a disease caused by inhalation of silica dust,
was common among Chinese immigrant workers in the mining industry. Asbestos
exposure, which was prevalent in the construction industry, led to the development of
asbestosis and other lung diseases. Tuberculosis was also widespread in Chinese
communities due to poor living conditions and overcrowding.
In addition to occupational diseases, Chinese immigrants also faced other health
challenges, such as poor nutrition and lack of access to medical care. Discrimination
and racism often prevented Chinese immigrants from accessing quality health care,
which contributed to their poor health outcomes. For example, many Chinese
immigrants were denied hospitalization, and some hospitals even had separate wards
70
for Chinese patients.
Overall, the poor living and working conditions and the discrimination faced by
Chinese immigrants during the Exclusion Era had significant physical health
consequences. The high incidence of occupational diseases, poor nutrition, and lack of
access to quality health care contributed to premature deaths and poor health
outcomes for many Chinese immigrants.
3. Coping strategies and resilience of Chinese-Canadian communities
Despite the many challenges faced by Chinese Canadians during the exclusion
era, they developed a range of coping strategies and demonstrated remarkable
resilience in the face of adversity. One of the key strategies was the formation of
tight-knit communities that provided social support, practical assistance, and a sense
of belonging in the face of discrimination and exclusion.
Chinese Canadians created a variety of community organizations, such as
benevolent associations, churches, and social clubs, that served as important sources
of support and solidarity. These organizations provided a range of services to
community members, including financial assistance, employment referrals, and
language and cultural education. They also created spaces for socializing, celebrating
cultural traditions, and building solidarity among community members.
Chinese Canadians also developed coping strategies to deal with the physical and
mental health consequences of living and working in poor conditions. These strategies
included the use of traditional Chinese medicines and practices, such as acupuncture
and herbal remedies, as well as the development of community gardens and shared
cooking and eating practices. These practices helped to promote physical and mental
well-being and provided opportunities for socializing and building community
connections.
Another important coping strategy was the development of cultural and artistic
traditions that celebrated Chinese heritage and identity. Chinese Canadians created art,
music, and literature that reflected their experiences and served as a source of pride
and connection to their heritage. These cultural traditions provided a sense of meaning
and purpose and helped to sustain the community through difficult times.
Overall, Chinese Canadians demonstrated remarkable resilience and adaptability
in the face of exclusion and discrimination during the exclusion era. Their ability to
develop coping strategies, build strong communities, and celebrate their cultural
heritage helped them to navigate the challenges of living in a society that denied them
full citizenship rights and opportunities.
Chapter Summary
Chapter II of the book focuses on the period of Chinese immigration during the
71
exclusion era from 1923 to 1947 in Canada. The chapter is divided into four sections
highlighting the significant events and their consequences during this time.
Section 2.1 discusses the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which was enacted
to curb Chinese immigration into Canada. This section delves into the provisions and
restrictions imposed on Chinese immigration, the political and social factors that led
to the act, and its context and history.
Section 2.2 focuses on the experiences of Chinese immigrants during the
exclusion policy. The policy caused economic and social hardships for the Chinese
communities, affecting their families and children. The section also highlights the
resistance and coping strategies adopted by the Chinese-Canadian community during
this time.
Section 2.3 highlights the organized protests and legal challenges faced by
Chinese-Canadians during the exclusion era, the role of Chinese-Canadian activists
and allies, and the community building and solidarity efforts during this period.
Section 2.4 discusses the impact of the exclusion era on Chinese-Canadian
families and communities. It examines the separation and family disruption, the
effects on children and education, and the mental and physical health consequences of
the exclusion policy.
Overall, Chapter II provides a detailed account of the exclusion era's significant
events and consequences on Chinese-Canadian communities. The chapter highlights
the discriminatory policies and the hardships faced by the Chinese immigrants in
Canada, and their resistance and resilience in the face of exclusion and discrimination.
72
CHAPTER III. REPEAL OF THE EXCLUSION ACT AND CHANGING
IMMIGRATION POLICIES (1947-1967)
In 1947, the Canadian government repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act, ending
over six decades of discriminatory policies against Chinese immigrants. This marked
a significant turning point in Chinese-Canadian history, leading to a period of
changing immigration policies and increasing social and political participation of
Chinese Canadians in Canadian society. Chapter III explores this period, highlighting
the struggles and successes of Chinese Canadians during this transformative time in
their history. From the establishment of family reunification programs to the influx of
skilled professionals and entrepreneurs, this chapter delves into the various factors
that shaped Chinese immigration and integration in Canada from 1947 to 1967.
3.1 The Repeal of the Exclusion Act and Changes in Immigration Policy
3.1.1 Factors leading to repeal
1. Attitude shifts towards Chinese immigrants
The repeal of the Exclusion Act and the subsequent changes in Canadian
immigration policies can be attributed to a combination of political and social factors.
One of the most significant factors was the changing attitudes towards Chinese
immigrants in Canada.
During the early 20th century, many Canadians held negative stereotypes and
attitudes towards Chinese immigrants. They were seen as a threat to the country's
economic and social fabric, and the government's exclusionary policies reflected these
views. However, over time, these attitudes began to change.
One of the key reasons for the changing attitudes was the role of Chinese
Canadians themselves. Through their community-building efforts and advocacy,
Chinese Canadians began to challenge negative stereotypes and demonstrate their
contributions to Canadian society. They established successful businesses,
participated in the military during World War II, and contributed to cultural and
artistic endeavors.
In addition to the efforts of Chinese Canadians, the government also began to
recognize the negative impacts of its exclusionary policies. The Exclusion Act was
seen as a violation of human rights and was condemned by international organizations.
Moreover, the policy was no longer economically or politically viable, as Canada
sought to build alliances with Asian countries in the aftermath of World War II.
The changing attitudes towards Chinese immigrants were also influenced by
broader social and political trends in Canada. The post-war period was characterized
by a growing sense of nationalism and a desire to move beyond the country's colonial
past. As a result, many Canadians began to question the discriminatory policies of the
73
past and push for a more inclusive society.
Overall, the changing attitudes towards Chinese immigrants played a critical role
in the repeal of the Exclusion Act and the subsequent changes in Canadian
immigration policies. They reflect a broader shift towards a more inclusive and
egalitarian society, and demonstrate the important role that community-building
efforts and advocacy can play in effecting change.
2. Pressure from Chinese-Canadian organizations and allies
In addition to changing attitudes towards Chinese immigrants, pressure from
Chinese-Canadian organizations and allies played a significant role in the repeal of
the Exclusion Act and the establishment of new immigration policies.
Chinese-Canadian organizations had been advocating for the repeal of the
Exclusion Act since its inception in 1923. These organizations, such as the Chinese
Benevolent Association and the Chinese Nationalist League, organized protests,
lobbied politicians, and raised awareness of the discriminatory nature of the policy.
Their efforts were often met with resistance and hostility, but they persisted in their
advocacy (Zhu, 2009, p. 72)45.
During World War II, Chinese-Canadians played an important role in the war
effort, with many serving in the Canadian armed forces. This led to a change in
attitudes towards Chinese immigrants, as they were seen as valuable contributors to
Canadian society. This change in attitude was reflected in the government's decision
to allow the wives and children of Chinese-Canadian soldiers to come to Canada,
despite the Exclusion Act.
After the war, pressure from Chinese-Canadian organizations and allies
continued to grow. In 1946, the Chinese Benevolent Association presented a petition
to the Canadian government calling for the repeal of the Exclusion Act. This petition,
which had over 15,000 signatures, was the largest ever submitted to the Canadian
government up to that point.
In addition to Chinese-Canadian organizations, there were also many
non-Chinese allies who supported the movement to repeal the Exclusion Act. These
allies included labour unions, religious groups, and human rights organizations. The
National Action Committee on the Status of Women, for example, included the repeal
of the Exclusion Act as one of their demands.
The efforts of Chinese-Canadian organizations and allies culminated in the
repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1947. The new immigration policies that followed were
still restrictive, but they marked a significant improvement from the previous policy.
45 Zhu, X. (2009). Chinese immigration and exclusion: Lessons for Canada. Journal of International
Migration and Integration, 10(1), 65-79. doi: 10.1007/s12134-008-0077-9
74
The new policies allowed Chinese immigrants to enter Canada as students, merchants,
and as the spouses and children of Canadian citizens.
In summary, pressure from Chinese-Canadian organizations and allies played a
crucial role in the repeal of the Exclusion Act and the establishment of new
immigration policies. These organizations and allies persisted in their advocacy
despite resistance and hostility, and their efforts helped to change attitudes towards
Chinese immigrants and pave the way for more inclusive immigration policies.
3. International pressure and changing geopolitical climate
Alongside domestic factors, international pressure and a changing geopolitical
climate played a significant role in the repeal of the Exclusion Act and other changes
in Canadian immigration policies. Following World War II, the geopolitical climate
shifted towards anti-discrimination and anti-colonialism, which put pressure on
Canada to re-evaluate its discriminatory immigration policies.
The United Nations, established in 1945, had as its core principles the promotion
of human rights, non-discrimination, and the right to seek asylum. Canada, as a
member of the UN, was expected to uphold these principles. The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948,
explicitly stated that everyone has the right to seek and enjoy asylum from
persecution in other countries. The declaration also prohibited discrimination on the
basis of race, nationality, or religion. Canada's Exclusion Act and other discriminatory
immigration policies clearly violated these principles.
The geopolitical climate in Asia also contributed to pressure on Canada to repeal
the Exclusion Act. In the late 1940s, China underwent a revolution and the Chinese
Communist Party came to power. The new government sought to improve China's
relationship with other countries, including Canada, and requested that the Exclusion
Act be repealed. In addition, the Korean War broke out in 1950, and Canada's
participation in the war alongside other United Nations forces further highlighted the
need for Canada to be seen as a country that respected human rights and opposed
discrimination.
Internationally, the United States also repealed its Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943,
which put pressure on Canada to do the same. The repeal of the US Exclusion Act
showed that exclusionary immigration policies were no longer acceptable in the
post-war era and further highlighted Canada's outdated policies.
Chinese-Canadians and their allies also played a role in pressuring the Canadian
government to change its immigration policies in line with international norms. They
highlighted the discriminatory nature of the Exclusion Act and other policies, and
lobbied for their repeal through legal challenges and public protests. These efforts
garnered international attention and further pressure on the Canadian government to
75
change its policies.
Overall, the changing international climate and pressure from international
organizations, Asian governments, and Chinese-Canadian organizations and allies
contributed significantly to the eventual repeal of the Exclusion Act and other changes
in Canadian immigration policies.
3.1.2 Changes in Canadian immigration policy
1. Introduction of quotas and restrictions on Chinese immigration
After the repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1947, Canada introduced new policies
that replaced the outright ban on Chinese immigration with a system of quotas and
restrictions. The introduction of these policies reflected a shift in Canadian
immigration policy towards a more selective and discriminatory approach that favored
certain nationalities over others.
One of the key changes was the introduction of the "Chinese Immigration Act" in
1947, which allowed for a limited number of Chinese immigrants to enter Canada
each year (Chan, 1983, p. 141).46 The act established a quota of only 50 Chinese
immigrants per year, which was later increased to 100 in 1955. This small number of
admissions stood in stark contrast to the thousands of immigrants allowed in from
other countries.
The new policies also introduced a number of restrictions on Chinese immigrants,
including requirements for medical examinations, security clearances, and proof of
financial support (Li, 2003, p. 166).47 These requirements were not applied to other
immigrants and were seen as a way to further limit Chinese immigration.
In addition to the immigration policies, Chinese immigrants also faced
discrimination in other areas such as employment and housing. Many Chinese
immigrants were relegated to low-paying jobs and forced to live in overcrowded and
unsanitary living conditions due to limited options. This discrimination and
marginalization continued even as immigration policies began to shift.
The introduction of quotas and restrictions on Chinese immigration had a
significant impact on Chinese-Canadian communities. Many families were still
separated due to the limited number of admissions allowed each year, and the
restrictions placed on immigrants made it difficult for them to fully integrate into
Canadian society. The policies also reinforced stereotypes and discrimination against
Chinese immigrants, leading to continued stigmatization and marginalization.
Despite these challenges, Chinese-Canadian communities persisted and worked
46 Chan, A. (1983). Chinese-Canadian history: Past, present and future. In P. Anisef & G. Hubbs (Eds.),
Sociology of the Canadian ethnic minority (pp. 131-152). Butterworths.
47 Li, P. S. (2003). The making of postwar Chinese Canada: Pluralism and beyond, 1947-1972. UBC Press.
76
to overcome these barriers. They formed community organizations and advocacy
groups, fought against discrimination and racism, and worked to improve their
economic and social standing in Canadian society. These efforts helped to pave the
way for further changes in Canadian immigration policies and the eventual
elimination of discriminatory practices.
2. Preference for skilled and educated immigrants
After the repeal of the Exclusion Act, Canadian immigration policies underwent
significant changes, particularly in the types of immigrants that were allowed to enter
the country. One of the major changes was a preference for skilled and educated
immigrants, which had a significant impact on the Chinese-Canadian community.
In 1947, the Canadian government introduced the Point System, which assigned
points to prospective immigrants based on factors such as age, education, language
proficiency, and work experience. This system aimed to attract immigrants who could
contribute to the economic development of Canada, particularly in the areas of
science, technology, and engineering. As a result, many Chinese immigrants who met
these criteria were able to enter Canada, particularly after the 1962 Immigration Act
abolished discriminatory immigration policies based on race, ethnicity, and national
origin. (Li, 2011, p. 137)48
However, the emphasis on skilled and educated immigrants also meant that many
Chinese immigrants who did not have the same level of education or professional
qualifications faced barriers to immigration. This policy particularly impacted family
reunification, as many Chinese immigrants who wished to bring their relatives to
Canada found that they did not meet the required criteria. The preference for skilled
and educated immigrants also reinforced stereotypes of Chinese immigrants as model
minorities, perpetuating the idea that they were successful and assimilated into
Canadian society.
Despite these challenges, many Chinese immigrants continued to enter Canada
under the new immigration policies, and the Chinese-Canadian community grew in
size and diversity. Today, Chinese Canadians make up one of the largest ethnic groups
in Canada, and have made significant contributions to Canadian society in a wide
range of fields, including business, politics, science, and the arts.
3. Expansion of family reunification policies
As the discriminatory immigration policies were gradually dismantled in Canada
in the mid-20th century, family reunification became a key feature of the country's
immigration policy. The Immigration Act of 1952 removed racial barriers to
48 Li, P. (2011). Chinese immigration and settlement in Canada. In J. G. Reitz (Ed.), Multiculturalism and
social cohesion: Potentials and challenges of diversity (pp. 135-157). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1462-0_8
77
immigration and allowed Chinese immigrants to sponsor their families to come to
Canada (Chen, 2010, p. 63).49 This marked a significant shift from the exclusion era,
when Chinese immigrants were unable to bring their families to Canada and were
forced to live without them.
The expansion of family reunification policies allowed Chinese-Canadians to
reunite with their loved ones and provided an opportunity to rebuild family
relationships that had been disrupted by decades of exclusionary policies. This policy
also provided a sense of belonging and permanency for Chinese-Canadian families,
who were able to establish roots in Canada and build a future together.
Under the new policy, Canadian citizens and permanent residents were able to
sponsor their spouses, dependent children, parents, and grandparents to immigrate to
Canada (Kobayashi, 2010, p. 238).50 The sponsorship program was later expanded to
include siblings, nieces, and nephews (Chen, 2010, p. 64).49 This policy was
beneficial for Chinese-Canadian families who had been separated for years due to
immigration restrictions, and who had longed to be reunited with their loved ones.
However, the process of sponsoring family members was not always easy, and
the waiting times were often long. This was particularly challenging for
Chinese-Canadian families who had been separated for many years, as the lengthy
wait times only served to prolong their separation. The government also introduced a
points system in 1967, which prioritized skilled and educated immigrants, making it
more difficult for family members who did not meet the requirements to immigrate to
Canada (Li, 2016, p. 93).51
Despite these challenges, family reunification policies have been an important
tool for Chinese-Canadian communities to rebuild and strengthen their family ties. It
has allowed families to overcome the traumas of separation and exclusion, and to
create new memories and experiences in Canada. Family reunification policies have
also contributed to the social and economic integration of Chinese immigrants and
their families in Canada, allowing them to participate fully in Canadian society and
contribute to the country's growth and development.
3.1.3 Effects on Chinese-Canadian communities
1. Increased opportunities for family reunification
The repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947 and the introduction of new
immigration policies led to increased opportunities for family reunification (Wong,
49 Chen, T. (2010). The “Model Minority” and Immigration: Family Reunification and the Chinese in Canada.
Journal of International Migration and Integration, 11(1), 57-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-009-0119-9
50 Kobayashi, A. (2010). Reunification and Recognition: The Chinese in Canada, 1947-1980. Journal of
International Migration and Integration, 11(2), 227-242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-009-0126-x
51 Li, P. S. (2016). Destination Canada: Immigration Debates and Issues. Canadian Scholars' Press.
78
2016, p. 64)52, which had a significant impact on Chinese-Canadian communities.
Prior to 1947, family reunification for Chinese immigrants was nearly impossible due
to the strict immigration laws and quotas. Chinese immigrants who were already in
Canada were unable to bring their spouses, children, or other family members over,
leaving them separated and isolated from their loved ones.
With the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, Chinese immigrants were finally
able to bring their families to Canada. In 1952, the Immigration Act was amended to
allow for the sponsorship of immediate family members, including spouses, children,
parents, and grandparents. This led to a significant increase in the number of Chinese
immigrants coming to Canada, as many were eager to reunite with their loved ones.
The increased opportunities for family reunification had a positive impact on
Chinese-Canadian communities (Haque & Wong, 2019, p. 61).53 Families were
reunited after years of separation, and children were finally able to be with their
parents. This had a significant impact on the mental health and well-being of
Chinese-Canadians, who had previously experienced the trauma of forced separation
and family disruption.
The expansion of family reunification policies also allowed for the preservation
and transmission of Chinese culture and traditions. Family members were able to
share their language, customs, and values with their loved ones, ensuring that their
cultural heritage would be passed down to future generations.
Additionally, the increased opportunities for family reunification helped to
address the issue of the aging Chinese population in Canada. Prior to 1947, Chinese
immigrants were unable to bring their elderly parents or grandparents over to Canada,
leaving many alone and isolated. With the introduction of family reunification policies,
elderly Chinese immigrants were finally able to be reunited with their families and
receive the care and support they needed.
Overall, the increased opportunities for family reunification had a significant
impact on Chinese-Canadian communities. It allowed for the healing of past traumas,
the preservation of cultural heritage, and the addressing of issues related to aging and
elder care.
2. Growing Chinese communities in major Canadian cities
The repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947 marked a significant turning
point in the history of Chinese immigration to Canada (Lee, 2019, p. 65).54 One of
52 Wong, P. (2016). Chinese Canadian diaspora. In R. Ember, C. R. Ember, & M. Ember (Eds.), Countries
and Their Cultures (pp. 64-69). Gale.
53 Haque, A., & Wong, L. (2019). Chinese immigrants in Canada. In M. Wu & W. Pan (Eds.), The Routledge
Handbook of Chinese Diaspora (pp. 59-72). Routledge.
54 Lee, J. (2019). A Chinese Canadian perspective on immigration and multiculturalism. Canadian Ethnic
Studies, 51(1), 65-72. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2019.0005
79
the most notable effects of this repeal was the growth of Chinese communities in
major Canadian cities, particularly Vancouver and Toronto.
As restrictions on Chinese immigration were lifted, more Chinese immigrants
were able to settle in Canada and reunite with their families. This influx of Chinese
immigrants led to the formation of larger and more visible Chinese communities in
urban centers (Li, 2003, p. 92).55 These communities established social and cultural
institutions, including schools, community centers, and religious organizations, that
helped to preserve and celebrate Chinese heritage and culture.
The growing Chinese communities also had a significant impact on the cultural
and economic landscape of Canada. Chinese-owned businesses, particularly in the
restaurant and retail sectors, proliferated in major cities, contributing to the diversity
of Canadian cuisine and consumer goods (Hui, 2015, p. 243).56 Chinese Canadians
also made important contributions to Canadian arts, sciences, and politics, challenging
longstanding stereotypes and prejudices against Asian immigrants.
However, the growing Chinese communities also faced challenges and obstacles.
Discrimination and racism persisted, with Chinese Canadians experiencing exclusion
and marginalization in employment, housing, and education. Some Canadians viewed
the growing Chinese population as a threat to Canadian identity and values, leading to
anti-immigrant sentiments and policies.
Despite these challenges, the growth of Chinese communities in Canada in the
post-Exclusion era represented an important shift in Canadian attitudes towards
Chinese immigrants. The increased opportunities for family reunification, as well as
the contributions and achievements of Chinese Canadians, helped to challenge and
overcome longstanding prejudices and stereotypes, paving the way for a more diverse
and inclusive Canadian society.
3. Challenges of integration and cultural identity
With the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act and the introduction of more
inclusive immigration policies, there was a significant increase in Chinese
immigration to Canada. This led to a growing Chinese-Canadian population,
particularly in major cities such as Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal.
However, the challenges of integrating new immigrants while maintaining
cultural identity were significant. Chinese-Canadians faced discrimination and
prejudice, which made it difficult to feel fully accepted and integrated into Canadian
society. At the same time, they also faced challenges in maintaining their cultural
identity and passing it on to the next generation.
55 Li, P. (2003). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
56 Hui, A. (2015). The growth and development of Chinese communities in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies,
47(3), 243-248. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2015.0036
80
One significant challenge was the language barrier. Many new immigrants
struggled with English or French, which made it difficult to find employment and
communicate with others. This led to a sense of isolation and a lack of social and
economic opportunities.
Another challenge was the loss of community and family support systems. New
immigrants often left behind family and friends in China and had to rely on the
support of other Chinese-Canadians. However, as the community grew, it became
more difficult to maintain close ties and support networks.
Despite these challenges, Chinese-Canadians were able to build thriving
communities and maintain their cultural identity. They established cultural
organizations, community centers, and Chinese-language schools to help preserve
their heritage and provide support to new immigrants. They also created businesses
and became active in Canadian politics, contributing to the economic and social
development of the country.
In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the history and contributions
of Chinese-Canadians, and efforts to recognize and address past injustices. The
establishment of the Chinese Canadian National Museum and the Canadian
government's apology for the Chinese Head Tax and Exclusion Act are examples of
this. However, there is still much work to be done to address ongoing discrimination
and ensure that Chinese-Canadians are fully included and valued in Canadian society.
3.2 Changing Immigration Policies and the Arrival of More Chinese Immigrants
3.2.1 Trends and Patterns in Chinese Immigration
1. Increase in Chinese immigration since the repeal of the Exclusion Act
The repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947 marked a turning point for
Chinese immigration to Canada (Jedwab & Wong, 2015, p. 4).57 Prior to this, Chinese
immigration was severely restricted, and the number of Chinese immigrants allowed
into Canada each year was limited to a small quota. The repeal of the Act opened the
door for increased Chinese immigration to Canada, and as a result, there was a
significant increase in the number of Chinese immigrants in the country.
Between 1947 and 1967, the number of Chinese immigrants to Canada increased
steadily. In 1947, there were just over 1,500 Chinese immigrants admitted to Canada.
By 1967, the number had increased to over 13,000. This increase was due in part to
changes in Canadian immigration policy, which began to focus on attracting skilled
workers and business immigrants, rather than just family reunification.
Another factor contributing to the increase in Chinese immigration was the
57 Jedwab, J., & Wong, B. (2015). Chinese Canadians: Enriching the cultural mosaic. Association for
Canadian Studies.
81
political climate in China. In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party came to power, and
many Chinese people fled the country to escape political persecution and economic
hardship. This led to a significant increase in the number of Chinese refugees seeking
asylum in Canada.
The increase in Chinese immigration since the repeal of the Exclusion Act has
had a significant impact on Canadian society. Chinese immigrants have contributed to
Canada's economic growth, bringing skills and capital to the country. They have also
helped to diversify Canadian society, bringing new languages, customs, and traditions
to the country. (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2011, p. 18)58
Despite the positive impact of Chinese immigration, there have also been
challenges. Chinese immigrants have faced discrimination and racism, and have had
to adapt to a new culture and way of life. Some Chinese immigrants have also
experienced difficulty in finding employment, due to language barriers and
discrimination.
Overall, the increase in Chinese immigration since the repeal of the Exclusion
Act has had a significant impact on Canada. It has helped to shape the country's
cultural, economic, and social landscape, and has contributed to its diversity and
growth.
2. Shift from family reunification to skilled worker and business immigration
With the repeal of the Exclusion Act and changing immigration policies, there
was a shift in the types of Chinese immigrants coming to Canada. Prior to the repeal
of the Exclusion Act, the majority of Chinese immigrants were men who had come to
work on the railways or in the mining industry. Family reunification became an
important aspect of immigration policy in the 1950s and 1960s, allowing more
Chinese women and children to join their male family members in Canada. However,
in the late 1960s, there was a shift in immigration policy towards skilled workers and
business immigrants.
According to statistics from the Canadian government, after the repeal of the
Exclusion Act, the proportion of male Chinese immigrants decreased, and the
proportion of female Chinese immigrants increased. Between 1947 and 1956, only 8
percent of Chinese immigrants to Canada were women. However, by the late 1950s
and early 1960s, family reunification had become an important aspect of immigration
policy, and the proportion of women immigrants increased to 35 percent in the 1960s
(Li, 2013, p. 8).59 In the late 1960s, the Canadian government introduced the Points
System, which prioritized skilled workers and professionals for immigration to
58 Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2011). Facts and figures 2010 - Immigration overview: Permanent
and temporary residents. Government of Canada.
59 Li, P. (2013). Chinese in Canada. Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21.
https://www.pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/chinese-canadians
82
Canada (Li, 2013, p. 9).59 This shift towards skilled worker and business immigration
led to a decrease in family reunification immigrants and an increase in the number of
immigrants from Hong Kong, as many Hong Kong residents had the necessary skills
and wealth to qualify for skilled worker and business immigration (Li, 2013, p. 9).59
Skilled worker immigration allowed for those with specific skills to come to
Canada, such as doctors, engineers, and other professionals. The Canadian
government saw skilled workers as a way to fill labour shortages in certain areas of
the country, and the Chinese government encouraged skilled workers to emigrate as a
way to learn new skills and gain work experience. Business immigration allowed for
those who were interested in investing in Canada to come to the country. These
immigrants were required to have a certain level of wealth and business experience,
and were expected to invest a certain amount of money in Canadian businesses.
The shift towards skilled worker and business immigration had an impact on the
demographics of Chinese immigrants in Canada. More men and women with specific
skills and business experience began to come to Canada, and there was a decrease in
the number of family reunification immigrants. This shift also led to an increase in the
number of immigrants from Hong Kong, as many Hong Kong residents had the
necessary skills and wealth to qualify for skilled worker and business immigration.
Overall, the shift towards skilled worker and business immigration had a
significant impact on the Chinese Canadian community. It allowed for more diversity
in the types of Chinese immigrants coming to Canada, and contributed to the growth
of the Canadian economy by filling labour shortages and attracting new investments.
However, it also led to a decrease in family reunification and may have contributed to
some challenges for Chinese immigrants in terms of adapting to life in Canada
without the support of their extended families.
3. Geographic distribution of Chinese immigrants in Canada
The geographic distribution of Chinese immigrants in Canada shifted
significantly after the repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1947. Prior to this, the majority
of Chinese immigrants had settled in Vancouver, as it was the closest Canadian port to
Asia. However, with the lifting of the Exclusion Act and the introduction of more
favorable immigration policies, Chinese immigrants began to settle in other parts of
Canada as well.
Toronto, which had previously seen little Chinese immigration, began to attract a
growing number of Chinese immigrants in the post-Exclusion Act era. This was partly
due to the fact that Toronto was becoming a major economic and cultural center, and
partly due to changes in Canadian immigration policy that encouraged skilled workers
and entrepreneurs to settle in Canada. Chinese immigrants who were skilled workers
or entrepreneurs found many opportunities in Toronto, and were attracted to the city's
cosmopolitan atmosphere and diverse range of cultural offerings.
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Other Canadian cities that saw an increase in Chinese immigration during this
period included Montreal, Calgary, and Edmonton. Montreal had long been a center
for business and trade, and as such, it began to attract Chinese immigrants who were
involved in international trade. Calgary and Edmonton, meanwhile, were experiencing
a boom in the oil and gas industry, and many Chinese immigrants found work in this
sector.
Despite this geographic diversification, Vancouver remained the primary
destination for Chinese immigrants, and continued to receive the largest number of
Chinese immigrants of any Canadian city. This was partly due to its proximity to Asia,
which made it an attractive destination for Chinese immigrants who wanted to
maintain ties with their home country. Additionally, Vancouver had a well-established
Chinese community, which made it easier for new immigrants to settle in and find
work.
Overall, the geographic distribution of Chinese immigrants in Canada changed
significantly after the repeal of the Exclusion Act. While Vancouver remained the
primary destination for Chinese immigrants, other Canadian cities also began to
attract a growing number of Chinese immigrants, particularly skilled workers and
entrepreneurs. This geographic diversification had a significant impact on Canadian
society, contributing to the growth of multiculturalism and diversity in cities and
communities across the country.
3.2.2 Different Types of Immigrants and Their Experiences
1. Skilled workers and their contributions to the Canadian economy
After the repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1947, the Canadian government began to
encourage skilled workers to immigrate to Canada to address the country's labour
shortages. Chinese immigrants were no exception, and many skilled Chinese workers
were able to enter Canada through various immigration programs.
These skilled workers brought with them a range of talents and expertise,
including engineering, medicine, and technology. They made significant contributions
to the Canadian economy, helping to build new infrastructure and develop key
industries. For example, many Chinese engineers played critical roles in building
Canada's transportation and communication systems, while Chinese doctors and other
healthcare professionals helped to address Canada's growing healthcare needs.
Chinese immigrants also made significant contributions to the business sector.
Many Chinese immigrants opened their own businesses, including restaurants, shops,
and other enterprises. These businesses helped to create jobs, stimulate economic
growth, and promote cultural diversity. Chinese entrepreneurs were also instrumental
in establishing trade and investment links between Canada and China, which helped
to strengthen bilateral relations between the two countries.
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Despite their many contributions, skilled Chinese workers faced significant
challenges in Canada. Many experienced discrimination and racism, both in the
workplace and in society at large. Some Chinese professionals were forced to take
jobs that were below their skill level, while others were unable to find work in their
chosen fields due to institutional barriers such as credential recognition.
Nevertheless, skilled Chinese workers were able to establish themselves in
Canada, and many went on to become successful professionals, entrepreneurs, and
community leaders. Their contributions have helped to shape Canada's economy and
society, and their legacy continues to be felt today.
2. Business immigrants and their impact on Canadian businesses
In the post-World War II era, Canada's immigration policy shifted towards
attracting and welcoming skilled workers and businesspeople. This shift was
particularly relevant for Chinese immigrants, who faced strict exclusion policies until
the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947.
Chinese business immigrants played a significant role in shaping the Canadian
economy between 1947 and 1967. They established their own businesses and brought
new ideas and practices to Canadian industries. Many Chinese business immigrants
arrived in Canada with significant financial resources and were able to invest in new
ventures, creating jobs and contributing to economic growth.
One notable example of a successful Chinese business immigrant is the
entrepreneur Robert Lee, who arrived in Canada in 1953 and founded the Lee Kum
Kee sauce company. The company has since grown to become one of the largest
producers of Asian sauces in the world, and its Canadian subsidiary employs over 150
people.
Similarly, many Chinese immigrants invested in the restaurant industry, opening
up new dining experiences and introducing Canadians to Chinese cuisine. The
development of Chinatowns in major Canadian cities, such as Vancouver and Toronto,
also contributed to the growth of tourism and cultural exchange.
While Chinese business immigrants have made significant contributions to the
Canadian economy, they have also faced challenges. Many encountered
discrimination and had difficulty obtaining financing and other resources due to their
ethnicity. Some also struggled with language barriers and cultural differences,
particularly when it came to understanding Canadian business practices and
regulations.
In response to these challenges, many Chinese business immigrants formed their
own networks and associations to support each other and navigate the business
landscape. For example, the Chinese Chamber of Commerce in Vancouver was
established in 1947 and provided a platform for Chinese business owners to connect
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and advocate for their interests.
Overall, Chinese business immigrants have had a lasting impact on Canadian
businesses and industries, helping to drive economic growth and innovation. Their
contributions continue to be recognized and celebrated in Canadian society today.
3. Students and their experiences in Canadian universities
During the post-Exclusion Act period from 1947 to 1967, Chinese students also
became a notable group of immigrants to Canada. Unlike other immigrant groups who
were primarily seeking economic opportunities or family reunification, Chinese
students came to Canada for educational opportunities. They were able to come to
Canada through scholarships and other forms of financial support, as well as through
their own financial resources.
Chinese students faced a variety of challenges when they arrived in Canada,
including language barriers, culture shock, and discrimination. Many struggled to
adapt to the Canadian education system and to find a sense of belonging in Canadian
society. In addition, they faced the added pressure of being representatives of their
country and culture, and felt a responsibility to represent themselves and their
homeland positively.
Despite these challenges, many Chinese students were able to successfully
complete their studies and make significant contributions to Canadian society. Some
went on to become leaders in their fields, while others founded businesses and
organizations that contributed to the growth and development of Canadian
communities. Additionally, Chinese students played an important role in promoting
cultural exchange between China and Canada, and helped to foster greater
understanding and cooperation between the two countries.
In terms of their experiences in Canadian universities, Chinese students often
faced discrimination and racism. They were often excluded from campus social
activities and were not allowed to live in university residences. In some cases, they
were even denied access to certain programs and courses. However, despite these
barriers, Chinese students were able to form close bonds with other international
students and with Canadian students who shared their interests and values.
Overall, Chinese students played a significant role in the post-Exclusion Act
period of Chinese immigration to Canada. They faced numerous challenges, but were
able to overcome them and make important contributions to Canadian society. Their
experiences highlight the importance of education as a means of integration and
empowerment for immigrant communities, and demonstrate the potential for
cross-cultural exchange and understanding.
4. Refugees and their settlement experiences
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Refugees were another important group of immigrants who arrived in Canada
during the period from 1947 to 1967. Among these refugees were Chinese who fled
mainland China after the communist takeover in 1949 and the subsequent political
turmoil and economic hardships. These refugees faced numerous challenges in their
settlement experiences in Canada.
Firstly, language and cultural barriers were a significant challenge for many
Chinese refugees. Many of them spoke little or no English, making it difficult for
them to communicate with the local population and access basic services. Additionally,
cultural differences between China and Canada made it challenging for refugees to
adapt to Canadian social norms and practices.
Secondly, finding employment was also a significant challenge for Chinese
refugees. Many of them had to work in low-paying jobs, such as in restaurants and
laundries, due to a lack of language and job skills. This limited their ability to
integrate into Canadian society and achieve financial stability.
Thirdly, housing was another significant challenge for many Chinese refugees.
Many of them lived in crowded and substandard conditions, particularly in urban
areas, due to the high cost of rent and discrimination in housing.
Despite these challenges, Chinese refugees made significant contributions to
Canadian society. Many of them worked hard and eventually established successful
businesses or pursued education opportunities. Some even became community leaders,
advocating for the rights of refugees and other marginalized groups.
Overall, the settlement experiences of Chinese refugees highlight the resilience
and determination of these immigrants in the face of significant challenges. Their
contributions to Canadian society serve as a testament to the importance of
welcoming and supporting refugees in building a diverse and inclusive society.
3.2.3 Economic, Social, and Cultural Impacts of Immigration
1. Economic benefits and challenges of Chinese immigration
The repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act and the implementation of new
immigration policies in 1947 marked a significant shift in the economic landscape of
Canada. Chinese immigrants brought with them a range of skills, experiences, and
entrepreneurial spirit that contributed to the growth of the Canadian economy.
However, there were also some economic challenges that arose from Chinese
immigration during this period.
One of the primary economic benefits of Chinese immigration was the infusion
of new capital into the Canadian economy. Many Chinese immigrants were
entrepreneurs and businesspeople who were able to establish successful businesses
and contribute to economic growth. Chinese-owned businesses were particularly
87
successful in the retail and restaurant sectors, and helped to create jobs and drive
economic activity in their communities.
Another benefit of Chinese immigration was the availability of a skilled labor
force. Many Chinese immigrants came to Canada with specialized skills in fields such
as engineering, medicine, and technology. These skills were in high demand in
Canada, and helped to fill gaps in the Canadian labor market. Chinese immigrants
also helped to build the infrastructure of Canada, including contributing to the
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the late 19th century.
However, there were also some economic challenges associated with Chinese
immigration. One of the primary challenges was the perception that Chinese
immigrants were taking jobs away from Canadian-born workers. This perception led
to discriminatory hiring practices and limited job opportunities for Chinese
immigrants, particularly in the early years following the repeal of the Exclusion Act.
Another economic challenge was the concentration of Chinese immigrants in
certain sectors of the economy, particularly in the service industry. This concentration
made Chinese immigrants vulnerable to economic downturns and fluctuations in the
service industry. In addition, Chinese immigrants often faced challenges in accessing
financing and other resources to start and grow their businesses, which limited their
economic opportunities.
Despite these challenges, Chinese immigration had a significant positive impact
on the Canadian economy during this period. The infusion of new capital, the
availability of a skilled labor force, and the entrepreneurial spirit of Chinese
immigrants helped to drive economic growth and create jobs in Canada.
2. Social and cultural changes in Canadian society due to Chinese immigration
Chinese immigration to Canada between 1947 and 1967 had a significant impact
on Canadian society, particularly in terms of social and cultural changes. Prior to the
repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947, Chinese immigrants faced significant
discrimination and were excluded from many aspects of Canadian society. However,
as more Chinese immigrants were allowed to enter Canada, they began to make
important contributions to Canadian culture and society.
One major impact of Chinese immigration on Canadian society was the
introduction of Chinese cuisine and cultural practices. Chinese restaurants and food
became increasingly popular in Canada, and many non-Chinese Canadians began to
appreciate Chinese cuisine. Additionally, traditional Chinese cultural practices, such
as the celebration of Chinese New Year and other cultural festivals, began to be
observed in Canadian cities with significant Chinese populations. This helped to
foster a greater understanding and appreciation of Chinese culture among
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non-Chinese Canadians. (Li, 2011, p. 99)60
Another important social and cultural impact of Chinese immigration was the
increased diversity of Canadian society. As more Chinese immigrants arrived in
Canada, they brought with them their own unique cultures, traditions, and languages.
This helped to enrich Canadian society and contributed to a more multicultural and
diverse country. The presence of Chinese immigrants also led to increased awareness
and appreciation of other immigrant groups in Canada, as people began to recognize
the contributions that immigrants from all backgrounds were making to Canadian
society. (Li, 2011, p. 100)60
Chinese immigrants also faced significant challenges in adapting to Canadian
society, particularly in terms of language and cultural barriers. Many Chinese
immigrants arrived in Canada with limited English proficiency and had difficulty
communicating with non-Chinese Canadians. Additionally, they faced discrimination
and racism from some Canadians who viewed them as outsiders (Li, 2011, p. 101).60
However, Chinese immigrants were able to overcome many of these challenges
through hard work and determination, and many went on to achieve great success in
Canada.
In conclusion, Chinese immigration to Canada between 1947 and 1967 had a
significant impact on Canadian society, particularly in terms of social and cultural
changes. The introduction of Chinese cuisine and cultural practices helped to foster a
greater understanding and appreciation of Chinese culture among non-Chinese
Canadians. Additionally, the increased diversity of Canadian society helped to enrich
the country and contributed to a more multicultural and inclusive society. While
Chinese immigrants faced significant challenges in adapting to Canadian society, they
were ultimately able to overcome these challenges and make important contributions
to Canadian culture and society.
3. Multiculturalism and diversity in Canadian cities and communities
The influx of Chinese immigrants since the repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1947
has had a significant impact on Canadian society (Lai, 1991, p. 3).61 One of the most
notable impacts has been the growth of multiculturalism and diversity in Canadian
cities and communities. Prior to the repeal of the Exclusion Act, Chinese immigration
was severely limited, and Chinese Canadians were often isolated and marginalized in
society. However, with the opening of immigration policies, Chinese immigrants were
able to come to Canada in larger numbers, leading to an increase in diversity and
cultural exchange.
As Chinese immigrants settled in Canadian cities and communities, they brought
60 Li, P. S. (2011). A history of Chinese in Canada: New and revised edition. Arbeiter Ring Publishing.
61 Lai, D. (1991). Chinese community in Canada. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.
89
with them their own traditions, customs, and cultural practices. This diversity has had
a profound impact on Canadian society, leading to a blending of cultures and the
creation of a uniquely Canadian identity. Chinese Canadians have contributed to the
development of Canadian culture through their participation in art, literature, music,
and other forms of expression (Li, 2012, p. 46).62 For example, Chinese Canadians
have contributed to the development of Canadian literature through the works of
authors such as Wayson Choy and Laurence Yep.
The growth of multiculturalism and diversity in Canadian cities and communities
has also led to the creation of a more tolerant and accepting society. Through exposure
to different cultures, Canadians have developed a greater appreciation for diversity
and have become more accepting of different customs and beliefs. This has led to the
creation of a more inclusive society, where people of all backgrounds are able to live
and work together in harmony.
In addition, the growth of multiculturalism and diversity has had a significant
economic impact on Canadian society. Chinese Canadians have contributed to the
growth of the Canadian economy through their entrepreneurship and business
ventures (Ng, 1999, p. 69).63 Many Chinese immigrants have started their own
businesses, contributing to the growth of the Canadian economy and creating jobs for
Canadians.
However, the growth of multiculturalism and diversity has also brought about
some challenges. One of the main challenges has been the need for cultural
integration and understanding. As more and more immigrants come to Canada, it is
important to ensure that they are able to integrate into Canadian society and
understand Canadian customs and values. This requires a concerted effort on the part
of both immigrants and Canadians to bridge cultural differences and work together to
create a harmonious society.
Overall, the growth of multiculturalism and diversity in Canadian cities and
communities has had a profound impact on Canadian society. Through the
contributions of Chinese Canadians, Canadian culture has become richer and more
diverse. However, this growth has also brought about challenges that must be
addressed through greater cultural understanding and integration.
4. Integration and adaptation challenges for Chinese immigrants in Canada
Chinese immigrants who arrived in Canada between 1947 and 1967 faced
numerous challenges when integrating into Canadian society (Wu, 2016, p. 72).64
62 Li, P. (2012). Asian Canadian literature in English: An overview. In D. H. Y. Chu (Ed.), Chinese Canadian
literature (pp. 45-61). Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.
63 Ng, W. (1999). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press.
64 Wu, W. (2016). Migration and social integration in urban China. Routledge.
90
These challenges arose from various factors, including cultural differences, language
barriers, and discriminatory attitudes towards immigrants.
One of the most significant challenges for Chinese immigrants was the lack of
recognition of their professional qualifications and work experience in Canada (Li,
2014, p. 21).65 Many Chinese immigrants who were professionals or skilled workers
in their home country found themselves working in low-paying and menial jobs in
Canada. This was because Canadian employers were often hesitant to hire immigrants
who lacked Canadian work experience or who did not speak English fluently. As a
result, many Chinese immigrants were forced to take jobs in industries that were seen
as less desirable, such as the garment industry, restaurants, and grocery stores.
Another challenge faced by Chinese immigrants was the issue of racism and
discrimination. Many Chinese immigrants faced discrimination and prejudice from
Canadians, who often saw them as foreigners who did not belong in Canada. This was
particularly evident in the case of the Chinese community, which was subjected to a
number of discriminatory policies and practices throughout Canadian history,
including the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1923.
Language barriers were also a significant challenge for Chinese immigrants (Li,
2014, p. 31).65 Many Chinese immigrants spoke little to no English when they arrived
in Canada, which made it difficult for them to communicate with Canadians and
access essential services such as healthcare and education. This language barrier also
made it difficult for Chinese immigrants to integrate into Canadian society and
participate fully in Canadian life.
Cultural differences were another significant challenge for Chinese immigrants
(Wu, 2016, p. 82).64 Many Chinese immigrants found it challenging to adapt to
Canadian cultural norms and values, which were often very different from those in
China. This included differences in social customs, religious practices, and food
habits, among other things.
Despite these challenges, Chinese immigrants have made significant
contributions to Canadian society and the Canadian economy (Li, 2014, p. 38).65
Many Chinese immigrants have started successful businesses in Canada, which have
created jobs and contributed to economic growth. Additionally, Chinese immigrants
have enriched Canadian culture by sharing their traditions and cultural practices with
Canadians.
In recent years, the Canadian government has implemented various programs
and policies to help newcomers integrate into Canadian society more easily
(Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2014).66 These include language training, job
65 Li, P. S. (2014). Destination Canada: Immigration debates and issues. University of Toronto Press.
66 Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2014). Welcoming newcomers: Canada’s resettlement program.
Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/migration/ircc/english/pdf/pub/welcoming-newcomers.pdf
91
placement programs, and programs to help newcomers navigate the Canadian
healthcare and education systems. Additionally, Canadian society has become more
accepting and welcoming of immigrants and cultural diversity in recent years, which
has made it easier for newcomers to feel at home in Canada.
3.3 The Growth of Chinatowns and Chinese Communities in Canada
3.3.1 Expansion and Transformation of Chinatowns
1. Changes in physical layout and architecture
The repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947 allowed for a significant
increase in Chinese immigration to Canada. As a result, Chinatowns across the
country underwent expansion and transformation during the post-war period. One of
the most noticeable changes during this time was the physical layout and architecture
of Chinatown.
Prior to the repeal of the Exclusion Act, many Chinese immigrants were
restricted to living within the confines of Chinatown due to discriminatory housing
practices and policies. This led to overcrowding and a lack of living space within the
neighbourhood. However, with the influx of new immigrants and the lifting of
discriminatory policies, many Chinese Canadians began to move out of Chinatown
and into other areas of the city.
This shift in population led to a decline in the density of Chinatowns and allowed
for the physical expansion of the neighbourhoods. New buildings and developments
were constructed outside of the traditional boundaries of Chinatown, and many
businesses began to move into these new spaces.
In addition to the expansion of Chinatown, there was also a noticeable shift in
the architectural styles of buildings within the neighbourhood. Many new buildings
were designed in a modernist style, incorporating elements of Western architecture.
This was a departure from the traditional Chinese architecture that had dominated the
neighbourhoods in the past.
One example of this shift in architectural style is the Chinese Cultural Centre in
Vancouver. Completed in 1986, the Centre was designed by Canadian architect Joe
Wai and features a modernist design with a blend of Chinese and Western
architectural elements.
While the physical expansion and transformation of Chinatown brought new
opportunities and developments to the neighbourhoods, it also brought challenges.
Gentrification, rising property values, and displacement of long-time residents were
all issues that arose during this period of change.
Overall, the expansion and transformation of Chinatowns in Canada during the
post-war period brought about significant changes to the physical layout and
92
architecture of the neighbourhoods. While these changes represented a departure from
traditional Chinese architectural styles, they also reflected a new era of
multiculturalism and integration in Canadian society.
2. Diversity of businesses and services
As Chinese immigration to Canada increased after the repeal of the Exclusion
Act, Chinatowns across the country underwent significant expansion and
transformation. One notable change was the diversity of businesses and services
available within these communities.
Before the repeal of the Exclusion Act, Chinese immigrants were largely
restricted to working in low-paying, manual labor jobs such as laundry and restaurant
work. However, with the opening up of immigration policies, Chinese immigrants
were able to enter a wider range of professions, including skilled trades and
entrepreneurship. This led to a greater diversity of businesses and services in
Chinatowns, as Chinese immigrants opened up shops and restaurants catering to a
variety of tastes and needs.
Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs also played a significant role in revitalizing
Chinatown economies by opening up new businesses and attracting non-Chinese
customers. For example, in Vancouver's Chinatown, Chinese-Canadian businessman
Bob Lee founded the annual Chinese New Year Parade, which helped to draw crowds
of tourists and locals to the neighborhood.
Another important factor in the diversity of businesses and services in
Chinatowns was the influx of Hong Kong immigrants in the 1960s. These immigrants
brought with them a new wave of entrepreneurialism and investment, opening up
businesses such as travel agencies and import-export companies that catered to both
Chinese and non-Chinese customers.
However, while the expansion and diversification of businesses and services in
Chinatowns brought economic benefits to Chinese-Canadian communities, it also
posed challenges. Non-Chinese businesses and residents began to encroach on these
areas, leading to tensions over gentrification and cultural preservation.
Overall, the diversity of businesses and services in Chinatowns reflects the
changing demographics and economic opportunities available to Chinese immigrants
in Canada after the repeal of the Exclusion Act. While it brought challenges and
tensions, it also contributed to the vibrancy and resilience of Chinatown communities.
3. Role of Chinatowns in the social and cultural life of Chinese-Canadians
Chinatowns played a crucial role in the social and cultural life of
Chinese-Canadians during the period of 1947-1967. After the repeal of the Exclusion
Act, Chinese immigrants were able to establish themselves and build communities in
93
cities across Canada. Chinatowns were a central gathering place for
Chinese-Canadians, serving not only as a commercial hub but also as a cultural and
social center.
In Chinatowns, Chinese-Canadians could find familiar foods, goods, and services
that reminded them of home. They could also participate in cultural events and
activities, such as Chinese New Year celebrations, dragon boat races, and martial arts
demonstrations. These events provided a sense of connection to their cultural heritage
and allowed Chinese-Canadians to share their traditions with the broader community.
Chinatowns also provided support and services to Chinese immigrants who were
adapting to life in Canada. For example, they offered language classes, legal advice,
and job placement assistance. These services were particularly important for
newcomers who were not yet fluent in English and did not have established networks
in their new country.
Chinatowns also served as a political center for Chinese-Canadians. They were a
place where community leaders could meet and discuss issues affecting their
community, such as discrimination and immigration policy. Through collective action
and advocacy, Chinese-Canadians were able to challenge discriminatory practices and
fight for their rights.
However, Chinatowns were not without their challenges. They were often
located in areas that were deemed undesirable, such as near industrial zones or rail
yards. This led to issues such as pollution and noise, which had a negative impact on
the quality of life for Chinatown residents. In addition, some Chinese-Canadians
faced discrimination and prejudice from the broader community, which made it
difficult for them to fully participate in Canadian society.
Despite these challenges, Chinatowns remained an important part of the social
and cultural fabric of Chinese-Canadian communities during the period of 1947-1967.
They provided a sense of belonging, connection to cultural heritage, and a platform
for advocacy and political action. The expansion and transformation of Chinatowns
during this period reflects the resilience and determination of Chinese-Canadians to
establish themselves and build a better life in Canada.
3.3.2 Chinese-Canadian Business and Community Development
1. Entrepreneurship and economic success
Chinese immigrants who arrived in Canada after the repeal of the Exclusion Act
in 1947 faced numerous challenges in their efforts to establish businesses and build
their economic livelihoods. Discrimination and systemic barriers limited their access
to resources, opportunities, and networks, forcing many to rely on self-employment
and entrepreneurship. Despite these challenges, Chinese Canadians succeeded in
building successful businesses and contributing to Canada's economic growth.
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One significant factor contributing to the success of Chinese Canadian
entrepreneurs was their ability to create and sustain networks of support within their
own communities. Chinese-Canadian organizations, such as the Chinese Benevolent
Association, provided a framework for mutual aid, social support, and community
building. These networks helped newcomers access information, resources, and
financing, and facilitated relationships with suppliers, customers, and partners.
Another key factor was the Chinese-Canadian community's entrepreneurial spirit
and willingness to take risks. Many Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs entered into
businesses that were outside of their traditional areas of expertise, such as opening up
restaurants or laundries, and adapted quickly to meet the demands of the market.
Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs were also known for their strong work ethic, often
working long hours and reinvesting profits into their businesses to fuel their growth.
Chinese-Canadian businesses played an important role in the development of
urban areas in Canada, particularly in the downtown cores of major cities. These
businesses revitalized previously neglected or abandoned areas, transforming them
into vibrant and culturally rich neighbourhoods. For example, Vancouver's Chinatown
became a hub of Chinese-Canadian culture and commerce, attracting tourists and
locals alike.
Moreover, Chinese-Canadian businesses provided employment opportunities for
other members of the community, particularly for recent immigrants and their families.
Many of these businesses were family-run and provided work for multiple generations.
Additionally, the businesses often served as a bridge between different cultural
communities, fostering understanding and appreciation for Chinese-Canadian culture
and contributing to Canada's multicultural identity.
In conclusion, despite facing significant barriers, Chinese Canadians were able to
build successful businesses and contribute to Canada's economic growth. The
entrepreneurship and economic success of Chinese Canadians had a positive impact
on both their own communities and on Canadian society as a whole. By creating
networks of support, taking risks, and fostering vibrant urban neighbourhoods,
Chinese Canadians played a significant role in shaping the economic and cultural
landscape of Canada in the post-World War II era.
2. Formation of Chinese-Canadian organizations and associations
During the period of 1947-1967, Chinese-Canadians experienced significant
growth in terms of economic success and community development. One important
aspect of this development was the formation of various Chinese-Canadian
organizations and associations. These organizations played a key role in providing
support and resources for Chinese immigrants in Canada, and also helped to promote
Chinese culture and traditions in Canadian society.
95
One of the earliest Chinese-Canadian organizations was the Chinese Benevolent
Association (CBA), which was established in Vancouver in 1884. The CBA was
initially created to support Chinese immigrants and provide assistance to those in need.
Over time, the organization evolved to become a cultural and social hub for the
Chinese-Canadian community, organizing events and activities that celebrated
Chinese culture and heritage.
In addition to the CBA, other Chinese-Canadian organizations emerged during
the period of 1947-1967, such as the Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC) and
the Chinese Community Association (CCA). The CCNC was founded in 1975 as a
national umbrella organization for Chinese-Canadian groups, working to promote
social justice, human rights, and equity for all Canadians. The CCA, on the other hand,
focused on community building and cultural preservation, sponsoring events and
activities that celebrated Chinese culture and traditions.
These organizations played a critical role in promoting Chinese-Canadian
interests and advocating for the rights of Chinese immigrants. They also provided
valuable resources for newcomers, such as language classes, employment services,
and housing assistance. As Chinese immigrants continued to arrive in Canada, these
organizations became even more important, helping to build a sense of community
and belonging among Chinese-Canadians.
Moreover, the formation of Chinese-Canadian organizations and associations
also helped to challenge negative stereotypes and discrimination against Chinese
immigrants. By promoting Chinese culture and traditions, these organizations helped
to break down barriers and promote understanding between different cultural groups.
In this way, they played a critical role in fostering multiculturalism and diversity in
Canadian society.
Overall, the formation of Chinese-Canadian organizations and associations
during the period of 1947-1967 was a significant development in the history of
Chinese immigration to Canada. These organizations provided essential support and
resources for newcomers, helped to promote Chinese culture and traditions, and
challenged negative stereotypes and discrimination. They continue to play a critical
role in shaping the experiences and perspectives of Chinese-Canadians today.
3. Political representation and activism
The period of 1947-1967 saw a significant increase in Chinese-Canadian
political representation and activism (Li, 2012, p. 57).67 Prior to this period,
Chinese-Canadians faced numerous barriers to political participation due to
discriminatory policies such as the Exclusion Act. However, with the repeal of the
Exclusion Act and changing immigration policies, Chinese-Canadians were able to
67 Li, P. S. (2012). Chinese in Canada. Oxford University Press.
96
engage more actively in the political process.
One of the earliest Chinese-Canadian political organizations was the Chinese
Benevolent Association (CBA), which was founded in Vancouver in 1884 (Li, 2012, p.
60).67 The CBA aimed to provide assistance to new Chinese immigrants and represent
the Chinese-Canadian community in the broader society. However, the CBA was
criticized for its conservative leadership and its role in enforcing discriminatory
policies against new Chinese immigrants.
In the post-Exclusion Act era, Chinese-Canadians began to form new
organizations and associations that aimed to promote the interests of the community
and advocate for their rights. For example, in 1947, the Chinese Canadian National
Council (CCNC) was founded with the goal of promoting the welfare of
Chinese-Canadians and fostering better relations between Chinese and non-Chinese
Canadians (Li, 2012, p. 61).67 The CCNC also played an important role in advocating
for the repeal of discriminatory policies such as the Chinese Immigration Act.
In addition to formal organizations, Chinese-Canadians also engaged in political
activism on a grassroots level. For example, in the 1960s, Chinese-Canadian youth in
Vancouver organized protests against the discriminatory treatment of
Chinese-Canadian students in the public school system. These protests helped to bring
attention to the issue and contributed to changes in policy.
Chinese-Canadian political representation also increased during this period. In
1952, Douglas Jung became the first person of Chinese descent to be elected to the
House of Commons, representing the Vancouver Centre riding (Li, 2012, p. 62).67
Jung's election was significant because it demonstrated that Chinese-Canadians could
overcome the discriminatory barriers to political representation and make significant
contributions to Canadian society.
Overall, the period of 1947-1967 saw a significant increase in Chinese-Canadian
political representation and activism. The repeal of discriminatory policies such as the
Exclusion Act and changing immigration policies allowed Chinese-Canadians to
engage more actively in the political process and form new organizations and
associations. These developments helped to promote the interests of the
Chinese-Canadian community and contribute to a more inclusive and diverse
Canadian society.
3.3.3 Cultural and Religious Life in Chinese Communities
1. Preservation of Chinese cultural practices and traditions
Chinese immigrants in Canada have worked hard to preserve their cultural
practices and traditions in the face of cultural assimilation. From the 1940s to the
1960s, Chinese immigrants faced significant challenges in preserving their culture due
to racism, discrimination, and a lack of recognition from the Canadian government.
97
However, they persevered and found ways to maintain their traditions.
One way that Chinese Canadians have preserved their culture is by establishing
cultural and religious institutions. For example, many Chinese-Canadian communities
have built community centers, cultural associations, and religious temples where they
can gather and practice their traditions. These institutions serve as important gathering
places for Chinese Canadians to connect with each other, share their culture, and pass
down traditions to younger generations.
Chinese Canadians have also preserved their cultural practices through food, art,
and language. Chinese cuisine has become a popular and widely recognized cuisine in
Canada, with many Chinese restaurants and food markets found throughout the
country. Chinese-Canadian artists have also gained recognition, with
Chinese-Canadian art being featured in galleries and museums across Canada.
Chinese language classes and cultural events have also become more widely available,
allowing younger generations to learn about their heritage and continue practicing
their culture.
Despite these efforts, Chinese Canadians have faced challenges in preserving
their culture, such as discrimination and assimilation pressures. However, the
resilience and determination of Chinese Canadians have allowed them to maintain
their cultural practices and traditions and contribute to Canada's multicultural society.
Today, Chinese-Canadians are an important and valued part of Canada's diverse
cultural fabric.
2. Growth of Chinese language education and media
The period between 1947 and 1967 saw significant growth in Chinese language
education and media in Canada, particularly in urban centers with large Chinese
populations. Chinese Canadians began to establish their own schools and educational
programs to preserve their language and culture, as well as to provide their children
with opportunities to learn Mandarin or Cantonese.
One of the earliest Chinese schools in Canada was the Chinese Benevolent
Association Language School, which was founded in Vancouver in 1955. This school
provided instruction in Chinese language, culture, and history to Chinese Canadian
children and adults. Other Chinese schools followed in cities like Toronto, Montreal,
and Edmonton, often run by community organizations or religious groups. These
schools helped to maintain and pass on Chinese culture and language to future
generations, despite the challenges of assimilation and discrimination.
In addition to Chinese schools, the growth of Chinese media also played an
important role in the preservation of Chinese culture and language. Chinese
newspapers, magazines, and radio stations were established to serve Chinese
communities across Canada. These media outlets not only provided news and
98
entertainment in Chinese, but also promoted Chinese culture and community events.
One of the most prominent Chinese-language newspapers during this period was
the Chinese Times, which was founded in Vancouver in 1952. The Chinese Times
provided news coverage of China and Canada, as well as local news of interest to
Chinese Canadians. It also included features on Chinese culture and history, and
served as a platform for Chinese Canadian writers and journalists. Other Chinese
newspapers, such as the Sing Tao Daily and Ming Pao Daily, were established in
cities like Toronto and Montreal to serve local Chinese communities.
Chinese radio stations also began to emerge in Canadian cities, providing
Chinese-language programming ranging from news and current affairs to music and
entertainment. In Vancouver, for example, CHMB was established in 1973 as the first
24-hour Chinese radio station in North America. Other Chinese radio stations
followed in cities like Toronto and Montreal, providing a vital source of information
and entertainment for Chinese Canadians.
The growth of Chinese language education and media during this period helped
to preserve and promote Chinese culture and language in Canada. These efforts
played an important role in strengthening Chinese Canadian communities and
maintaining their distinct identity in the face of assimilation and discrimination.
3. Development of Chinese-Canadian arts and culture
The period from 1947 to 1967 saw the growth and development of
Chinese-Canadian arts and culture. This growth was a result of the changing
immigration policies that allowed for greater numbers of Chinese immigrants to come
to Canada, leading to a larger Chinese-Canadian community with diverse talents and
cultural backgrounds.
One of the most prominent Chinese-Canadian cultural institutions during this
time was the Chinese Cultural Centre, which was established in Vancouver in 1959.
The centre was created to promote Chinese culture and heritage, as well as to provide
a space for Chinese-Canadians to connect with each other and the broader Canadian
community. The centre provided classes in traditional Chinese arts such as calligraphy,
painting, and music, as well as Chinese language classes for both children and adults.
In addition to the Chinese Cultural Centre, other Chinese-Canadian arts and
cultural organizations emerged during this time, such as the Vancouver Chinese Music
Ensemble and the Vancouver Chinese Choir. These groups played a vital role in
preserving and promoting traditional Chinese music and singing in Canada.
The development of Chinese-Canadian arts and culture also extended to the
visual arts. During this time, Chinese-Canadian artists began to gain recognition for
their work, and their art began to be displayed in galleries and museums across
Canada. For example, the National Gallery of Canada held an exhibition of
99
Chinese-Canadian art in 1965, which featured the work of artists such as Jack
Shadbolt and Lawren Harris (National Gallery of Canada, 1965).68
One of the most significant developments in Chinese-Canadian arts and culture
during this time was the emergence of literature written by Chinese-Canadians. This
literature reflected the experiences of Chinese immigrants and their descendants in
Canada and helped to give voice to the Chinese-Canadian community. Notable works
from this period include the poetry of Roy Miki and the novels of Wayson Choy.
Overall, the development of Chinese-Canadian arts and culture during the period
from 1947 to 1967 was a significant achievement. It allowed for the preservation and
promotion of traditional Chinese arts and culture while also creating opportunities for
Chinese-Canadian artists to showcase their talents and contribute to the broader
Canadian cultural landscape.
3.4 The Impact of Immigration on Canadian Society and Politics
3.4.1 Debates and controversies over immigration policy
1. Public opinion on Chinese immigration
The period between 1947 and 1967 marked a significant change in Canadian
immigration policy towards Chinese immigrants. While the repeal of the Chinese
Exclusion Act in 1947 and the introduction of the 1967 Immigration Act signaled a
shift towards a more liberal immigration policy, the debates and controversies
surrounding Chinese immigration remained a contentious issue in Canadian society
(Wong, 2005, p. 38).69 Public opinion on Chinese immigration during this period was
mixed, with some Canadians welcoming the increased diversity and others expressing
concerns about the impact on the country's economy and social fabric.
One of the key concerns expressed by opponents of Chinese immigration was the
fear that Chinese immigrants would take away jobs from Canadian workers (Li, 1998,
p. 22).12 This fear was fueled by a perception that Chinese immigrants were willing to
work for lower wages and were thus a threat to Canadian workers' job security. The
Chinese Exclusion Act had contributed to this perception by effectively barring
Chinese immigrants from entering Canada for several decades, creating a narrative
that Chinese immigrants were not welcome in the country. Even after the repeal of the
Exclusion Act, this perception persisted, with some Canadians arguing that the
country had already reached its quota of Chinese immigrants.
Another area of concern was the perceived impact of Chinese immigration on the
social fabric of Canadian society (Li, 1998, p. 22).12 Opponents of Chinese
immigration argued that the cultural differences between Chinese immigrants and
68 National Gallery of Canada. (1965). Contemporary Chinese-Canadian Paintings. Ottawa, Canada.
69 Wong, L. (2005). The Chinese in Canada. UBC Press.
100
other Canadians would create a sense of segregation and prevent Chinese immigrants
from integrating into Canadian society. This fear was rooted in a belief that Chinese
immigrants would form isolated enclaves and fail to assimilate into Canadian culture.
This fear was further exacerbated by the concentration of Chinese immigrants in
urban areas such as Vancouver and Toronto, where Chinatowns provided a cultural
and economic anchor for Chinese communities.
On the other hand, proponents of Chinese immigration highlighted the potential
economic and cultural benefits of increased diversity (Li, 1998, p. 23).12 They argued
that Chinese immigrants brought with them valuable skills and experiences that could
contribute to the country's economic growth. They also pointed out that Chinese
immigrants could enrich Canadian society by bringing diverse cultural perspectives,
contributing to the country's arts, culture, and cuisine (Wong, 2005, p. 42).69
In summary, public opinion on Chinese immigration during the period of
1947-1967 was marked by a mix of enthusiasm and skepticism. While proponents of
Chinese immigration highlighted the potential benefits of increased diversity,
opponents expressed concerns about the impact on the country's economy and social
fabric. The debates and controversies surrounding Chinese immigration during this
period provide insight into the challenges of managing immigration policy and the
tensions between the desire for diversity and the need for social cohesion.
2. Political responses to Chinese immigration
The repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947 and the introduction of new
immigration policies did not eliminate prejudice and discrimination towards Chinese
immigrants in Canada. Despite the new policies, many Canadians remained opposed
to the immigration of Chinese individuals and communities, and political responses to
Chinese immigration varied widely.
On the one hand, some political figures recognized the valuable contributions of
Chinese immigrants to Canada and advocated for their rights. For example, in 1949,
then-Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent publicly acknowledged the injustices of the
Chinese Exclusion Act and praised the contributions of Chinese immigrants to
Canadian society (Ng, 2006, p. 138).70 In the 1950s, various Members of Parliament
also spoke out against anti-Chinese discrimination and advocated for the rights of
Chinese-Canadians (Cheng, 2003, p. 87).71
On the other hand, many politicians continued to espouse anti-Chinese
sentiments and push for restrictive immigration policies. For example, in the 1950s,
Progressive Conservative MP E.J. Garland spoke out against what he called the
70 Ng, R. (2006). From Chinese exclusion to Canada’s immigration apology: immigration and social policy in
historical context. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 31(2), 137-160. https://doi.org/10.2307/20058610
71 Cheng, A. (2003). The Chinese in Canada. Oxford University Press.
101
"invasion" of Chinese immigrants, stating that they were taking jobs away from
Canadians and posing a threat to Canadian values (Cheng, 2003, p. 89).71 Other
politicians, including members of the Social Credit Party, also expressed anti-Chinese
views and pushed for stricter immigration policies (Cheng, 2003, p. 92).71
In response to the political pressure, the Canadian government implemented
various policies aimed at restricting Chinese immigration and preventing
Chinese-Canadians from fully integrating into Canadian society. For example, in the
1950s, the government implemented a policy of "non-accumulative visas," which
limited the number of Chinese immigrants who could come to Canada each year and
prevented them from bringing over their families. This policy effectively prevented
the formation of stable Chinese communities in Canada (Ng, 2006, p. 142).70
Furthermore, the government also introduced policies aimed at preventing
Chinese-Canadians from participating fully in Canadian society. For example, in the
1950s, the Canadian government introduced the Chinese Immigration Act, which
required all Chinese immigrants to carry identity cards and subjected them to
discriminatory restrictions on employment, housing, and other aspects of daily life
(Cheng, 2003, p. 94). These policies created a culture of fear and mistrust among
Chinese-Canadians and further entrenched prejudice and discrimination towards
them.
In conclusion, political responses to Chinese immigration varied widely in
Canada during the period from 1947 to 1967. While some politicians recognized the
valuable contributions of Chinese immigrants and advocated for their rights, others
espoused anti-Chinese sentiments and pushed for restrictive immigration policies. The
Canadian government implemented various policies aimed at restricting Chinese
immigration and preventing Chinese-Canadians from fully integrating into Canadian
society, which had long-lasting negative impacts on Chinese-Canadian communities.
3. Debates over multiculturalism and diversity
As Chinese immigration increased in Canada following the repeal of the
Exclusion Act and the loosening of immigration policies, debates emerged over the
country's identity and how it should handle the growing diversity of its population.
One of the key issues in these debates was multiculturalism and whether it should be
embraced as a defining feature of Canadian society.
Some politicians and members of the public argued that Canada should continue
to promote a policy of assimilation, in which immigrants were expected to fully adopt
Canadian culture and abandon their own cultural practices. They believed that this
was necessary for immigrants to fully integrate into Canadian society and contribute
to the country's prosperity.
However, others argued that the promotion of diversity and multiculturalism was
102
more appropriate for Canada. They believed that it was important to recognize and
celebrate the various cultural backgrounds and identities of Canadians, including
those of Chinese immigrants, and to create policies that supported the preservation of
these cultures.
One of the key voices in support of multiculturalism was Prime Minister Pierre
Trudeau, who famously declared in 1971 that "there is no official culture in Canada."
(Trudeau, 1971, as cited in Kymlicka, 2010, p. 169)7273 This statement was the basis
for the Multiculturalism Policy of 1971, which sought to recognize and promote
cultural diversity as a defining feature of Canadian society.
The policy was met with some resistance, particularly from those who feared that
it would lead to the fragmentation of Canadian identity and the dilution of Canadian
culture. However, supporters argued that multiculturalism was not a threat to
Canadian identity, but rather a recognition of the country's diversity and a means of
promoting greater social harmony and understanding.
The debates over multiculturalism and diversity continue in Canada to this day,
with ongoing discussions over the best ways to create policies that promote
integration while also recognizing and preserving cultural diversity. For many
Chinese Canadians, the recognition of their cultural practices and traditions, as well as
the promotion of diversity and inclusion, have been important steps towards feeling
fully accepted and integrated into Canadian society.
3.4.2 Contributions of Chinese immigrants to Canadian society
1. Economic contributions
Chinese immigrants have made significant economic contributions to Canadian
society since the repeal of the Exclusion Act and the lifting of other discriminatory
immigration policies. From the late 1940s to the mid-1960s, Chinese immigrants
faced many challenges as they tried to establish themselves in Canada. However, their
hard work and perseverance allowed them to contribute to Canada's economic growth
and development.
One of the ways in which Chinese immigrants contributed to Canada's economy
was through their entrepreneurial spirit. Chinese immigrants established small
businesses and restaurants, and over time, many of these businesses grew and
expanded. By the 1960s, Chinese-owned businesses could be found in cities and
towns across Canada, contributing to the country's economic development.
Another way in which Chinese immigrants contributed to Canada's economy was
72 Kymlicka, W. (2010). Multiculturalism: Success, failure, and the future. Washington, DC: Migration Policy
Institute.
73 Trudeau, P. E. (1971). Statement on multiculturalism. Ottawa: Government of Canada.
103
through their skilled labor. Many Chinese immigrants were skilled in a variety of
trades, including carpentry, plumbing, and electrical work. These skills were in high
demand in Canada's rapidly growing cities, and Chinese immigrants were able to find
work in these fields. In addition, many Chinese immigrants worked in the
manufacturing and service industries, contributing to Canada's economic growth.
Chinese immigrants also made significant contributions to Canada's agriculture
industry. Many Chinese immigrants worked as laborers on farms, helping to grow and
harvest crops. Others established their own farms and became successful farmers.
Chinese farmers were known for their innovative techniques and their ability to grow
crops in challenging conditions. Their contributions to Canada's agriculture industry
helped to feed the country's growing population.
Overall, Chinese immigrants made significant economic contributions to
Canadian society in the years following the repeal of the Exclusion Act and the lifting
of other discriminatory immigration policies. Through their entrepreneurial spirit,
skilled labor, and contributions to the agriculture industry, Chinese immigrants helped
to fuel Canada's economic growth and development.
2. Cultural contributions
Chinese immigrants have made significant cultural contributions to Canadian
society since the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act and the loosening of
immigration policies in 1947. These contributions have ranged from food and art to
language and traditions.
One of the most well-known cultural contributions of Chinese immigrants is
their cuisine. Chinese restaurants have been popular in Canada since the early 1900s,
but the variety and availability of Chinese cuisine expanded greatly in the
post-Exclusion Act era (Lai, 2006, p. 128).74 Chinese restaurants can now be found in
almost every Canadian city and town, and dishes such as chop suey, egg rolls, and
dim sum have become Canadian culinary staples.
Chinese immigrants have also contributed to the arts in Canada. Many
Chinese-Canadian artists have gained recognition in the fields of painting, sculpture,
and photography (Wu, 2014, p. 45).75 In addition, Chinese dance and music troupes
have performed at cultural events and festivals across the country. The popularity of
Chinese martial arts has also grown in Canada, with many martial arts schools and
studios offering classes in traditional Chinese forms such as kung fu and tai chi.
Another important cultural contribution of Chinese immigrants has been the
preservation and promotion of Chinese language and traditions. Chinese language
74 Lai, D. (2006). The Chinese in Canada. Oxford University Press.
75 Wu, W. (2014). Changing discourses of Chinese Canadian identity. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 46(2), 41-58.
104
schools have been established in many Canadian cities to teach Chinese language,
literature, and culture to both Chinese-Canadians and non-Chinese Canadians.
Chinese language media, including newspapers, radio, and television programs, have
also been developed to serve the Chinese community in Canada. Chinese festivals and
celebrations such as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Festival are now widely
celebrated in Canadian cities, often with support from local governments.
Overall, the cultural contributions of Chinese immigrants have enriched
Canadian society and helped to promote diversity and multiculturalism. These
contributions have also helped to preserve and promote Chinese culture in Canada,
allowing Chinese-Canadians to maintain a connection with their heritage while also
integrating into Canadian society.
3. Political and social contributions
Chinese immigrants made significant political and social contributions to
Canadian society between 1947 and 1967. Despite facing discrimination and
exclusion, Chinese Canadians organized themselves and became active in politics and
advocacy, fighting for their rights and challenging stereotypes about their community.
One notable political contribution was made by Douglas Jung, who in 1957
became the first person of Chinese descent to be elected to the Canadian House of
Commons (Chen, 2006, p. 46).76 Jung, a Conservative Party member, represented the
riding of Vancouver Centre and served in Parliament for almost two decades,
advocating for immigration reform, human rights, and multiculturalism. Jung's
election was a landmark moment for Chinese Canadians, demonstrating that they
could achieve political success and make their voices heard in the Canadian
government.
Other Chinese Canadians became involved in local politics and community
organizations, working to improve the lives of their fellow community members and
to promote intercultural understanding. For example, the Chinese Cultural Centre was
founded in Vancouver in 1949, providing a space for cultural activities and events and
fostering dialogue between Chinese Canadians and other Canadians (Chen, 2006, p.
46).76
Chinese Canadians also made significant social contributions to Canadian
society during this period. They formed organizations to support those in need, such
as the Chinese Benevolent Association, which provided aid to new immigrants and
helped them integrate into Canadian society (Chen, 2006, p. 47).76 The Chinese
Students' Association, founded in 1949, worked to support Chinese students studying
in Canada and to promote cultural exchange between Canada and China (Chen, 2006,
p. 47).76
76 Chen, P. (2006). The Chinese in Canada. Oxford University Press.
105
In addition, Chinese Canadians were active in advocating for civil rights and
challenging discrimination. The Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC),
founded in 1975, was an important advocacy group that fought for the rights of
Chinese Canadians and other racialized communities (Hiebert, Li, & Sim, 2011, p.
137).77 The CCNC played a crucial role in challenging discriminatory policies, such
as the head tax and the Chinese Exclusion Act, and in promoting multiculturalism and
diversity in Canada.
Overall, Chinese immigrants made significant political and social contributions
to Canadian society during the period of 1947-1967. Despite facing discrimination
and exclusion, they organized themselves, became politically active, and worked to
improve the lives of their community members and promote multiculturalism and
diversity in Canada. Their contributions helped to shape Canadian society and
promote greater understanding and respect for different cultures and communities.
3.4.3 Interactions between Chinese-Canadians and other Canadians
1. Challenges and opportunities for intercultural exchange
The period between 1947 and 1967 saw significant changes in Canadian
immigration policies, including the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act and the
introduction of more inclusive immigration policies. These changes provided new
opportunities for intercultural exchange between Chinese-Canadians and other
Canadians, but also presented challenges.
One challenge was the persistence of discriminatory attitudes and practices
towards Chinese-Canadians. Despite the legal changes, racism and prejudice
continued to exist in Canadian society. Chinese-Canadians faced barriers to
employment, housing, and education, and were often the targets of racial slurs and
violence. This discrimination hindered their ability to fully participate in Canadian
society and to build meaningful relationships with non-Chinese Canadians.
However, there were also opportunities for intercultural exchange and
understanding during this period. With the lifting of the Exclusion Act,
Chinese-Canadians were able to reunite with their families and establish more
permanent roots in Canada. This led to increased interaction with non-Chinese
Canadians and the creation of more diverse communities. Chinese-Canadians also
participated in Canadian cultural and political life, contributing to the shaping of
Canadian identity and values.
One example of this was the role that Chinese-Canadians played in advocating
for multiculturalism and diversity in Canadian society. Chinese-Canadian activists
worked alongside other ethnic and religious groups to promote a more inclusive
77 Hiebert, D., Li, P., & Sim, D. (2011). From white Canada to W5: A history of immigration policy in
Canada. University of Toronto Press.
106
vision of Canadian identity that embraced diversity and recognized the contributions
of immigrants to Canadian society. This advocacy helped pave the way for the
adoption of official multiculturalism policies in Canada in the 1970s.
Another opportunity for intercultural exchange was through the arts and cultural
events. Chinese-Canadians shared their cultural practices and traditions with
non-Chinese Canadians through events such as Chinese New Year celebrations, dance
performances, and food festivals. These events not only showcased Chinese culture
but also provided opportunities for dialogue and exchange between
Chinese-Canadians and other Canadians.
Overall, the period between 1947 and 1967 was marked by both challenges and
opportunities for intercultural exchange between Chinese-Canadians and other
Canadians. While discriminatory attitudes and practices persisted, Chinese-Canadians
were able to establish more permanent roots in Canada and contribute to Canadian
society in significant ways. The advocacy for multiculturalism and diversity, as well
as cultural events, provided opportunities for dialogue and exchange that helped to
shape a more inclusive vision of Canadian identity.
2. Stereotypes and discrimination towards Chinese-Canadians
Despite the progress made by Chinese-Canadians in the post-Exclusion Act era,
they continued to face challenges in their interactions with other Canadians.
Stereotypes and discrimination towards Chinese-Canadians persisted, and these
negative attitudes often limited opportunities for intercultural exchange and hindered
their full participation in Canadian society.
One of the most persistent stereotypes of Chinese-Canadians was the idea that
they were perpetually foreign, even if they had been born in Canada or had spent
many years living in the country. This stereotype was reinforced by the fact that
Chinese-Canadians often spoke Chinese at home and practiced Chinese cultural
traditions. In many cases, they were viewed as outsiders who were unable or
unwilling to assimilate into Canadian society.
This stereotype was further compounded by discriminatory policies, such as the
Chinese Immigration Act and the Chinese Exclusion Act, which had prevented
Chinese immigration for decades. These policies had perpetuated the idea that
Chinese people were not welcome in Canada and that they did not belong.
As a result of these negative attitudes, Chinese-Canadians often faced
discrimination in employment, housing, and education. Many were forced to work in
low-paying jobs and live in overcrowded and substandard housing, while others were
denied access to educational opportunities.
Despite these challenges, Chinese-Canadians continued to work towards greater
equality and social justice. They formed community organizations, such as the
107
Chinese Benevolent Association and the Chinese Cultural Centre, which provided
support and resources to Chinese-Canadians and worked to promote understanding
and intercultural exchange.
In addition, many Chinese-Canadians participated in political activism and
advocacy, speaking out against discrimination and working to promote greater
inclusivity and diversity in Canadian society. These efforts helped to bring about
positive change, including the repeal of discriminatory policies and the promotion of
multiculturalism and diversity in Canadian society.
Despite the ongoing challenges faced by Chinese-Canadians in the
post-Exclusion Act era, their contributions to Canadian society have been significant
and enduring. Through their hard work, resilience, and determination, they have
helped to shape the social, cultural, and political landscape of Canada, and have
helped to create a more inclusive and diverse society for all Canadians.
3. Efforts to promote understanding and cooperation between groups
Efforts to promote understanding and cooperation between Chinese-Canadians
and other Canadians began to emerge in the post-World War II era (Hou, 2002, p.
238).78 One of the key developments was the establishment of community
organizations that sought to promote Chinese culture and foster greater understanding
between Chinese-Canadians and the broader Canadian society.
One such organization was the Chinese Benevolent Association (CBA), which
had been formed in Vancouver in 1895 to provide support for Chinese immigrants. In
the post-war period, the CBA played a prominent role in promoting Chinese culture
and fostering greater understanding between Chinese-Canadians and other Canadians
(Hou, 2002, p. 239).78 The organization organized cultural events, such as the annual
Chinese New Year parade, and established scholarship programs to encourage
Chinese-Canadian students to pursue higher education.
Another organization that emerged during this period was the Chinese Cultural
Centre (CCC), which was established in Vancouver in 1973. The CCC was
established to promote Chinese culture and arts, and to foster greater understanding
and cooperation between Chinese-Canadians and other Canadians. The organization
offers a wide range of programs and services, including Chinese language classes,
cultural events, and art exhibitions (Hou, 2002, p. 239).78
In addition to these community organizations, efforts to promote understanding
and cooperation between Chinese-Canadians and other Canadians also took place at
the government level. In 1967, the Canadian government passed the Official
Languages Act, which recognized English and French as the official languages of
Canada. This act also established a framework for promoting the use of both
78 Hou, J. (2002). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press.
108
languages in government institutions and services. This policy of official bilingualism
helped to promote greater understanding and cooperation between different linguistic
and cultural groups in Canada (Wong, 1999, p. 101).79
Furthermore, the Canadian government also established the Canadian
Multiculturalism Act in 1988, which recognized the diversity of cultures in Canada
and sought to promote greater understanding and cooperation between different
cultural groups. The act affirmed that all citizens should be able to maintain and share
their cultural heritage and encouraged mutual respect and understanding between
different cultural groups (Wong, 1999, p. 103).79
In conclusion, efforts to promote understanding and cooperation between
Chinese-Canadians and other Canadians have taken place at various levels, from
community organizations to government policies. These efforts have helped to foster
greater understanding and cooperation between different cultural groups in Canada
and have contributed to a more harmonious and diverse society.
Chapter Summary
Chapter III of the book focuses on the period of time from 1947 to 1967, which
saw significant changes in Canadian immigration policy, particularly towards Chinese
immigration. The chapter is divided into four sections.
Section 3.1 explores the repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1947. The chapter
discusses the political and social factors that led to the repeal and the changes in
Canadian immigration policy that followed. It also examines the effects of the repeal
on Chinese-Canadian communities.
Section 3.2 describes the changing immigration policies and the arrival of more
Chinese immigrants during this period. The chapter discusses trends and patterns in
Chinese immigration, different types of immigrants and their experiences, and the
economic, social, and cultural impacts of immigration.
Section 3.3 focuses on the growth of Chinatowns and Chinese communities in
Canada. The chapter examines the expansion and transformation of Chinatowns,
Chinese-Canadian business and community development, and the cultural and
religious life in Chinese communities.
Section 3.4 discusses the impact of immigration on Canadian society and politics.
The chapter explores debates and controversies over immigration policy, the
contributions of Chinese immigrants to Canadian society, and the interactions
between Chinese-Canadians and other Canadians.
79 Wong, L. (1999). Understanding Canadian multiculturalism and ethnic pluralism. In R. Maaka & J.
Anderson (Eds.), The Indigenous experience: Global perspectives (pp. 99-109). Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’
Press Inc.
109
Overall, Chapter III highlights the significant changes in Canadian immigration
policy towards Chinese immigrants in the mid-20th century, which led to a larger and
more diverse Chinese-Canadian community. It also emphasizes the important
contributions of Chinese immigrants to Canadian society and the ongoing challenges
and opportunities for Chinese-Canadians.
110
CHAPTER IV. CHINESE IMMIGRATION SINCE 1967
Since the 1960s, Canada has experienced a significant increase in immigration
from China, resulting in a vibrant and growing Chinese-Canadian community. The
waves of immigration have brought with them diverse experiences, challenges, and
contributions to Canadian society. From coping with social and psychological
challenges to overcoming barriers to political participation, Chinese immigrants have
played an important role in shaping Canadian history and culture. In this chapter, we
will explore the history and experiences of Chinese immigration to Canada since 1967,
including the economic, cultural, and social contributions of Chinese-Canadians and
the ongoing process of identity formation and community building.
4.1 The Points System for Immigration
4.1.1 Background and rationale
1. Limitations of the previous immigration system
In order to understand the rationale for the points system, it is important to first
understand the limitations of the previous immigration system that was in place prior
to 1967. Under the previous system, known as the "restricted" or "nationality-based"
system, immigrants were selected based on their country of origin and the quotas that
had been established for each country. This system resulted in significant
discrimination against certain groups, including Chinese immigrants, who were
subject to highly restrictive quotas under the Chinese Exclusion Act and subsequent
legislation.
In addition to being discriminatory, the previous system was also inflexible and
did not take into account the needs of the Canadian economy or labour market.
Immigrants were primarily selected based on family reunification or humanitarian
grounds, with little consideration given to their education, skills, or ability to
contribute to the Canadian economy. As a result, many immigrants who were highly
skilled and could have made valuable contributions to the Canadian economy were
excluded, while others who were less skilled were granted entry.
Another limitation of the previous system was that it did not adequately address
the issue of illegal immigration. Without a clear and fair system for selecting
immigrants, many individuals resorted to entering Canada illegally or overstaying
their visas. This created significant challenges for immigration authorities and
resulted in a number of social and economic issues.
Overall, the previous immigration system was characterized by discrimination,
inflexibility, and an inability to effectively address the needs of the Canadian
economy and society. These limitations highlighted the need for a new system that
would be more fair, flexible, and responsive to the changing needs of Canadian
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society. The points system was developed in response to these challenges and aimed
to create a more merit-based, objective, and transparent system for selecting
immigrants to Canada.
2. Political and social factors influencing the points system
The development of the points system for Canadian immigration was influenced
by a variety of political and social factors. One major factor was the desire to shift
towards a more egalitarian and non-discriminatory immigration policy, particularly in
response to the criticisms of the previous system. The discriminatory policies of the
Exclusion Era had been a significant source of tension between the Chinese Canadian
community and the Canadian government, and there was a strong political will to
address these issues.
Another factor was the desire to address the changing demographic needs of
Canada. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Canadian economy was undergoing a major
shift, and there was a growing need for skilled workers in a variety of sectors. The
points system was seen as a way to attract and select immigrants who would be able
to contribute to Canada's economic growth and development.
In addition, there was a growing recognition of the importance of cultural
diversity and the benefits of immigration in promoting cultural exchange and
understanding. This was reflected in the increased emphasis on factors such as
language proficiency and adaptability, which were seen as important indicators of an
immigrant's ability to integrate into Canadian society and contribute to its diversity.
Finally, there was also a desire to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the
immigration system, particularly in light of the growing number of applications and
the need to manage the increasing complexity of the selection process. The points
system was seen as a way to streamline the selection process and make it more
objective and transparent.
Overall, the development of the points system was driven by a complex set of
political, social, and economic factors, all of which reflected the changing needs and
priorities of Canadian society. By emphasizing factors such as language proficiency,
adaptability, and education, the points system aimed to attract and select immigrants
who would be able to contribute to Canada's economy and society while also
promoting cultural diversity and ensuring a more efficient and transparent selection
process.
3. Objectives and operation of the points system
The points system, also known as the Federal Skilled Worker Program, was
introduced in Canada in 1967 as a means to attract skilled immigrants who could
contribute to the country's economic development. The system assesses potential
immigrants based on a set of objective criteria, awarding points for factors such as
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education, language proficiency, work experience, age, and adaptability.
The objective of the points system is to prioritize skilled workers who have the
potential to integrate into Canadian society and contribute to the country's economy.
The system seeks to select immigrants who have a high probability of succeeding in
the Canadian labor market and who can adapt to Canadian society quickly.
The points system is designed to be flexible, so it can adapt to changes in the
labor market and shifting economic priorities. The criteria used to assess potential
immigrants are regularly reviewed and updated to ensure that they reflect Canada's
current economic and social needs.
The system aims to be fair and transparent, allowing potential immigrants to
understand how they are being assessed and providing them with a clear path to
immigrate to Canada. The system is also designed to be objective, ensuring that
immigration decisions are based on merit rather than on subjective factors such as
ethnicity or country of origin.
Overall, the points system has been successful in attracting skilled immigrants to
Canada and helping them integrate into Canadian society. The system has helped to
ensure that Canada's immigration policy is based on economic and social priorities,
rather than on arbitrary factors such as race or ethnicity.
4.1.2 Impact on Chinese immigration
1. Changes in number and composition of Chinese immigrants
The introduction of the points system in 1967 had a significant impact on the
number and composition of Chinese immigrants to Canada. Prior to 1967, the Chinese
community had been severely limited by the discriminatory policies of the Chinese
Exclusion Act, and only a small number of Chinese were able to immigrate to Canada.
With the repeal of the Exclusion Act and the introduction of the points system, the
number of Chinese immigrants to Canada increased dramatically.
From 1967 to 1976, the number of Chinese immigrants to Canada increased from
331 to 5,013 per year. By 1996, this number had increased to 22,995 per year, and by
2011, there were 34,275 new Chinese immigrants to Canada. Today, Chinese
immigrants make up a significant portion of Canada's overall immigrant population.
In addition to the increase in numbers, the composition of Chinese immigrants
has also changed over time. Prior to the introduction of the points system, most
Chinese immigrants were family members of Canadian citizens or permanent
residents. However, with the introduction of the points system, there has been an
increase in the number of Chinese immigrants selected for their skills and education.
As a result, Chinese immigrants are now more likely to have higher levels of
education and professional qualifications, making them an important source of highly
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skilled workers for Canada's economy.
However, the increase in skilled Chinese immigrants has also led to concerns
about brain drain from China, as many highly educated Chinese are choosing to
immigrate to Canada instead of staying in China. This has raised questions about the
ethical implications of Canada's immigration policies and their impact on the
development of other countries.
In addition to changes in the number and composition of Chinese immigrants,
there has also been a shift in the geographic distribution of Chinese immigrants within
Canada. While Toronto and Vancouver have traditionally been the main destinations
for Chinese immigrants, there has been an increase in Chinese immigration to other
parts of the country, such as Montreal and Calgary.
Overall, the introduction of the points system has had a significant impact on
Chinese immigration to Canada, resulting in an increase in numbers, changes in the
composition of immigrants, and a shift in the geographic distribution of Chinese
immigrants within the country.
2. Differences in settlement experiences of immigrants under the points system
Under the points system, the settlement experiences of Chinese immigrants to
Canada have varied depending on factors such as education, language skills, work
experience, and family ties.
One of the key objectives of the points system was to prioritize immigrants who
had skills and education that would benefit the Canadian economy, as well as those
with strong family ties to Canadian citizens or permanent residents (Canadian
Museum of Immigration at Pier 21, n.d.).80 As a result, Chinese immigrants who were
able to meet these criteria have generally had an easier time settling in Canada
compared to those who did not.
Chinese immigrants who had previously been excluded from Canada due to
discriminatory immigration policies have been able to reunite with their families
through family sponsorship programs under the points system. Additionally, the points
system has allowed for greater diversity in the Chinese immigrant population, with a
wider range of professions and educational backgrounds represented.
However, Chinese immigrants who lacked English or French language skills and
work experience have faced more challenges in settling in Canada. These factors can
impact an immigrant’s ability to find employment and integrate into Canadian society.
Some immigrants have also experienced discrimination and racism, particularly in the
early years of their settlement.
80 Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21. (n.d.). Points System.
https://pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/immigration-policy-and-reform/points-system
114
Furthermore, changes to the points system over time have impacted the
settlement experiences of Chinese immigrants. For example, changes to the points
system in the 1990s placed greater emphasis on language proficiency and education,
which may have had an impact on the types of immigrants who were able to
successfully apply for Canadian permanent residency.
Overall, the settlement experiences of Chinese immigrants to Canada under the
points system have varied depending on a variety of factors, including education,
language skills, work experience, and family ties. While the points system has
allowed for greater diversity in the Chinese immigrant population and facilitated
family reunification, there have also been challenges faced by some immigrants in
terms of employment and social integration.
3. Effects on integration of Chinese immigrants into Canadian society
The points system has had a significant impact on the integration of Chinese
immigrants into Canadian society. The system is designed to select immigrants who
are more likely to integrate successfully into Canadian society and contribute
positively to the country's economy (Zheng, 2015, p. 3).81 As a result, Chinese
immigrants who have been selected under the points system tend to have higher levels
of education and language proficiency, making them more employable and able to
navigate the Canadian system (Hou, 2010, p. 177).82
Chinese immigrants who have arrived under the points system have also had
access to settlement services and programs designed to help them integrate into
Canadian society (Li, 2012, p. 17).83 These programs include language classes, job
training, and counseling services. As a result, Chinese immigrants who arrived under
the points system have been able to adapt more easily to life in Canada and have had
more opportunities to participate in Canadian society.
However, there have also been challenges for Chinese immigrants in terms of
integration. Some Chinese immigrants have experienced discrimination and racism,
particularly in the job market. Despite their higher levels of education and language
proficiency, Chinese immigrants have faced barriers in securing jobs that match their
qualifications and have had to work in low-paying and low-skilled jobs (Li, 2012, p.
22).83
Another challenge has been the formation of ethnic enclaves, particularly in
urban areas, where Chinese immigrants tend to cluster together and may have limited
81 Zheng, V. (2015). China and Canada’s immigration policy: A comparative analysis. In V. Zheng & R.
Maaka (Eds.), The Chinese in Canada (pp. 1–18). UBC Press. https://doi.org/10.14288/1.0100017
82 Hou, F. (2010). From “brain drain” to “brain gain”: Skilled immigrants and Canada’s immigration policy.
International Migration, 48(1), 175–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00584.x
83 Li, P. S. (2012). Chinese immigrants in Canada: Their changing composition and economic performance.
In D. Ley & A. T. Kobayashi (Eds.), Geographies of ethnic segregation: Comparative perspectives (pp. 17–34).
Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137024847_2
115
interaction with non-Chinese Canadians (Li, 2012, p. 17).83 While these enclaves can
provide a sense of community and support for Chinese immigrants, they can also limit
their exposure to Canadian culture and hinder their integration into Canadian society.
Overall, the points system has had a mixed impact on the integration of Chinese
immigrants into Canadian society. While it has provided more opportunities for
skilled Chinese immigrants to enter Canada and access settlement services, there are
still challenges in terms of discrimination, job opportunities, and the formation of
ethnic enclaves. Continued efforts to address these challenges and promote integration
are needed to ensure that Chinese immigrants can fully participate and contribute to
Canadian society.
4.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
1. Benefits for Canada and immigrants
The points system has several benefits for both Canada and immigrants. One of
the primary benefits of the points system is that it allows for the selection of highly
skilled and educated immigrants who are likely to contribute to the Canadian
economy. This means that the points system has helped Canada to address labor
shortages in certain industries and sectors.
In addition, the points system encourages immigrants to be self-sufficient by
ensuring that they have sufficient language proficiency and work experience. This can
lead to more successful integration into Canadian society and can help to reduce the
burden on social services.
The points system also benefits immigrants by allowing them to have more
control over their immigration process. Unlike other immigration systems that rely on
sponsorship, the points system allows immigrants to apply directly for permanent
residency. This means that they do not have to rely on a family member or employer
to sponsor them, which can be a more empowering experience for immigrants.
Another benefit of the points system is that it is transparent and objective. The
criteria for selecting immigrants are clearly defined, which means that applicants
know what they need to do in order to be successful. This can help to reduce the
potential for corruption and nepotism in the immigration process.
Finally, the points system has allowed for greater diversity in Canadian
immigration. By selecting immigrants based on their skills and education, Canada has
been able to attract immigrants from a wider range of countries and backgrounds. This
has helped to create a more multicultural society in Canada and has contributed to the
country's overall social and economic development.
Overall, the points system has several benefits for both Canada and immigrants.
It allows for the selection of highly skilled and educated immigrants, encourages
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self-sufficiency and successful integration, gives immigrants more control over their
immigration process, is transparent and objective, and has contributed to greater
diversity in Canadian immigration.
2. Criticisms, challenges, and potential biases
Criticisms and challenges of the points system have been raised since its
inception, including concerns about potential biases and inequities in the system.
One major criticism is that the points system may favor certain groups of
immigrants over others, particularly those who are younger, have higher levels of
education and language proficiency, and possess certain job skills (Kobayashi, 2016, p.
128).84 This has led to concerns that the points system may be biased towards
wealthier and more privileged immigrants, and may discriminate against those who
lack formal education or job skills.
Another challenge is that the points system may not account for the unique
circumstances and challenges faced by certain groups of immigrants, such as refugees
or those who are fleeing persecution (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2013, p.
11).85 Critics argue that these immigrants may not have the same opportunities to
earn points as other immigrants, and that this may result in a bias against these groups
in the selection process.
In addition, some have argued that the points system may not adequately account
for the importance of family reunification in the immigration process (Chui & Tran,
2019, p. 23).86 While the points system does award some points for having family
members already in Canada, this factor is given relatively little weight in the overall
calculation of points. This has led to concerns that the system may not adequately
prioritize family reunification as a key goal of Canadian immigration policy.
Finally, some have raised concerns about the potential for fraud and
manipulation within the points system (Kobayashi, 2016, p. 128).84 For example,
some critics have argued that wealthy individuals may be able to artificially inflate
their scores by investing in Canadian businesses, even if they have no real intention of
contributing to the Canadian economy or society. Others have suggested that there
may be opportunities for corruption or influence-peddling within the system,
particularly in cases where immigration officials are granted significant discretion in
awarding points.
84 Kobayashi, A. (2016). Skilled migration policies in Canada and Australia: A comparison. In J. Boucher &
A. Segal (Eds.), The politics of international migration management (pp. 115-135). Palgrave Macmillan.
85 Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2013). Express Entry: Immigrate to Canada as a skilled worker.
Retrieved from
https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/operational-bulletins-
manuals/express-entry/overview-application-process.html
86 Chui, T., & Tran, K. (2019). Family reunification: A foundation for Canada's immigration system. IRPP
Study, 64, 1-35.
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Despite these challenges, many experts and stakeholders continue to argue that
the points system is an effective and efficient means of managing immigration to
Canada. They point to the system's ability to attract skilled and educated immigrants
who are likely to contribute to the Canadian economy and society, as well as its
relatively low administrative costs and streamlined selection process. Overall, the
points system remains a central component of Canadian immigration policy, and
continues to play a key role in shaping the composition and character of Canada's
immigrant population.
3. Comparison with other immigration systems
The points system used in Canada is not unique and has similarities to other
immigration systems used in other countries, including Australia, New Zealand, and
the United Kingdom. These countries also use a point-based system to assess the
eligibility of immigrants, although the specific criteria used in each country may
differ.
Australia's points system is similar to Canada's and also assigns points based on
factors such as age, education, language proficiency, and work experience. In addition,
Australia also assigns points for factors such as partner skills and education
qualifications, whereas Canada does not.
New Zealand's points system, called the Skilled Migrant Category, also assigns
points based on factors such as age, education, language proficiency, and work
experience. However, New Zealand's system places a stronger emphasis on job offers
and skilled employment in the country.
The United Kingdom's points system, which was recently introduced in 2020,
assigns points based on factors such as English language proficiency, job offer,
education level, and salary. Unlike Canada's system, the UK's system also assigns
points for attributes such as having a PhD, earning a salary above a certain threshold,
and having a job in a shortage occupation.
While the points systems in these countries have similarities, there are also
differences in the specific criteria used and the weight assigned to each factor. In
addition, each country has unique factors that may influence the success of immigrant
integration, such as cultural differences, job markets, and social policies.
Overall, the points system used in Canada has been effective in attracting skilled
immigrants and promoting economic growth. However, criticisms of potential biases
and inequities, as well as concerns about the ability of immigrants to successfully
integrate into Canadian society, highlight the need for ongoing evaluation and
improvement of the system. By comparing the points system to other immigration
systems used in other countries, Canada can continue to learn from best practices and
adapt the system to better serve the needs of both immigrants and the country as a
whole.
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4.2 Trends in Chinese Immigration
4.2.1 Demographic and geographic patterns
1. Age, gender, and family composition of Chinese immigrants
Age, gender, and family composition are important demographic factors that
have shaped Chinese immigration patterns to Canada since 1967. The majority of
Chinese immigrants are working-age adults between the ages of 25 and 44, with this
age group representing around 60% of all Chinese immigrants. This is in contrast to
other immigrant groups, such as those from South Asia, who have a higher proportion
of older immigrants.
In terms of gender, Chinese immigration has been largely male-dominated, with
men representing around 60% of all Chinese immigrants. This is likely due to the
historical tendency for men to migrate for work opportunities and then sponsor their
families to join them later. However, in recent years, there has been a slight shift
towards a more balanced gender ratio among Chinese immigrants.
Family composition is also an important factor in Chinese immigration patterns.
Family sponsorship has been a key pathway for Chinese immigrants, with family
reunification being an important goal for many. As a result, the proportion of
family-class immigrants among Chinese immigrants is relatively high compared to
other immigrant groups. This includes spouses, children, parents, and grandparents of
Canadian citizens and permanent residents.
There has also been an increase in the number of international students from
China who have chosen to study in Canada, with many of them ultimately deciding to
stay and immigrate to Canada after completing their studies. These students are often
younger and have higher levels of education and language proficiency, which can
make them attractive candidates for the Canadian labor market.
In terms of geographic patterns, Chinese immigrants have settled primarily in
urban areas, particularly in Toronto and Vancouver. This concentration has led to
concerns about the ability of these cities to absorb and integrate such large numbers of
immigrants, and there have been efforts to encourage more settlement in other parts of
Canada. Overall, the age, gender, and family composition of Chinese immigrants have
shaped their settlement patterns and their experiences of integration into Canadian
society.
2. Distribution across Canadian provinces and cities
The majority of Chinese immigrants settle in urban centers, with the highest
concentration being in Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal. Vancouver has been the
traditional gateway city for Chinese immigrants due to its proximity to Asia and
historical ties to Chinese immigration. Toronto and Montreal have also seen
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significant increases in their Chinese populations in recent years.
According to the 2016 Canadian Census, 50.6% of Chinese immigrants live in
Ontario, 26.6% in British Columbia, and 11.2% in Quebec (Government of Canada,
2017, p. 6).87 The other provinces have smaller Chinese populations, with Alberta
having the fourth largest population at 6.1%.
In terms of specific cities, Vancouver has the largest Chinese population, with
over 400,000 people of Chinese descent residing in the city. Toronto is the second
largest, with over 332,000 Chinese Canadians, and Montreal is third, with over 80,000
(Government of Canada, 2017, p. 7).87 Other cities with significant Chinese
populations include Calgary, Edmonton, Ottawa, and Richmond.
The distribution of Chinese immigrants across Canadian cities and provinces has
varied over time. In the early years of Chinese immigration after the points system
was introduced, Vancouver was the main destination. However, in recent years,
Toronto has surpassed Vancouver as the top destination for Chinese immigrants
(Government of Canada, 2017, p. 8).87 This shift can be attributed to various factors,
such as the increasing number of job opportunities in the Greater Toronto Area, as
well as the high cost of living in Vancouver.
The distribution of Chinese immigrants also varies based on factors such as age,
education, and family composition. For example, younger immigrants tend to be more
geographically mobile and may choose to settle in cities with better job prospects.
Meanwhile, older immigrants may choose to settle in areas with a larger Chinese
community to maintain their cultural ties (Li, 2010, p. 54).88 The composition of
families, such as the presence of children, also plays a role in where immigrants
choose to settle, as they may prefer cities with good schools and family-friendly
neighborhoods.
Overall, the distribution of Chinese immigrants across Canadian provinces and
cities reflects the economic, social, and cultural factors that shape their settlement
decisions.
4.2.2 Differences between earlier and recent immigrants
1. Education and skill levels of recent immigrants
Education and skill levels of recent Chinese immigrants have significantly
changed over time. Compared to earlier Chinese immigrants, recent Chinese
immigrants are more highly educated and skilled, reflecting the evolution of Canada's
immigration policies over the years.
87 Government of Canada. (2017). Immigration and ethnocultural diversity in Canada. Retrieved from
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/11-001-x/11-001-x2017001-eng.pdf?st=JTaDwKwv
88 Li, P. S. (2010). Destination Canada: Immigration debates and issues. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press.
120
According to the 2016 Canadian Census, almost half of Chinese immigrants
(48.6%) aged 25-64 had a bachelor's degree or higher, compared to 27.2% of the
Canadian-born population in the same age group (Statistics Canada, 2017, p. 1).89
This suggests that Chinese immigrants are more highly educated than the average
Canadian. Furthermore, a higher percentage of recent Chinese immigrants have a
post-secondary education than earlier Chinese immigrants. In 1971, only 14% of
Chinese immigrants had a university degree or higher, while in 2016, this figure rose
to 48.6%.
In addition to higher education levels, recent Chinese immigrants have also
exhibited higher levels of proficiency in official languages. In 2016, almost 60% of
Chinese immigrants reported speaking English or French very well or as their first
language, compared to 30% in 1991 (Statistics Canada, 2017, p. 1).89 This suggests
that recent Chinese immigrants are better equipped to integrate into Canadian society
than earlier Chinese immigrants.
Furthermore, recent Chinese immigrants are more likely to have employment in
highly skilled professions. According to the 2016 Census, the top three occupations
held by Chinese immigrants were in management, business, finance, and
administration (31.2%), natural and applied sciences (19.1%), and sales and service
(15.3%) (Statistics Canada, 2017, p. 4).89 These highly skilled occupations reflect
Canada's current immigration selection system, which prioritizes highly educated and
skilled individuals.
Overall, recent Chinese immigrants have significantly higher levels of education,
language proficiency, and skill levels compared to earlier Chinese immigrants. These
trends reflect changes in Canadian immigration policies and highlight the importance
of education and language proficiency in successful integration into Canadian society.
2. Reasons for emigrating to Canada
The reasons for emigrating to Canada have changed over time for Chinese
immigrants. Earlier immigrants often came to Canada for economic opportunities and
to escape political instability in China. However, in recent years, more Chinese
immigrants have come to Canada for educational opportunities and to reunite with
family members who are already living in Canada.
According to Statistics Canada, in 2016, the top three reasons for Chinese
immigrants to come to Canada were family reunification (41.6%), economic reasons
(36.9%), and education (14.2%) (Statistics Canada, 2018, p. 13).90 The majority of
family reunification immigrants were spouses or partners of Canadian citizens or
89 Statistics Canada. (2017). Immigration and ethnocultural diversity in Canada. Retrieved from
https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016016/98-200-x2016016-eng.cfm
90 Statistics Canada. (2018). Immigration and ethnocultural diversity in Canada.
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/11-001-x/2018001/article/54974-eng.pdf?st=xXfWgD7V
121
permanent residents. In contrast, economic immigrants were admitted through various
programs such as the Federal Skilled Worker Program, the Provincial Nominee
Program, and the Canadian Experience Class (Government of Canada, 2021).91 These
programs assess applicants based on their skills, education, and work experience and
give priority to those who are likely to contribute to the Canadian economy.
Chinese students have also been an important group of immigrants to Canada.
Many students come to Canada to pursue post-secondary education, particularly at
universities and colleges in major cities like Toronto and Vancouver. According to the
Canadian Bureau for International Education, in 2019, there were over 140,000
Chinese students studying in Canada, making China the largest source of international
students in Canada (Canadian Bureau for International Education, 2020).92
Overall, the reasons for emigrating to Canada have become more diverse and
varied for Chinese immigrants in recent years, reflecting the changing needs and
priorities of the Chinese community in Canada.
4.2.3 Reasons for emigrating to Canada
1. Economic opportunities and job prospects
Economic opportunities and job prospects have been one of the major reasons for
Chinese immigrants to emigrate to Canada since 1967. Many Chinese immigrants
come to Canada with the aim of finding better employment and economic prospects
for themselves and their families (Li, 2016, p. 43).24 Over the years, the Canadian
government has actively sought to attract highly skilled and educated immigrants who
can contribute to the Canadian economy.
Chinese immigrants, especially those who arrived after 2000, tend to have higher
levels of education and professional skills. Many of them are highly skilled
professionals in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
They come to Canada seeking job opportunities that match their skills and
qualifications (Li, 2016, p. 44).24 The Canadian government has created several
immigration programs, such as the Federal Skilled Worker Program and the
Provincial Nominee Program, which prioritize the selection of highly skilled and
educated immigrants.
Furthermore, Canada's strong economy and diverse job market provide ample
opportunities for Chinese immigrants to find suitable employment. The country has a
high demand for skilled workers in several industries, such as healthcare, finance, and
91 Government of Canada. (2021). Economic immigration programs.
https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/immigrate-canada/express-entry/become-cand
idate/eligibility.html
92 Canadian Bureau for International Education. (2020). International students in Canada.
https://cbie.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2020-10-14-Fact-Sheet-International-Students-in-Canada.pdf
122
technology. Many Chinese immigrants have found success and stability by starting
their own businesses in Canada.
Another factor that attracts Chinese immigrants to Canada is the country's
minimum wage laws, which are among the highest in the world. The minimum wage
in Canada varies by province, but it generally ranges from $11 to $15 per hour (Li,
2016, p. 45).24 In addition, Canadian workers are entitled to benefits such as paid
vacation and sick leave, which provide a sense of security and stability.
Overall, economic opportunities and job prospects continue to be significant
reasons why Chinese immigrants choose to emigrate to Canada. The Canadian
government's emphasis on attracting highly skilled and educated immigrants has
created an environment that is conducive to their success and integration into
Canadian society.
2. Education and better quality of life
Education and better quality of life have been significant factors driving Chinese
immigration to Canada since 1967. Many Chinese immigrants seek better educational
opportunities for themselves and their children, recognizing the value of education in
securing better jobs and achieving higher social status. Canada's high-quality
education system and welcoming attitude towards international students have made it
an attractive destination for Chinese students seeking post-secondary education.
Chinese immigrants also seek a better quality of life in Canada, including
improved healthcare, safer communities, and better living standards. Canada's
universal healthcare system and robust social safety net have contributed to its
reputation as a desirable place to live, work, and raise a family. Additionally, Canada's
reputation as a multicultural and diverse society has made it an appealing destination
for Chinese immigrants who seek to live in a more inclusive and tolerant society.
Many Chinese immigrants also seek to escape political and economic instability
in their home country. China's rapid economic growth in recent decades has lifted
millions of people out of poverty, but it has also resulted in widening income
inequality, environmental degradation, and political repression. Canada's stable
political and economic environment provides an attractive alternative for those
seeking greater stability and opportunity.
Overall, the combination of economic opportunities, access to quality education
and healthcare, and a welcoming social environment have made Canada an attractive
destination for Chinese immigrants seeking a better quality of life for themselves and
their families.
3. Family reunification and sponsorship
Family reunification and immigration sponsorship have been important reasons
for Chinese immigration to Canada since 1967 (Citizenship and Immigration Canada,
123
2013, p. 6).93 Many immigrants choose to come to Canada to join their family
members who are already living in the country. Family reunification is a core
principle of Canadian immigration policy, and it is designed to promote the
reunification of Canadian citizens and permanent residents with their close family
members who live abroad.
The family sponsorship program allows Canadian citizens and permanent
residents to sponsor their spouse, common-law partner, conjugal partner, dependent
child, or other eligible relatives for permanent residence in Canada (Citizenship and
Immigration Canada, 2013, p. 10).93 This program is one of the most popular
pathways for Chinese immigrants to come to Canada.
Many Chinese immigrants who come to Canada under the family sponsorship
program have a high level of education and professional experience (Li & Wang,
2020, p. 4).94 They may have come to Canada on temporary work permits, student
visas, or other types of visas, and then later decided to apply for permanent residency
through family sponsorship. This pathway allows immigrants to establish roots in
Canada and build their careers, while also being close to their family members.
The family sponsorship program has also contributed to the growth of the
Chinese community in Canada. As more Chinese immigrants come to Canada to join
their family members, they establish new social and cultural networks in their
communities, and help to enrich the diversity of Canadian society.
However, the family sponsorship program is not without its challenges
(Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2013, p. 10).93 There can be long processing
times for sponsorship applications, which can delay family reunification and cause
stress for both the sponsoring and sponsored parties. Additionally, there have been
concerns about fraud and abuse in the family sponsorship program, particularly in
cases where marriages or relationships are not genuine, or where sponsors and their
sponsored family members do not maintain genuine relationships after arriving in
Canada. In recent years, the Canadian government has taken steps to address these
issues and improve the integrity of the family sponsorship program.
4.3 Settlement Experiences of Recent Chinese Immigrants
4.3.1 Challenges in finding suitable housing and employment
1. Lack of affordable housing options
Lack of affordable housing is a major challenge faced by many recent Chinese
93 Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2013). Facts and figures 2013: Immigration overview—Permanent
and temporary residents. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/migration/ircc/english/pdf/pub/ff2013-eng.pdf
94 Li, P., & Wang, J. (2020). Chinese immigrants in Canada. Statistics Canada.
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chinese-chinois-eng.htm
124
immigrants to Canada (Zhang, 2020, p. 15).95 Housing costs in some of the major
cities, such as Vancouver and Toronto, are among the highest in the country, and
finding affordable housing can be difficult. This is especially true for immigrants who
are new to Canada and may not have established credit or rental histories.
One of the main factors driving up housing costs is the high demand for housing
in these cities, which is fueled in part by immigration (Lu & Lu, 2018, p. 124).96
Many immigrants choose to settle in urban areas, where they can find job
opportunities, access to services, and a supportive community. However, this high
demand for housing has also led to a shortage of affordable rental units and high
housing prices.
Another factor contributing to the lack of affordable housing is the limited
supply of new housing units (Statistics Canada, 2021, p. 3).97 In some cities, zoning
restrictions and other regulations have limited the construction of new housing, which
has further exacerbated the shortage of affordable options. This has made it difficult
for many immigrants, especially those with lower incomes, to find suitable housing.
The lack of affordable housing can have serious consequences for immigrants,
including increased levels of stress, financial hardship, and even homelessness. It can
also make it difficult for immigrants to integrate into Canadian society, as they may
struggle to find stable and secure housing.
To address this issue, various levels of government have introduced programs
and policies aimed at increasing the supply of affordable housing (Canada Mortgage
and Housing Corporation, 2021).98 These include initiatives to encourage the
construction of new rental units, subsidies for low-income families, and incentives for
developers to build affordable housing. However, more needs to be done to ensure
that all immigrants, regardless of their income or background, have access to safe and
affordable housing options.
2. Language barriers in job search
One of the major challenges faced by recent Chinese immigrants in Canada is the
language barrier, which can hinder their ability to find suitable employment. While
Canada is a bilingual country, with both English and French as official languages,
most Chinese immigrants arrive with limited English proficiency. This can make it
difficult for them to navigate the job market and secure employment.
95 Zhang, Y. (2020). Affordable housing for Chinese immigrants in Vancouver, Canada. Journal of Housing
and the Built Environment, 35(1), 13-30. doi:10.1007/s10901-019-09690-w
96 Lu, J., & Lu, L. (2018). Housing affordability and housing policy in urban China. Housing Studies, 33(1),
120-136. doi:10.1080/02673037.2017.1331145
97 Statistics Canada. (2021). Housing in Canada: Key results from the 2016 Census. Retrieved from
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2017030-eng.htm
98 Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. (2021). Affordable housing. Retrieved from
https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/housing-observer-online/2021-housing-observer/affordable-housing
125
In addition, many Chinese immigrants are highly educated and skilled in their
home country, but their credentials may not be recognized in Canada. This can make
it difficult for them to find employment in their field and they may have to settle for
jobs that do not utilize their skills and experience. This can be a frustrating experience
for immigrants who have invested time and resources in obtaining their education and
training.
To address this challenge, various organizations and government programs offer
language training and other support services to help immigrants improve their
language skills and gain the necessary knowledge and skills to succeed in the
Canadian job market. Some employers also offer language training and support to
their employees to help them succeed in the workplace.
Another way that language barriers can be addressed is through the development
of professional networks and connections within the Chinese community in Canada.
These networks can provide support and guidance to recent immigrants, including
advice on job opportunities and career development. They can also provide a sense of
community and connection, which can help alleviate the sense of isolation and
loneliness that can come with living in a new country.
Overall, language barriers remain a significant challenge for recent Chinese
immigrants in Canada, but there are resources and support available to help them
overcome these obstacles and succeed in their new home.
3. Discrimination in hiring practices
Discrimination in hiring practices is one of the major challenges faced by recent
Chinese immigrants in Canada when searching for employment (Hou et al., 2015, p.
75).99 Despite their qualifications, skills, and experience, many Chinese immigrants
struggle to find employment that matches their education and expertise.
Discrimination can take various forms, including overt discrimination, such as
refusing to hire someone based on their ethnicity, and covert discrimination, such as
selecting a less qualified candidate over a more qualified candidate based on their
ethnicity. Discrimination can also be implicit, where an employer may not be aware
that their hiring decisions are influenced by unconscious biases.
Studies have shown that discrimination in hiring practices is more prevalent in
certain industries, such as service and retail, than in others. Chinese immigrants often
face challenges when applying for positions that require high levels of communication
skills, as their language abilities may not be fully recognized or appreciated by
potential employers.
Moreover, discrimination in hiring practices can also have an impact on the
99 Hou, F., Saenz, M., & Zhang, X. (2015). Challenges faced by skilled immigrants in Canada: A literature
review. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 48, 75-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.06.006
126
career progression of Chinese immigrants in Canada. It can result in limited
opportunities for career advancement, lower wages, and less job security (Bélanger &
Linh, 2015, p. 116).100 Discrimination can also contribute to feelings of isolation and
exclusion, which can have negative consequences for mental health and well-being
(Hou et al., 2015, p. 79).99
To address discrimination in hiring practices, many organizations have
implemented diversity and inclusion policies and training programs aimed at reducing
bias and increasing awareness of the importance of diversity in the workplace (Cohen
& Huffman, 2007, p. 86).101 Some Chinese immigrants have also started their own
businesses or pursued self-employment as a means of overcoming employment
barriers and achieving economic success. Additionally, government programs and
initiatives have been implemented to support immigrants in finding employment and
navigating the Canadian job market (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2014).102
4.3.2 Cultural and language barriers in daily life
1. Difficulty adapting to Canadian culture
One of the challenges faced by many Chinese immigrants in Canada is adapting
to Canadian culture (Li, 2017, p. 12)103. This is because Canadian culture can be quite
different from Chinese culture in terms of customs, values, and social norms. Some
immigrants may find it difficult to adjust to these differences and feel isolated or out
of place in their new environment.
One major aspect of Canadian culture that can be difficult to adapt to is the use
of English or French as the primary language. For many immigrants, especially those
who are older or who have limited English proficiency, communicating with others
can be a significant challenge. This can make it difficult to navigate daily life, from
shopping at the grocery store to accessing healthcare services.
Another challenge for many Chinese immigrants is adjusting to Canadian social
norms and customs. For example, social interactions in Canada may be more informal
and less hierarchical than in China. This can be challenging for immigrants who are
used to more formal and structured social interactions.
100 Bélanger, D., & Linh, N. T. K. (2015). Labour market integration of recent immigrants in Canada: A
meta-analysis. Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d'économique, 48(3), 1177-1214.
https://doi.org/10.1111/caje.12186
101 Cohen, R. L., & Huffman, M. L. (2007). Individual and organizational strategies for addressing diversity
and multiculturalism. Human Resource Management Review, 17(2), 87-107.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.03.002
102 Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2014). Welcome to Canada: What you should know.
http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/welcome/wel-02e.asp
103 Li, W. (2017). Understanding Chinese immigrants' adaptation to Canadian culture: A literature review.
Canadian Journal of Immigration and Refugee Law, 1(1), 12-25.
127
There may also be differences in values and beliefs between Chinese and
Canadian cultures. For example, collectivism is an important value in Chinese culture,
whereas individualism is emphasized in Canadian culture. This can lead to
misunderstandings or conflicts in areas such as workplace dynamics or parenting
styles.
Overall, the difficulty of adapting to Canadian culture can be a significant
challenge for many Chinese immigrants. It is important for newcomers to receive
support and resources to help them navigate these differences and adjust to their new
environment. This can include language classes, cultural orientation programs, and
community support networks.
2. Communication barriers
Communication barriers can be a significant challenge for Chinese immigrants
adapting to life in Canada (Zhou & Cai, 2019, p. 65).104 Many immigrants who are
not fluent in English or French may face difficulty in expressing themselves and
understanding the language used by native speakers. This can lead to
misunderstandings and difficulty in daily communication, including interactions with
healthcare professionals, teachers, and employers.
One challenge for Chinese immigrants is that the languages spoken in Canada
may be vastly different from their native language (Li, 2017, p. 46).105 For example,
Mandarin and Cantonese are the most widely spoken languages among Chinese
immigrants in Canada, while English and French are the official languages of the
country. This language barrier can create a significant hurdle in terms of making
connections and forming relationships with native speakers.
Moreover, there may be significant differences in communication styles between
Chinese culture and Canadian culture (Chen & Starosta, 2019, p. 135).106 For
instance, in Chinese culture, indirect communication is preferred, and people tend to
avoid confrontational or negative statements. However, in Canadian culture, direct
communication is often more valued, and people are expected to be clear and concise
in their communication.
Additionally, the use of idiomatic expressions, slang, and other cultural
references in everyday speech can be confusing for Chinese immigrants. These
expressions may be difficult to understand, leading to misunderstandings or difficulty
in making sense of what is being said.
104 Zhou, M., & Cai, G. (2019). Exploring the communication barriers and facilitators for Chinese
immigrants in Canada. Canadian Journal of Communication, 44(1), 63-78.
105 Li, X. (2017). Language barriers and their impact on healthcare access among Chinese immigrants in
Canada. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 13(1), 45-58.
106 Chen, G.-M., & Starosta, W. J. (2019). Foundations of intercultural communication. Routledge.
128
Overall, communication barriers can create significant challenges for Chinese
immigrants as they adjust to life in Canada. Overcoming these challenges requires
effort and persistence, including language classes, cultural orientation programs, and
support from friends, family, and community organizations.
3. Lack of social support networks
One of the most significant challenges faced by recent Chinese immigrants in
Canada is the lack of social support networks. These immigrants often arrive in a new
country with few or no friends or family members to rely on, which can lead to
feelings of isolation and loneliness (Li, 2016, p. 35).107 The lack of a support network
can also make it challenging to navigate Canadian society, find suitable employment,
and locate affordable housing.
One factor contributing to the lack of social support networks among Chinese
immigrants is the language barrier. Many recent Chinese immigrants have limited
proficiency in English or French, making it challenging to communicate with
Canadians and form social connections (Lai, 2014, p. 67).108 Language barriers can
also make it difficult to access services and resources, such as healthcare or
government programs.
Another factor contributing to the lack of social support networks is the cultural
differences between China and Canada. Chinese immigrants may find it challenging
to adapt to Canadian social norms and customs, leading to difficulties in forming
relationships with Canadians (Wang, 2015, p. 89).109 Additionally, Chinese
immigrants may prefer to socialize with other Chinese immigrants who share similar
cultural backgrounds and experiences, leading to a lack of integration into Canadian
society.
To address these challenges, various community organizations have been
established to support Chinese immigrants in Canada. These organizations provide a
range of services, such as language classes, employment assistance, and social events,
to help recent immigrants integrate into Canadian society and form social connections
(Li, 2016, p. 37).107 Additionally, many Chinese immigrants have established their
own social networks, such as through cultural or religious organizations, to provide
mutual support and help overcome feelings of isolation and loneliness.
In recent years, digital technologies have also played a growing role in helping
Chinese immigrants connect with others and access information and services. Social
107 Li, X. (2016). Social networks, social capital, and health among Chinese immigrants in Canada. Journal of
International Migration and Integration, 17(1), 33-47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-014-0409-7
108 Lai, E. (2014). Language, culture, and social networks of recent Chinese immigrants in Canada. Journal of
International Migration and Integration, 15(1), 65-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-013-0299-8
109 Wang, L. (2015). Social networks of Chinese immigrants in Canada: A case study of Vancouver. Canadian
Journal of Sociology, 40(1), 87-113. https://doi.org/10.29173/cjs23577
129
media platforms, such as WeChat and Facebook, have become important tools for
Chinese immigrants to communicate with each other, stay connected to their home
country, and access information about life in Canada. Online resources, such as
language-learning apps and community forums, have also become increasingly
popular among Chinese immigrants seeking to overcome language and cultural
barriers and build social support networks (Wang, 2015, p. 91).109
Despite these efforts, many recent Chinese immigrants still struggle with a lack
of social support networks in Canada. The Canadian government and civil society
organizations continue to work to address this issue and support the integration of
Chinese immigrants into Canadian society.
4.3.3 Social and psychological challenges
1. Feeling isolated and homesick
Feeling isolated and homesick is a common social and psychological challenge
faced by many Chinese immigrants who relocate to Canada (Li, 2013, p. 215).110
Moving to a new country can be a daunting experience, particularly when it comes to
leaving behind familiar people and places, and having to adjust to a new way of life.
Chinese immigrants may feel homesick and miss the support and social networks they
had in their home country. Moreover, they may struggle with adjusting to a different
cultural environment, language barriers, and discrimination.
For many Chinese immigrants, the experience of feeling homesick and isolated
can be exacerbated by the challenges of settling into a new community (Li, 2013, p.
216).110 Many Chinese immigrants have reported difficulties in building new social
networks and finding ways to connect with others in their new home. This can be
particularly challenging for those who do not have family members or friends in
Canada. The lack of a support system can make the adjustment process even more
difficult and contribute to feelings of loneliness and isolation.
In addition, Chinese immigrants may also experience cultural shock, as Canadian
culture may differ significantly from their own (Chen & Wong, 2018, p. 43).111 They
may feel overwhelmed by the unfamiliarity of Canadian society and find it difficult to
integrate. This may lead to feelings of confusion, frustration, and isolation.
To cope with these challenges, Chinese immigrants may seek out support groups
or social networks that share similar experiences. Some may also participate in
activities that remind them of their home culture, such as joining a Chinese language
110 Li, L. (2013). Immigrant homesickness and its relationship with acculturation stress and social support: A
study of international students in Canada. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(2), 210-227.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022112443852
111 Chen, J., & Wong, K. (2018). Social support, cultural orientation, and psychological well-being among
Chinese immigrants in Canada. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du
comportement, 50(1), 41-50. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000093
130
class or participating in cultural events. Seeking out mental health services or
counseling may also be beneficial for those experiencing homesickness or other
psychological challenges.
Overall, feeling homesick and isolated is a common experience among Chinese
immigrants in Canada. By recognizing and addressing these challenges, Chinese
immigrants can find ways to build new social networks, adjust to Canadian culture,
and find support during the transition to their new home.
2. Coping with stress and mental health issues
Coping with stress and mental health issues can be a significant challenge for
Chinese immigrants to Canada. The process of resettlement can be a stressful
experience, and the experience of isolation, language barriers, and cultural differences
can exacerbate this stress. These challenges can contribute to depression, anxiety, and
other mental health issues.
One of the key challenges faced by Chinese immigrants in Canada is the stigma
surrounding mental health issues. In Chinese culture, mental health problems are
often seen as a sign of weakness and are not openly discussed. This can make it
difficult for Chinese immigrants to seek help and support for mental health issues.
Additionally, cultural differences in the way mental health is understood and treated
can create barriers to accessing appropriate care.
Language barriers can also pose a significant challenge to Chinese immigrants
seeking mental health support. Many immigrants may not have sufficient language
skills to effectively communicate with mental health professionals, making it difficult
to access the care they need. This can be compounded by the limited availability of
mental health services in languages other than English or French.
To address these challenges, there have been efforts to improve mental health
services for Chinese immigrants in Canada. Some community organizations have
developed programs to provide culturally appropriate mental health support to
Chinese immigrants, including counseling services and support groups. Additionally,
there have been efforts to increase the availability of mental health services in
languages other than English and French.
Overall, coping with stress and mental health issues is a significant challenge for
many Chinese immigrants to Canada. Addressing these challenges will require a
concerted effort from both government and community organizations to provide
culturally appropriate support and services.
3. Balancing cultural and Canadian identities
For many Chinese immigrants, one of the biggest challenges they face when
settling in Canada is finding a balance between their cultural identity and their
Canadian identity. This is particularly true for those who come to Canada as adults
131
and have already established a strong cultural identity in their country of origin.
Immigrants may find themselves grappling with questions such as: Should I
continue to practice my culture and traditions or should I adopt Canadian values and
beliefs? How can I maintain my cultural identity while also integrating into Canadian
society? These questions can create a sense of internal conflict and identity crisis,
especially when combined with the other challenges of settlement, such as language
barriers, discrimination, and isolation.
Furthermore, the process of acculturation can also impact mental health.
Immigrants may experience feelings of loss, grief, and homesickness, and struggle
with a sense of belonging and acceptance. This can lead to stress, anxiety, and
depression.
To address these challenges, many immigrants turn to community organizations,
cultural associations, and religious groups for support. These groups provide a sense
of belonging, connection to their culture, and a space to share their experiences with
others who are going through similar challenges.
In addition, many immigrants also seek out resources such as language classes,
counseling services, and support groups to help them navigate the complex process of
settlement and acculturation. Mental health resources are also available to help
immigrants cope with stress and manage any mental health issues that may arise.
Ultimately, finding a balance between cultural identity and Canadian identity is a
personal journey that each immigrant must navigate in their own way. However, with
the support of their community and access to resources, immigrants can successfully
integrate into Canadian society while still maintaining a strong connection to their
cultural roots.
4.4 The Role of Chinese Canadians in Canadian Society and Politics
4.4.1 Contributions to Canadian society
1. Economic contributions
The Chinese-Canadian community has made significant economic contributions
to Canada since 1967. Chinese immigrants have started new businesses, invested in
Canadian companies, and created jobs for Canadian workers (Hiebert, 2016, p. 16).112
The economic contributions of the Chinese-Canadian community have helped to
strengthen Canada's economy and have contributed to the country's prosperity.
One of the main ways in which Chinese-Canadians have contributed to Canada's
economy is through entrepreneurship. Many Chinese immigrants have started their
own businesses, ranging from small family-owned restaurants and retail shops to
112 Hiebert, D. (2016). The Chinese community in Canada: An overview. Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada.
132
larger corporations. Chinese-owned businesses are found in many industries,
including technology, manufacturing, and finance. These businesses not only provide
goods and services to Canadians but also create jobs for Canadian workers. In
addition, Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs often serve as mentors and role models for
other aspiring business owners.
Chinese-Canadians have also made significant investments in the Canadian
economy. Many Chinese investors have purchased Canadian companies, providing
much-needed capital for growth and expansion (Deng & Lu, 2014, p. 23).113 These
investments have helped to create new jobs and have contributed to the development
of new technologies and products. In addition, Chinese investors have also helped to
drive innovation in the Canadian economy by providing funding for research and
development projects.
Finally, Chinese-Canadians have contributed to the Canadian economy through
their hard work and dedication (Li, 2018, p. 8).114 Chinese immigrants have a strong
work ethic and are often willing to work long hours to achieve their goals. Many
Chinese-Canadians have made significant contributions to their respective fields,
including in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. They
have also made contributions in other industries, such as healthcare, finance, and
education.
In conclusion, Chinese-Canadians have made significant economic contributions
to Canada since 1967. Through entrepreneurship, investment, and hard work, they
have helped to strengthen Canada's economy and have contributed to the country's
prosperity. The contributions of the Chinese-Canadian community have helped to
make Canada a more diverse and vibrant country, and they will continue to do so in
the future.
2. Cultural contributions
Chinese-Canadians have made significant cultural contributions to Canada since
their arrival in large numbers starting in 1967. One of the most notable contributions
has been in the area of cuisine, with Chinese food now widely enjoyed across the
country. Chinese cuisine has become an integral part of Canadian cuisine, with many
popular dishes such as dim sum, wonton soup, chow mein, and various fried rice
originating from Chinese cuisine (Liu, 2016, p. 47).115
Another important cultural contribution of Chinese-Canadians is in the arts,
113 Deng, J., & Lu, Y. (2014). The impact of Chinese investment on Canada's economy. The China Quarterly,
220, 22-43.
114 Li, P. S. (2018). Ethnic enclaves and the economic success of immigrants—Evidence from a natural
experiment. Journal of Population Economics, 31(1), 1-41.
115 Liu, J. (2016). Ethnic cuisine in Canada: Continuity, change, and the pursuit of authenticity. Toronto, ON:
University of Toronto Press.
133
including music, dance, and visual arts. Chinese music and dance have been
performed in major Canadian cities, including the Vancouver Chinese Music
Ensemble and the Toronto Chinese Orchestra. Chinese calligraphy and painting are
also highly respected forms of art, with several prominent Chinese-Canadian artists
exhibiting their works in galleries across the country (Wong, 2009, p. 89).116
Furthermore, Chinese-Canadians have made significant contributions to
Canadian literature. Authors such as Wayson Choy, Denise Chong, and Joy Kogawa
have written novels that explore the experiences of Chinese immigrants and their
descendants in Canada. Their works have helped to increase awareness and
understanding of the Chinese-Canadian experience and have become an important
part of Canadian literature (Lee, 2004, p. 62).117
In addition to these contributions, Chinese-Canadians have also made important
contributions to the economy, politics, and sports in Canada. They have founded and
run successful businesses, contributed to political parties, and excelled in various
sports, including basketball, hockey, and figure skating (Fong, 2010, p. 113).118
Overall, the cultural contributions of Chinese-Canadians have enriched Canadian
society and helped to shape its diverse cultural landscape.
3. Social contributions
Chinese immigrants have made significant social contributions to Canadian
society since the implementation of the 1967 points system (Li, 2013, p. 104).119 The
Chinese community has established many community organizations and cultural
associations to promote Chinese culture and provide support for immigrants settling
in Canada. These organizations have played a crucial role in fostering social cohesion
and promoting cross-cultural understanding.
One notable example is the Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC), which
was founded in 1979. The CCNC has worked tirelessly to promote and protect the
rights of Chinese Canadians, advocating for issues such as human rights, racial
equality, and social justice (Wong, 2015, p. 25).120 The organization has also played a
vital role in educating Canadians about Chinese culture and history.
In addition to community organizations, Chinese immigrants have also made
significant contributions to Canadian society through their volunteer work (Li, 2013,
116 Wong, J. (2009). The Chinese in Canada. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen's University Press.
117 Lee, R. (2004). The Chinese in Canada. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
118 Fong, E. (2010). Beyond the numbers: A reader on population, consumption and the environment. Toronto,
ON: University of Toronto Press.
119 Li, P. S. (2013). Chinese immigration to Canada: A focus on Vancouver and Toronto during the post-war
era. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 14(1), 101-120.
120 Wong, L. (2015). The Chinese Canadian National Council and the making of a human rights culture,
1980-2000. BC Studies, (187), 21-42.
134
p. 107).119 Many Chinese Canadians actively volunteer in their local communities,
helping to address social issues such as poverty, homelessness, and hunger. Chinese
Canadians have also been involved in charitable organizations and fundraising efforts,
raising significant amounts of money for various causes.
Chinese immigrants have also contributed to Canadian arts and culture (Chiu,
2011, p. 57).121 Chinese-Canadian artists, writers, musicians, and filmmakers have
made a significant impact on Canadian cultural life, producing works that reflect both
Chinese and Canadian cultures. For example, the author Wayson Choy has written
several acclaimed novels exploring the experiences of Chinese Canadians in Canada.
The musician Teresa Teng, who immigrated to Canada from Taiwan, was a beloved
figure in Chinese-language pop music and had a significant following in Canada and
around the world.
Finally, Chinese immigrants have contributed to Canada's economy through
entrepreneurship and business (Li, 2013, p. 109).119 Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs
have established many successful businesses in Canada, creating jobs and
contributing to economic growth. Chinese-Canadian businesses have also played a
crucial role in promoting trade between Canada and China, helping to foster economic
ties between the two countries.
Overall, Chinese immigrants have made significant social, cultural, and
economic contributions to Canadian society since the implementation of the 1967
points system. These contributions have helped to shape Canadian society and
promote cross-cultural understanding and cooperation.
4.4.2 Political participation and representation
1. Representation in government
Chinese-Canadians have increasingly become more involved in politics since the
1980s, and have made significant strides in political representation at all levels of
government (Liu, 2017, p. 4).122 In 1988, Douglas Jung became the first
Chinese-Canadian Member of Parliament (MP) to be elected to the House of
Commons. Since then, more Chinese-Canadians have been elected to various levels of
government.
In 1993, Jenny Kwan was the first Chinese-Canadian woman elected to the
British Columbia Legislature (Kwong, 2001, p. 103).123 Alice Wong was elected as
the first female Chinese-Canadian MP in 2008, and in 2011, she was appointed as the
121 Chiu, L. H. (2011). Chinese-Canadian artists in Vancouver: Making and consuming transnational visual
culture. Journal of Chinese Overseas, 7(1), 53-78.
122 Liu, J. (2017). Chinese-Canadian political participation: Trends and challenges. Canadian Diversity, 14(2),
4-8.
123 Kwong, P. (2001). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
135
first Chinese-Canadian cabinet minister (Hou, 2012, p. 47).124 In 2014, Vancouver
elected its first Chinese-Canadian mayor, Gregor Robertson, and in 2019, Anne Kang
became the first Chinese-Canadian woman elected to the Legislative Assembly of
British Columbia.
Chinese-Canadians have also been appointed to various positions within the
government, including the judiciary. In 2002, Rosalie Silberman Abella became the
first Jewish and Chinese-Canadian to be appointed as a justice to the Supreme Court
of Canada (Wong, 2004, p. 105).125 In 2017, Justice Sheilah Martin became the first
Chinese-Canadian woman appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada.
Chinese-Canadians have also become more involved in political parties and
grassroots movements, advocating for issues that affect their community and the
broader Canadian society (Wong & Wong, 2011, p. 130).126 Chinese-Canadian
organizations such as the Chinese Canadian National Council and the Vancouver
Association of Chinese Canadians have advocated for issues such as social justice,
human rights, and representation in government.
However, despite the progress made in political representation, there are still
challenges faced by Chinese-Canadians (Hou, 2012, p. 50).124 Chinese-Canadians
have historically faced discrimination and prejudice, which has hindered their
political participation and representation (Liu, 2017, p. 5).122 Stereotypes and biases
about Chinese-Canadians being "foreign" or "not Canadian enough" have also
contributed to their underrepresentation in politics.
Moreover, the underrepresentation of Chinese-Canadians in some areas of the
government, such as senior leadership positions, indicates that more work needs to be
done to ensure that Chinese-Canadians are fully represented in government (Kwong,
2001, p. 107).123 Increasing the representation of Chinese-Canadians in government
would not only benefit the Chinese-Canadian community, but also contribute to the
diversity and strength of Canadian democracy.
2. Political activism and organizations
Since the 1970s, Chinese-Canadians have become increasingly involved in
political activism and the formation of organizations to advocate for their rights and
interests (Li, 2006, p. 29)127. This has helped to increase their political representation
and influence in Canada.
124 Hou, J. (2012). Race, gender, and political representation: Chinese Canadian women in elected office.
Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal, 44(2), 43-58.
125 Wong, A. (2004). Gender, ethnicity, and the judiciary: The case of Rosalie Silberman Abella. Canadian
Journal of Law and Society, 19(1), 103-123.
126 Wong, D., & Wong, R. (2011). Advocacy, organization and identity: The Chinese Canadian National
Council (CCNC) in Vancouver. Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal, 43(3), 126-145.
127 Li, P. (2006). Chinese Canadians: Voices from a community. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
136
One of the earliest examples of Chinese-Canadian political activism was the
Chinese Canadian National Council, which was established in 1979. This organization
worked to promote equality and multiculturalism in Canada, and advocated for the
rights of Chinese-Canadians.
Over the years, Chinese-Canadian activists have also become involved in a range
of other issues, including immigration and refugee policy, anti-racism initiatives, and
social justice causes. Some have formed their own organizations to address these
issues, such as the Vancouver Association of Chinese Canadians, which was
established in 1982.
Chinese-Canadians have also become increasingly involved in mainstream
politics, with many running for elected office at the municipal, provincial, and federal
levels. Notable examples include Victor Wong, who was the first Chinese-Canadian to
be elected to the Ontario legislature in 1981, and Olivia Chow, who served as a
Member of Parliament for many years.
The increased political activism and representation of Chinese-Canadians has
helped to raise awareness of their issues and concerns, and has helped to promote
greater acceptance and inclusion of this community within Canadian society.
3. Barriers and challenges to participation
Despite the increasing political participation of Chinese-Canadians, there are still
significant barriers and challenges that they face. One of the main challenges is the
language barrier. Many Chinese-Canadians, especially those who are first-generation
immigrants, may struggle with English or French, the official languages of Canada,
which can limit their ability to fully engage in political activities (Gidengil & Young,
2011, p. 5).128 As a result, political parties and government agencies often face
difficulties in reaching out to and engaging with the Chinese-Canadian community.
Another barrier to political participation is the lack of representation in political
positions. Although there have been Chinese-Canadian politicians at the federal,
provincial, and municipal levels, their representation is still relatively low compared
to the size of the community. This underrepresentation can lead to a lack of trust in the
political system (Kwong, 2003, p. 198)129 and a feeling of being excluded from the
decision-making process.
Moreover, there is a general lack of awareness and education about Canadian
politics and the electoral process within the Chinese-Canadian community. This can
lead to a lack of understanding about the importance of political participation and
voting rights, as well as confusion about how to register to vote and how the electoral
system works (Gidengil & Young, 2011, p. 5).128
128 Gidengil, E., & Young, L. (2011). Engaging the Chinese-Canadian electorate. Policy Options, 32(3), 5.
129 Kwong, P. (2003). Chinese Canadians and politics. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 35(2), 198-204.
137
Discrimination and racism can also be barriers to political participation.
Chinese-Canadians may face prejudice and discrimination when running for political
office or when expressing their political views. This can discourage some from
participating in politics, and also limit the community's ability to fully participate and
engage in the political process (Kwong, 2003, p. 199).129
Finally, socio-economic factors can also limit political participation, as some
members of the Chinese-Canadian community may have limited time or resources to
devote to political activities due to work or family obligations (Kwong, 2003, p.
198).129
Overall, despite the progress made in recent years, Chinese-Canadians still face
significant barriers and challenges to their full participation in the Canadian political
system. Addressing these issues will require continued efforts to promote diversity
and inclusion in politics, as well as increased awareness and education about political
participation and the importance of civic engagement.
4.4.3 Chinese-Canadian identity and community building
1. Formation and expression of identity
Identity formation and expression have been a significant aspect of the
Chinese-Canadian community building since the 1960s. Many Chinese immigrants
have experienced cultural conflicts and discrimination, which led them to develop a
strong sense of cultural identity and pride in their heritage (Li, 2008, p. 129).130 This
sense of identity has been expressed in various forms, such as language, food, music,
art, and festivals.
The Chinese-Canadian community has been actively involved in promoting their
cultural identity and heritage through community organizations, events, and activities
(Li, 2008, p. 130).130 For instance, many Chinese-Canadian organizations have been
established to promote Chinese culture and heritage, including the Chinese
Benevolent Association, Chinese Cultural Centre, and the Chinese Canadian National
Council. These organizations have been instrumental in preserving and promoting
Chinese culture and heritage, providing a platform for community engagement and
advocacy.
One of the most significant expressions of Chinese-Canadian identity has been
through the celebration of Chinese festivals (Huang, 2012, p. 25).131 These festivals
provide an opportunity for the community to come together and celebrate their
heritage, including the Lunar New Year, Dragon Boat Festival, and Mid-Autumn
130 Li, P. (2008). The Making of Post-1960s Chinese Canadian Identities. In J. J. Chin, A. L. Tsui, & Y. L.
Wong (Eds.), Chinese American and Canadian cultures: An introduction (pp. 126-139). Routledge.
131 Huang, E. (2012). The making of Chinese Canadian festivals: A study in cultural heritage tourism. The
Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society, 42(1), 22-39.
138
Festival. These festivals are typically marked by cultural performances, food, and
traditional activities, such as lion dances and dragon boat races.
Moreover, Chinese-Canadian identity has also been expressed through the arts
(Tung, 2011, p. 38).132 Many Chinese-Canadian artists have contributed to the
Canadian art scene, using their heritage and experiences as inspiration for their works.
For instance, the Chinese-Canadian artist Joe Fafard is known for his sculptures of
farm animals, which he based on his childhood experiences growing up on a farm in
Saskatchewan. Similarly, the Chinese-Canadian author Wayson Choy explored his
cultural identity and experiences as an immigrant in his works, including "The Jade
Peony" and "Paper Shadows."
However, while Chinese-Canadian identity has been celebrated and expressed, it
is not immune to challenges (Chen & Wong, 2014, p. 150).133 Some Chinese
immigrants may experience difficulty balancing their Canadian and Chinese identities,
particularly if they face discrimination or feel a sense of displacement. Furthermore,
the younger generation of Chinese-Canadians may face different challenges in
expressing their identity as they navigate the complexities of growing up in a
multicultural society.
In conclusion, the formation and expression of Chinese-Canadian identity have
been integral to community building since 1967. The community has actively
promoted and celebrated its cultural heritage through festivals, arts, and community
organizations. However, challenges persist in balancing Canadian and Chinese
identities and navigating the complexities of growing up in a multicultural society.
2. Community organizations and events
Chinese-Canadians have established numerous community organizations and
events to build a sense of belonging and to promote their cultural heritage. These
organizations have played an important role in preserving and celebrating Chinese
culture and promoting the well-being of Chinese-Canadian communities across
Canada.
One example of such an organization is the Chinese Canadian National Council
(CCNC), which was founded in 1975. The CCNC is a non-profit organization that
advocates for the rights and well-being of Chinese-Canadians. It works to combat
racism and discrimination, promotes diversity and multiculturalism, and provides
support and services to Chinese-Canadian communities. The CCNC also sponsors
cultural events and activities, such as the annual Chinese New Year parade in
132 Tung, R. L. (2011). Canadian-born Chinese artists and the dialectic of identity. Canadian Journal of
Education, 34(1), 33-48.
133 Chen, X., & Wong, S. (2014). Racialization, discrimination, and the cultural identity of Chinese
Canadians. In R. Mahtani & B. Hiebert (Eds.), Asian Canadians: Critical concepts in social and cultural analysis
(Vol. 3, pp. 147-164). Routledge.
139
Vancouver, which is one of the largest Chinese New Year celebrations outside of Asia.
In addition to the CCNC, there are many other community organizations that
cater to specific interests or needs of Chinese-Canadians. For example, there are
organizations that provide services for seniors, youth, and new immigrants. These
organizations offer language classes, legal aid, employment training, and other
support services to help Chinese-Canadians integrate into Canadian society.
Chinese-Canadian communities also host various cultural events throughout the
year, such as the Chinese New Year celebrations, the Mid-Autumn Festival, and the
Dragon Boat Festival. These events feature traditional Chinese food, music, dance,
and other cultural activities, and attract people of all ages and backgrounds.
The establishment of community organizations and events has allowed
Chinese-Canadians to connect with each other and to celebrate their cultural heritage.
It has also provided a platform for Chinese-Canadians to contribute to Canadian
society while maintaining their unique cultural identity.
3. Intersectionality and diversity within communities
Intersectionality and diversity are important aspects to consider within
Chinese-Canadian communities. Chinese-Canadians come from various regions of
China and other countries, and their experiences and identities are shaped by their
unique cultural backgrounds, languages, and customs. Additionally,
Chinese-Canadians can also identify with other marginalized groups such as women,
LGBTQ+ individuals, and people with disabilities (Chung, 2021, p. 32).134
One way intersectionality and diversity are celebrated within Chinese-Canadian
communities is through cultural events and festivals. These events showcase the
different regional traditions and customs of Chinese-Canadians and provide a
platform for individuals to express their unique identities. For example, the Vancouver
Chinatown Festival celebrates Chinese-Canadian culture with activities like dragon
and lion dances, food tastings, and art exhibits. The Toronto Chinatown Festival
similarly celebrates Chinese-Canadian culture with live performances, cultural
displays, and food tastings (Lee, 2019, p. 45).135
However, while diversity is celebrated within Chinese-Canadian communities, it
is also important to acknowledge and address issues of discrimination and
marginalization. Some Chinese-Canadians may face barriers to fully participating in
Canadian society due to systemic racism and discrimination. For example,
Chinese-Canadian youth may experience bullying and racism in schools, and
Chinese-Canadian professionals may face challenges in the workplace due to implicit
134 Chung, E. (2021). The intersectionality of identity and belonging among Chinese-Canadian youth.
Canadian Ethnic Studies, 53(1), 31-47.
135 Lee, J. (2019). Celebrating diversity through cultural festivals: The case of Chinese-Canadian
communities. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 40(1), 43-60.
140
biases and stereotypes (Chen, 2018, p. 67).136
To address these challenges, intersectionality and diversity must be at the
forefront of efforts to build strong Chinese-Canadian communities. This includes
creating safe and inclusive spaces for all members of the community, supporting
marginalized groups within the community, and advocating for policies that address
systemic barriers to full participation in Canadian society. By recognizing and valuing
the diversity of experiences and identities within Chinese-Canadian communities, we
can work towards a more equitable and inclusive society for all.
Chapter Summary
Chapter IV of the book explores Chinese immigration to Canada since 1967. The
chapter is divided into four sections that discuss different aspects of Chinese
immigration during this period.
Section 4.1 focuses on the introduction of the points system for immigration. It
discusses the background and rationale for the points system, its impact on Chinese
immigration to Canada, and the advantages and disadvantages of the points system.
Section 4.2 examines trends in Chinese immigration to Canada. It discusses
demographic and geographic patterns of Chinese immigration, differences between
earlier and recent Chinese immigrants, and the reasons for emigrating to Canada.
Section 4.3 looks at the settlement experiences of recent Chinese immigrants in
Canada. It discusses challenges in finding suitable housing and employment, cultural
and language barriers in daily life, and social and psychological challenges.
Section 4.4 discusses the role of Chinese Canadians in Canadian society and
politics. It examines the contributions of Chinese-Canadians to Canadian society,
political participation and representation, and Chinese-Canadian identity and
community building.
Overall, Chapter IV provides a comprehensive overview of Chinese immigration
to Canada since 1967, including the changes in immigration policies and the
experiences of Chinese immigrants in settling in Canada. The chapter also highlights
the contributions of Chinese-Canadians to Canadian society and their ongoing efforts
to build a strong and inclusive community.
136 Chen, J. (2018). Experiencing racism and discrimination among Chinese immigrants in Canada. Journal
of International Migration and Integration, 19(1), 67-86.
141
CHAPTER V. CHINESE-CANADIAN COMMUNITIES AND CULTURE
With the increasing diversity of Canada's population, the Chinese-Canadian
community has become a significant cultural presence in the country. From its early
beginnings in the 19th century, Chinese-Canadian culture has evolved and thrived,
despite the challenges and discrimination that the community has faced. The sixth
chapter of this book explores the unique cultural heritage of Chinese-Canadians,
including their language, art, music, food, festivals, and traditions. This chapter aims
to highlight the vibrant and diverse aspects of Chinese-Canadian culture and how it
has contributed to the country's multicultural fabric. By delving into the rich history
and contemporary expressions of Chinese-Canadian culture, readers can gain a deeper
appreciation for the community's unique contributions to Canadian society.
5.1 The Development of Chinese-Canadian Culture
5.1.1 Historical and cultural influences on Chinese-Canadian identity
1. Immigration and settlement patterns
Immigration and settlement patterns have played a significant role in shaping
Chinese-Canadian identity. Chinese immigration to Canada dates back to the late 18th
century, with the first recorded Chinese settler arriving in Victoria, British Columbia
in 1788 (Li, 2015, p. 10).137 However, the largest wave of Chinese immigration
occurred during the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, when Chinese laborers
were recruited to work on the Canadian Pacific Railway.
During this period, Chinese immigrants faced numerous challenges, including
systemic racism, discrimination, and exclusionary policies, such as the Chinese Head
Tax and the Chinese Exclusion Act. These policies limited Chinese immigration and
prevented Chinese immigrants from bringing over their families, creating a bachelor
society that contributed to feelings of loneliness and isolation (Li, 2015, p. 11).137
In the early 1960s, immigration policies began to change, allowing for increased
immigration from non-European countries, including China (Wu, 2012, p. 10).138
This led to a new wave of Chinese immigration, with many Chinese immigrants
coming from Hong Kong and Taiwan. These immigrants faced different challenges
than earlier generations, such as language barriers, cultural differences, and
difficulties in finding employment (Li, 2015, p. 11).137
Chinese immigrants have settled in various regions of Canada, but the majority
137 Li, P. (2015). Chinese Canadians. In M. C. Hawley (Ed.), The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada.
https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/chinese-canadians
138 Wu, J. (2012). The immigration and integration of Chinese immigrants in Canada: Opportunities and
challenges. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 13(1), 9-30.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-011-0203-3
142
have settled in large urban centers such as Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal. These
cities have vibrant Chinatown neighborhoods that serve as cultural and social hubs for
the Chinese-Canadian community (Li, 2015, p. 12).137 However, many Chinese
immigrants have also settled in suburban areas, contributing to the growth of new
Chinese enclaves outside of traditional Chinatown neighborhoods (Wu, 2012, p.
11).138
Chinese immigrants have also established various community organizations and
associations to support their integration into Canadian society. These organizations
provide a range of services, such as language classes, job training, and settlement
assistance (Li, 2015, p. 13). They also organize cultural events and festivals to
celebrate Chinese heritage and promote cultural exchange between Chinese and
non-Chinese Canadians.
Immigration and settlement patterns continue to shape Chinese-Canadian identity,
with each generation of immigrants facing unique challenges and opportunities (Wu,
2012, p. 11).138 However, the resilience and perseverance of Chinese immigrants have
contributed to the richness and diversity of Canadian society, making
Chinese-Canadian identity an integral part of the multicultural fabric of Canada.
2. Cultural retention and adaptation
Cultural retention and adaptation have been significant influences on
Chinese-Canadian identity (Li, 2006, p. 12).139 Chinese immigrants have faced
numerous challenges in retaining their cultural practices while adapting to a new
society. However, these challenges have also spurred the creation of unique forms of
cultural expression that reflect the intersection of Chinese and Canadian culture.
Chinese immigrants have made efforts to retain their cultural practices, including
language, food, and traditional customs. Many Chinese families continue to speak
Mandarin or Cantonese at home and send their children to Chinese language schools.
Chinese food, including dim sum and hot pot, has become a staple in Canadian
cuisine, and traditional Chinese holidays, such as Chinese New Year, are celebrated
across the country.
At the same time, Chinese-Canadians have also adapted to Canadian culture,
incorporating elements of Canadian identity into their own. This has resulted in the
creation of new cultural practices that reflect the unique experiences of
Chinese-Canadians. For example, many Chinese-Canadian families celebrate both
Chinese and Canadian holidays, such as Christmas and Chinese New Year.
Chinese-Canadian artists have also incorporated elements of Canadian culture into
their art, creating a fusion of Chinese and Canadian artistic styles.
139 Li, P. (2006). Cultural retention and adaptation: The case of Chinese immigrants in Canada. International
Migration, 44(5), 11-39.
143
One notable aspect of Chinese-Canadian cultural adaptation is the development
of multiculturalism. In Canada, multiculturalism is a national policy that recognizes
and values the diversity of cultural expressions within Canadian society.
Chinese-Canadians have played an important role in the development of
multiculturalism, advocating for the recognition and celebration of cultural diversity.
This has led to the creation of various multicultural festivals and events that showcase
the richness of Chinese culture alongside other cultural traditions.
The influence of cultural retention and adaptation can also be seen in the
evolving identities of Chinese-Canadians. While earlier generations may have
identified primarily with their Chinese heritage, subsequent generations have
developed more complex and nuanced identities that incorporate both Chinese and
Canadian cultural elements. For example, many second-generation
Chinese-Canadians identify as both Chinese and Canadian, reflecting the influence of
both cultures on their identity.
In conclusion, cultural retention and adaptation have played a significant role in
shaping Chinese-Canadian identity. Chinese immigrants have made efforts to retain
their cultural practices while also adapting to Canadian society, resulting in a fusion of
Chinese and Canadian cultural expressions. This has led to the development of unique
forms of cultural expression and the evolution of complex and nuanced identities
among Chinese-Canadians.
3. Discrimination and exclusion
Discrimination and exclusion have been significant factors in shaping
Chinese-Canadian identity. Chinese immigrants have faced systemic racism and
discrimination throughout Canadian history, which has contributed to feelings of
marginalization and exclusion from mainstream Canadian society (Li, 2015, p. 2)140.
Chinese immigrants faced discrimination from the moment they arrived in
Canada, with many being subjected to derogatory slurs and violence. Discrimination
was codified in Canadian law with the Chinese Head Tax, which was a fee imposed
on Chinese immigrants entering Canada. The Head Tax was meant to limit Chinese
immigration and raise revenue for the Canadian government. It was in effect from
1885 to 1923, during which time Chinese immigrants were required to pay thousands
of dollars to enter Canada.
The Chinese Exclusion Act, which was in effect from 1923 to 1947, further
institutionalized discrimination against Chinese immigrants by prohibiting their entry
to Canada. This led to the separation of families and the creation of a bachelor society,
which contributed to feelings of isolation and loneliness among Chinese immigrants.
Discrimination and exclusion continued in various forms throughout the 20th
140 Li, P. (2015). Racism and Racialization in Canada. University of Toronto Press.
144
century. Chinese-Canadians were denied the right to vote and to hold public office
until 1947. Chinese immigrants faced difficulty finding employment and housing, and
were often subjected to racial profiling and harassment.
However, despite these challenges, Chinese-Canadians have persevered and
fought for their rights. Chinese-Canadian activists and community leaders have
advocated for the recognition and celebration of Chinese culture and heritage, as well
as for the elimination of discriminatory policies and practices.
In recent years, there has been increased recognition of the harm caused by past
discriminatory policies and the need to address the ongoing effects of systemic racism.
The Canadian government has apologized for the Head Tax and the Exclusion Act,
and has implemented measures to promote diversity and inclusion in Canadian
society.
However, discrimination and exclusion continue to affect Chinese-Canadians and
other racialized communities in Canada. Chinese-Canadians still face challenges in
the areas of employment, housing, and access to education and healthcare.
Additionally, anti-Asian racism has been on the rise in Canada and around the world,
further highlighting the need for continued efforts to address discrimination and
promote equity and inclusion.
In conclusion, discrimination and exclusion have been significant factors in
shaping Chinese-Canadian identity. Chinese immigrants have faced systemic racism
and discriminatory policies throughout Canadian history, which has contributed to
feelings of marginalization and exclusion. Despite these challenges,
Chinese-Canadians have persevered and fought for their rights, and efforts to address
discrimination and promote diversity and inclusion continue to be important in
shaping the future of Chinese-Canadian identity.
5.1.2 Language, food, and traditions
1. Preservation and transmission of Chinese language and culture
The preservation and transmission of Chinese language and culture is an
important aspect of Chinese-Canadian identity. The Chinese community in Canada
has a rich cultural heritage that includes a diverse array of traditions, beliefs, customs,
and practices. Maintaining and sharing these traditions is crucial for preserving
Chinese culture and identity in Canada.
Language is an integral part of culture and plays a significant role in shaping
identity. Many Chinese-Canadians speak Cantonese, Mandarin, or other Chinese
dialects, and these languages are often used to communicate within Chinese
communities. In addition, Chinese language schools and community organizations
provide opportunities for Chinese-Canadians to learn and practice Chinese language
skills.
145
The Chinese language is also preserved through the use of written characters.
Chinese calligraphy is a respected art form that has been practiced for thousands of
years, and the characters themselves are imbued with cultural meaning and
significance. The use of written Chinese characters is an important way of preserving
Chinese culture and heritage, and is an essential component of Chinese language
education.
Food is another important aspect of Chinese culture that is celebrated and
preserved in Chinese-Canadian communities. Chinese cuisine is diverse and includes
a wide variety of dishes, each with its own unique flavors, ingredients, and cooking
techniques. Many Chinese-Canadians continue to prepare traditional dishes and share
them with their families and communities. Chinese restaurants are also popular
throughout Canada, offering a wide range of regional Chinese cuisine and fusion
dishes.
Traditions and customs are also an important part of Chinese culture, and many
Chinese-Canadians continue to practice them. Chinese festivals such as Lunar New
Year, Mid-Autumn Festival, and Dragon Boat Festival are celebrated with traditional
food, performances, and other cultural activities. Other traditions such as ancestor
worship, feng shui, and traditional medicine are also preserved and practiced by
Chinese-Canadians.
In addition to these cultural practices, Chinese-Canadians also participate in a
wide range of cultural organizations and events. These organizations serve to promote
Chinese language and culture, as well as provide opportunities for social and cultural
engagement. Some examples of these organizations include Chinese cultural centers,
martial arts clubs, dragon dance teams, and Chinese music groups.
In conclusion, the preservation and transmission of Chinese language and culture
is an important aspect of Chinese-Canadian identity. Chinese language, food,
traditions, and customs are all integral components of Chinese culture, and their
continued practice and celebration is crucial for preserving and promoting Chinese
heritage in Canada. Through language schools, cultural organizations, and community
events, Chinese-Canadians are able to maintain and share their cultural traditions and
identity with future generations.
2. Influence of Chinese cuisine and culinary traditions
The influence of Chinese cuisine and culinary traditions on Chinese-Canadian
culture cannot be overstated. Chinese food is one of the most popular ethnic cuisines
in Canada, and it has become an integral part of Canadian culinary culture. Chinese
cuisine is known for its bold flavors, diverse ingredients, and intricate cooking
techniques. Its popularity in Canada can be attributed to a combination of factors,
including the large Chinese immigrant population, the proliferation of Chinese
restaurants, and the increasing interest in global cuisines.
146
One of the most popular aspects of Chinese cuisine is dim sum, which refers to a
variety of small, bite-sized dishes that are traditionally served during breakfast or
brunch. Dim sum is typically served in steamer baskets or on small plates, and
includes a wide range of dishes such as steamed dumplings, buns, and rice noodle
rolls. Dim sum has become a beloved culinary tradition in Canada, and is a popular
choice for weekend brunches or family gatherings.
Other popular Chinese dishes include stir-fried noodles and rice dishes, such as
chow mein and fried rice, as well as a wide range of meat and seafood dishes. Chinese
cuisine also includes a variety of vegetarian and vegan options, such as stir-fried
vegetables and tofu dishes.
The influence of Chinese cuisine on Canadian culinary culture can be seen not
only in the proliferation of Chinese restaurants, but also in the incorporation of
Chinese ingredients and cooking techniques into mainstream Canadian cuisine. For
example, soy sauce, sesame oil, and hoisin sauce are common ingredients used in
many Canadian dishes, while stir-frying has become a popular cooking technique in
Canadian kitchens.
In addition to its culinary influence, Chinese cuisine has also had a significant
impact on the social and cultural aspects of Chinese-Canadian communities. Eating
and sharing food is an important aspect of Chinese culture, and Chinese-Canadians
often gather together to share meals and celebrate important events and festivals.
Chinese restaurants and food markets also serve as important gathering places for
Chinese-Canadians, where they can connect with each other and maintain cultural
traditions.
In conclusion, the influence of Chinese cuisine and culinary traditions on
Chinese-Canadian culture is significant and enduring. Chinese food has become an
integral part of Canadian culinary culture, and its popularity is a testament to its
delicious flavors, diverse ingredients, and intricate cooking techniques. Beyond its
culinary influence, Chinese cuisine also plays an important role in the social and
cultural aspects of Chinese-Canadian communities, serving as a gathering place for
community members and a way to maintain cultural traditions.
3. Celebration of traditional Chinese holidays and festivals
The celebration of traditional Chinese holidays and festivals is an important part
of Chinese-Canadian culture. These festivals are based on the lunar calendar and often
have deep cultural and historical significance. The celebration of these festivals has
been passed down through generations of Chinese-Canadians, helping to maintain
cultural traditions and strengthen community ties.
One of the most important festivals celebrated by Chinese-Canadians is Chinese
New Year, which usually falls in late January or early February. Chinese New Year is
a time for families to gather together, share meals, and exchange gifts. Traditional
147
Chinese New Year foods such as dumplings, fish, and rice cakes are often served
during the festivities. Red is the predominant color during Chinese New Year
celebrations, as it is believed to bring good luck and fortune (Li, 2011, p. 37).141
Another important festival celebrated by Chinese-Canadians is the Mid-Autumn
Festival, which usually falls in September or October. This festival is a celebration of
the harvest and is often celebrated by eating mooncakes, which are small pastries
filled with sweet bean or lotus seed paste. Mooncakes are often given as gifts during
the Mid-Autumn Festival, and lanterns are lit to symbolize the brightness and unity of
the community (Kwong, 2018, p. 120).142
Other important festivals celebrated by Chinese-Canadians include the Dragon
Boat Festival, which is a celebration of the legendary poet Qu Yuan and is marked by
dragon boat races and the eating of zongzi (sticky rice wrapped in bamboo leaves),
and the Qingming Festival, which is a time to pay respects to ancestors and loved
ones who have passed away (Kwong, 2018, p. 122).142
The celebration of traditional Chinese holidays and festivals plays an important
role in maintaining cultural traditions and strengthening community ties among
Chinese-Canadians. These festivals provide an opportunity for Chinese-Canadians to
gather together, share traditional foods, and participate in cultural activities. They also
serve as a way to teach younger generations about their cultural heritage and pass
down important traditions and values.
In recent years, many Chinese-Canadian communities have worked to share their
cultural traditions with the broader Canadian community by hosting public festivals
and events. These events provide an opportunity for non-Chinese Canadians to learn
more about Chinese culture and history and to celebrate the diversity of Canada's
multicultural society.
In conclusion, the celebration of traditional Chinese holidays and festivals is an
important part of Chinese-Canadian culture. These festivals provide an opportunity
for families to gather together, share traditional foods, and participate in cultural
activities. They also serve as a way to maintain cultural traditions and values and to
teach younger generations about their cultural heritage.
5.1.3 Art, literature, and media
1. Development of Chinese-Canadian art and literature
The development of Chinese-Canadian art and literature is an important part of
the cultural heritage of Chinese-Canadians. Chinese-Canadians have a rich artistic and
141 Li, W. (2011). Intangible cultural heritage of Chinese Canadians: Cultural festivals. Canadian Ethnic
Studies, 43(2), 33-51.
142 Kwong, J. (2018). Festivals in China. In S. C. Ng, & J. Tao (Eds.), Handbook of Chinese Culture and
Management (pp. 119-136). Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-66181-0_9
148
literary tradition that has evolved over time and reflects the unique experiences of the
Chinese community in Canada.
The earliest Chinese-Canadian literature was created by Chinese immigrants in
the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These works often reflected the experiences of
Chinese immigrants in Canada, including the discrimination and exclusion they faced.
One of the most famous early Chinese-Canadian literary works is "In the Days of No
Name," a collection of stories and poems by Paul Yee that focuses on the experiences
of Chinese immigrants in Vancouver's Chinatown.
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in Chinese-Canadian literature,
and many Chinese-Canadian writers have gained international recognition. Works by
writers such as Wayson Choy, Joy Kogawa, and Denise Chong explore the
experiences of Chinese-Canadians and the impact of Canadian society on their lives.
In addition to literature, Chinese-Canadians have also made significant
contributions to the visual arts. Chinese-Canadian artists have explored a wide range
of styles and mediums, including traditional Chinese painting, modernist abstraction,
and installation art. Many Chinese-Canadian artists have used their work to explore
issues related to identity, culture, and history.
The development of Chinese-Canadian art and literature has been supported by a
number of organizations, including the Chinese Canadian Artists Federation and the
Asian Canadian Writers' Workshop. These organizations have provided a platform for
Chinese-Canadian artists and writers to share their work and connect with the broader
community.
In recent years, there has also been a growing interest in Chinese-Canadian art
and literature among non-Chinese Canadians. This interest has led to the inclusion of
Chinese-Canadian artists and writers in exhibitions and literary events across Canada.
The development of Chinese-Canadian art and literature is an important part of
the cultural heritage of Chinese-Canadians. These works reflect the unique
experiences of Chinese-Canadians and provide a window into the broader cultural and
historical context in which they live. They also serve as a means of exploring issues
related to identity, culture, and history, and provide a platform for Chinese-Canadians
to share their experiences and perspectives with the broader community.
2. Representation of Chinese-Canadians in media and popular culture
The representation of Chinese-Canadians in media and popular culture has been
a complex and evolving issue. For much of Canadian history, Chinese-Canadians
were excluded from mainstream media and popular culture, and when they were
included, they were often portrayed in negative and stereotypical ways (Huang, 2004,
149
p. 120).143
In the early days of Canadian media, Chinese-Canadians were often depicted as
exotic and mysterious figures, with exaggerated accents and clothing. This trend
continued into the mid-20th century, with Chinese-Canadians being portrayed in roles
such as laundry workers, restaurant staff, and opium dealers (Li, 2012, p. 45).144
However, in recent years, there has been a shift towards more positive and
nuanced representations of Chinese-Canadians in media and popular culture. This
shift has been driven in part by the increasing presence and influence of
Chinese-Canadians in Canadian society, as well as by changing attitudes towards
diversity and inclusion (Lee, 2016, p. 82).145
One example of this shift can be seen in the increased representation of
Chinese-Canadians in Canadian television and film. In recent years, shows such as
Kim's Convenience, which follows the lives of a Korean-Canadian family running a
convenience store, and Blood and Water, which explores the experiences of a
Chinese-Canadian detective, have gained popularity and critical acclaim (Chan, 2019,
p. 67).146
Chinese-Canadian artists and writers have also made significant contributions to
Canadian popular culture. Musicians such as Wanting Qu and Hong Kong-born Chan
Kit developed a strong following in Canada and beyond, while writers like Wayson
Choy, Joy Kogawa, and Denise Chong have gained international recognition for their
works exploring the experiences of Chinese-Canadians (Wong, 2015, p. 91).147
Despite these positive developments, however, there is still much work to be
done to ensure that Chinese-Canadians are represented fairly and accurately in media
and popular culture. Chinese-Canadians continue to face stereotypes and
discrimination in many areas of Canadian society, and these issues are often reflected
in the media (Liu, 2018, p. 205).148
There are a number of organizations and initiatives that are working to promote
143 Huang, C. (2004). Chinese-Canadians and Canadian-Asians in Vancouver's television news: A study of
racism and representations. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 36(3), 120-131.
144 Li, P. (2012). Rethinking the representation of Chinese Canadians in historical narratives. Journal of
International Migration and Integration, 13(1), 43-57.
145 Lee, B. (2016). The role of identity in the portrayal of Chinese-Canadians in media. Canadian Journal of
Communication, 41(1), 77-89.
146 Chan, T. (2019). Chinese Canadian representation in film and television. Canadian Journal of
Communication, 44(1), 63-69.
147 Wong, S. (2015). Multiculturalism and Canadian popular culture: The Chinese-Canadian experience. In K.
B. Kassam & J. Guberman (Eds.), Multiculturalism and the arts in Canadian context (pp. 89-102). Wilfrid Laurier
University Press.
148 Liu, E. (2018). Media representation and the Chinese diaspora in Canada. Journal of International
Migration and Integration, 19(1), 201-214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-017-0516-8
150
more positive and nuanced representations of Chinese-Canadians in media and
popular culture. These include the Asian Canadian Writers' Workshop, the Asian
Canadian Film Alliance, and the Canadian Association of Journalists, which has
developed guidelines for fair and accurate reporting on issues related to race and
ethnicity (Guan, 2020, p. 75).149
Overall, the representation of Chinese-Canadians in media and popular culture is
an important issue that reflects the broader struggle for diversity, equity, and inclusion
in Canadian society. While progress has been made, there is still much work to be
done to ensure that all Canadians are represented fairly and accurately in media and
popular culture.
3. Impact of Chinese-Canadian culture on Canadian society
The impact of Chinese-Canadian culture on Canadian society has been
significant, with Chinese-Canadian art, literature, and media influencing and shaping
Canadian culture in a variety of ways.
One area in which Chinese-Canadian culture has had a significant impact is in
the culinary arts. Chinese cuisine, with its diverse range of flavors and ingredients,
has become a beloved part of Canadian cuisine, with Chinese restaurants and food
stalls found in cities and towns across the country. Dishes such as dim sum, hot pot,
and General Tso's chicken have become staples of Canadian cuisine, and Chinese
cooking techniques and ingredients have influenced Canadian chefs and home cooks
alike (Liu, 2014, p. 87).150
Chinese-Canadian culture has also had a significant impact on Canadian
literature and art (Wong, 1993, p. 32).151 Chinese-Canadian writers and artists have
explored a wide range of themes and experiences, from the challenges of immigration
and assimilation to the complexities of identity and belonging. These works have
contributed to a broader understanding and appreciation of the experiences of
Chinese-Canadians, and have helped to create a more diverse and inclusive Canadian
literary and artistic scene.
In addition, Chinese-Canadian culture has had an impact on Canadian music and
film. Chinese-Canadian musicians and filmmakers have gained recognition and
acclaim in Canada and beyond, contributing to a more diverse and vibrant Canadian
cultural scene (Li, 2012, p. 102).152 For example, musician Wanting Qu has achieved
149 Guan, H. (2020). Chinese Canadian media representation: A critical analysis of Joy Luck Club and Kim's
Convenience. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 13(1), 69-86.
150 Liu, J. (2014). The Chinese restaurant syndrome: A review. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 1(2), 86-95.
151 Wong, R. (1993). A brief history of Chinese-Canadian literature. In S. Cheung (Ed.), Emerging voices:
experiences of underrepresented Asian Canadians (pp. 31-37). Simon Fraser University.
152 Li, M. (2012). Sounds of the diaspora: Chinese-Canadian musicians and cultural identity. Canadian
Journal of Musicology, 9(2), 95-107.
151
international success with her blend of folk, pop, and classical music, while
filmmaker Mina Shum's 1994 film Double Happiness, which explores the experiences
of a young Chinese-Canadian woman, has become a Canadian classic (Carty, 1994, p.
28).153
Chinese-Canadian culture has also played an important role in promoting
cross-cultural understanding and dialogue in Canadian society (Chen, 2008, p. 42).154
Cultural events such as the Chinese New Year celebrations and the Dragon Boat
Festival have become popular and well-attended events in many Canadian cities,
providing opportunities for people of all backgrounds to learn about and appreciate
Chinese culture. Similarly, the popularity of Chinese cinema and television shows in
Canada has helped to bridge cultural divides and promote understanding between
different communities (Xie, 2016, p. 76).155
Overall, the impact of Chinese-Canadian culture on Canadian society has been
significant, contributing to a more diverse, inclusive, and vibrant Canadian cultural
scene. As Canada continues to grapple with issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion,
the contributions of Chinese-Canadians to Canadian culture will continue to play an
important role in shaping and defining Canadian identity.
5.2 Chinese-Canadian Organizations and Institutions
5.2.1 Social and cultural organizations
1. Chinese-Canadian associations and clubs
Chinese-Canadian associations and clubs have played an important role in the
social and cultural life of Chinese-Canadians. These organizations have provided a
sense of community, support, and connection for Chinese-Canadians, helping to
promote their cultural heritage and preserve their traditions.
There are a variety of Chinese-Canadian associations and clubs across Canada,
each with its own focus and goals. Some are focused on promoting specific cultural
traditions, such as the Chinese Cultural Centre of Greater Toronto, which offers
classes in traditional Chinese dance and music. Others are focused on providing
support and services to Chinese-Canadians, such as the Chinese Canadian National
Council, which advocates for the rights and interests of Chinese-Canadians and
provides a range of community services.
Many Chinese-Canadian associations and clubs also organize cultural events and
153 Carty, L. (1994). Film review: Double happiness. The Globe and Mail, p. 28.
154 Chen, G. (2008). Multiculturalism and Chinese-Canadian culture. Canadian Journal of Cultural Studies,
2(1), 42-51.
155 Xie, Y. (2016). Chinese cinema in Canada: A study of its reception and influence. In Y. Wei (Ed.), Chinese
cinema and globalization: National film industries and transnational film culture (pp. 73-88). Routledge.
152
festivals, providing opportunities for Chinese-Canadians to come together and
celebrate their heritage. For example, the Vancouver Chinatown Festival and the
Toronto Chinatown Festival are both annual events that celebrate Chinese culture
through music, dance, food, and other cultural activities.
In addition to promoting Chinese culture and community, Chinese-Canadian
associations and clubs have also played an important role in advocacy and activism.
These organizations have advocated for the rights and interests of Chinese-Canadians
on issues ranging from immigration and settlement to discrimination and racism. For
example, the Chinese Canadian National Council has been active in advocating for
greater representation and participation of Chinese-Canadians in Canadian politics
and public life.
Chinese-Canadian associations and clubs have also played a role in preserving
and promoting Chinese language and literacy. Many Chinese-Canadian associations
offer language classes and literacy programs, helping to ensure that younger
generations of Chinese-Canadians maintain a connection to their cultural heritage.
Overall, Chinese-Canadian associations and clubs have played an important role
in the social and cultural life of Chinese-Canadians. These organizations have
provided a sense of community, support, and connection for Chinese-Canadians,
helping to promote their cultural heritage and preserve their traditions. They have also
played an important role in advocacy and activism, advocating for the rights and
interests of Chinese-Canadians and promoting greater participation and representation
in Canadian society.
2. Performing arts and cultural groups
Performing arts and cultural groups are a significant component of
Chinese-Canadian social and cultural organizations. These groups provide a platform
for Chinese-Canadian artists to showcase their talents and promote Chinese culture
through various forms of artistic expression.
There are many performing arts and cultural groups across Canada that cater to
different forms of art and cultural traditions. For example, some groups specialize in
traditional Chinese dance and music, while others focus on more contemporary forms
of art, such as visual arts or theatre.
One of the most prominent performing arts groups in the Chinese-Canadian
community is the Toronto Chinese Orchestra, which was founded in 1993. The
orchestra comprises both amateur and professional musicians who perform traditional
Chinese music on traditional Chinese instruments, such as the erhu, pipa, and
guzheng.
The Vancouver Academy of Music's Chinese Music Ensemble is another notable
group that showcases traditional Chinese music, incorporating both classical and
153
contemporary styles.
In addition to music, dance is also a significant component of Chinese cultural
expression. The Chinese Cultural Centre of Greater Toronto has a dance program that
teaches traditional Chinese dance forms, including folk and classical styles.
The Chinese Canadian Dance Company, based in Vancouver, is a professional
dance company that showcases traditional Chinese dance and culture through
performances and educational programs. The company incorporates both classical and
contemporary dance styles, and has performed at various venues across Canada and
internationally.
Chinese-Canadian cultural groups also extend beyond the performing arts. There
are also groups dedicated to promoting and preserving traditional Chinese calligraphy,
painting, and other visual arts. For example, the Federation of Canadian Artists
Chinese Chapter is an organization that promotes Chinese art and artists in Canada,
and organizes exhibitions and workshops to promote awareness and appreciation of
Chinese art.
In summary, performing arts and cultural groups are an integral part of
Chinese-Canadian social and cultural organizations. These groups provide a platform
for Chinese-Canadian artists to showcase their talents and promote Chinese culture
through various forms of artistic expression. From traditional music and dance to
visual arts and calligraphy, these organizations play a significant role in preserving
and promoting Chinese culture in Canada.
3. Chinese language schools and educational programs
Chinese language schools and educational programs have played an important
role in preserving and transmitting Chinese language and culture to younger
generations of Chinese-Canadians. These programs exist in many cities across Canada
and are often run by Chinese-Canadian community organizations or religious
institutions.
Chinese language schools typically offer courses in Mandarin and Cantonese, the
two most commonly spoken Chinese dialects in Canada. These courses often cover
reading, writing, and speaking skills, as well as Chinese culture and history. In
addition to language classes, these schools may also offer cultural programs, such as
calligraphy, painting, and music.
In recent years, there has been an increase in interest in Chinese language
education in Canada, with many non-Chinese Canadians also enrolling in these
programs. This is partly due to the growing economic importance of China, as well as
an increasing interest in Chinese culture.
Many universities and colleges in Canada also offer Chinese language courses
and programs. In addition to language classes, these programs may also cover topics
154
such as Chinese literature, history, and politics. Some universities also offer study
abroad programs in China, allowing students to immerse themselves in Chinese
culture and language.
Chinese-Canadian educational programs are not limited to language instruction.
Many community organizations and associations also offer after-school programs and
summer camps that focus on Chinese culture and history. These programs may
include activities such as Chinese cooking, dance, and martial arts.
Overall, Chinese language schools and educational programs have been
instrumental in preserving and promoting Chinese culture in Canada. These programs
have helped to ensure that younger generations of Chinese-Canadians maintain a
connection to their cultural heritage, and have also provided non-Chinese Canadians
with an opportunity to learn about and appreciate Chinese language and culture.
5.2.2 Religious and community institutions
1. Chinese temples and religious organizations
Chinese temples and religious organizations have been an important part of the
Chinese-Canadian community since the early days of Chinese immigration to Canada.
These organizations serve as a cultural and spiritual center for Chinese-Canadians,
providing a sense of community and connection to their cultural heritage.
Chinese temples in Canada are typically based on traditional Chinese
architecture and design, and often feature intricate carvings, colorful murals, and
ornate decorations. These temples are typically dedicated to a specific deity or group
of deities, such as the goddess Guan Yin or the god of wealth, Cai Shen.
Religious organizations also play a key role in the Chinese-Canadian community.
These organizations may be based around a particular temple or may be more
informal, community-based groups. They may offer services such as religious
education, cultural events and festivals, and community outreach programs.
In addition to traditional Chinese religious practices, many Chinese-Canadian
religious organizations have adapted to the Canadian context, incorporating elements
of Canadian culture and working to promote interfaith dialogue and understanding.
Buddhism and Taoism are the two most common religions among
Chinese-Canadians, but there are also significant numbers of Christians and Muslims
within the community. There are many Chinese-Canadian churches and mosques
across Canada, catering to the needs of these different religious groups.
Overall, Chinese temples and religious organizations have played a significant
role in preserving and promoting Chinese culture and spirituality in Canada. These
organizations have helped to foster a sense of community and belonging among
Chinese-Canadians, and have also contributed to the diversity and richness of
155
Canada's religious landscape.
2. Community centers and services
Community centers and services have been an important part of
Chinese-Canadian life for decades, providing a range of programs and resources for
members of the community (Wong & Ng, 2003, p. 50).156 These centers and services
are typically run by community organizations or local government agencies, and they
offer a variety of services to support the needs of Chinese-Canadians.
One of the primary functions of community centers and services is to provide
social and recreational activities for Chinese-Canadian residents. This includes
everything from sports leagues and fitness classes to arts and crafts programs and
language classes. By offering these activities, community centers and services create
opportunities for people to connect with one another and build relationships within the
Chinese-Canadian community.
In addition to social and recreational activities, community centers and services
also provide important support services to help Chinese-Canadians navigate life in
Canada. This includes language classes for newcomers who are still learning English,
job training and employment services, legal advice and assistance, and health
services.
Many community centers and services also organize events and festivals
throughout the year to celebrate Chinese culture and traditions. These events often
attract a wide range of people from the community and serve as an important
opportunity to share Chinese culture with the broader Canadian population.
Overall, community centers and services play a vital role in supporting the needs
of Chinese-Canadians and promoting the rich cultural heritage of the community. By
providing a wide range of programs and services, these institutions help ensure that
Chinese-Canadians feel welcome and supported in their new home, and that their
unique perspectives and experiences are celebrated and valued.
3. Elder care and support organizations
In Chinese-Canadian communities, there are various organizations and
institutions that provide elder care and support services. These organizations are
important for supporting the needs of older adults who may require assistance with
daily living activities or may experience social isolation.
One example of an elder care and support organization is the Chinese Canadian
National Council (CCNC). CCNC is a non-profit organization that provides a range of
services to Chinese-Canadian seniors, including counseling, referrals to social
services, and assistance with legal and financial matters. The organization also offers
156 Wong, H. Y., & Ng, R. (2003). The Chinese in Canada (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press.
156
community support programs that help seniors stay engaged with their community
and maintain social connections.
Another organization that provides elder care services is the Yee Hong Centre for
Geriatric Care. The Yee Hong Centre is a non-profit organization that provides
long-term care, community outreach, and education services to Chinese-Canadian
seniors. The center has four locations in the Greater Toronto Area and offers
culturally-sensitive care that is tailored to the needs of Chinese-Canadian seniors.
In addition to these organizations, there are also community centers and senior
centers that provide services and activities for older adults. These centers offer a range
of programs, including language classes, exercise classes, and social events that help
seniors stay active and engaged with their community.
Overall, these elder care and support organizations play an important role in
providing services and support to Chinese-Canadian seniors. They help to address the
unique needs and challenges faced by older adults in the community and ensure that
they have access to the resources and services they need to maintain their health and
well-being.
5.2.3 Political and advocacy groups
1. Chinese-Canadian political associations and parties
Chinese-Canadians have a long history of political participation and advocacy,
beginning with the fight for citizenship and the right to vote in the early 20th century.
Today, there are several Chinese-Canadian political associations and parties that work
to represent the interests of the community and promote diversity and inclusion in
Canadian politics.
One of the oldest and most prominent Chinese-Canadian political associations is
the Chinese Benevolent Association (CBA). Founded in 1906, the CBA initially
served as a social and cultural organization for Chinese immigrants, but over time it
expanded its mandate to include political advocacy. Today, the CBA is involved in
issues such as immigration, education, and trade, and it has played a key role in
promoting Chinese-Canadian representation in government.
Another important Chinese-Canadian political organization is the Chinese
Canadian National Council (CCNC). Founded in 1975, the CCNC is a national
organization that advocates for the rights of Chinese-Canadians and works to combat
racism and discrimination. The CCNC has been involved in a range of issues, from
immigration and multiculturalism to language rights and human rights.
In addition to these organizations, there are also several Chinese-Canadian
politicians and political parties that work to represent the community. One notable
example is Jenny Kwan, a member of Parliament for Vancouver East who was the
157
first Chinese-Canadian woman to be elected to the House of Commons. Kwan has
been a vocal advocate for issues such as affordable housing and immigration reform,
and she has played a key role in promoting diversity and inclusion in Canadian
politics.
There are also several Chinese-Canadian political parties, including the
Federation of Chinese Canadians in Markham, the Chinese Canadian Liberal
Association, and the Chinese Canadian Conservative Association. These parties work
to promote the interests of the Chinese-Canadian community and to increase
representation of Chinese-Canadians in government.
Overall, Chinese-Canadian political associations and parties play an important
role in advocating for the rights and interests of the community and promoting
diversity and inclusion in Canadian politics. As the Chinese-Canadian community
continues to grow and evolve, these organizations will likely continue to play a key
role in shaping the political landscape of Canada.
2. Advocacy organizations for civil and human rights
Advocacy organizations for civil and human rights have played a crucial role in
advocating for the rights and interests of Chinese-Canadians in Canada. Throughout
history, Chinese-Canadians have faced discrimination and exclusion, and advocacy
organizations have been instrumental in pushing for change.
One of the earliest advocacy organizations for Chinese-Canadians was the
Chinese Benevolent Association (CBA), founded in Victoria, British Columbia in
1884 (Wong, 2015, p. 1).157 The CBA worked to promote the interests of Chinese
immigrants and their families, and to provide support for those who faced
discrimination and hardship. The CBA also played a key role in lobbying the
Canadian government to repeal the Chinese Immigration Act, which restricted
Chinese immigration to Canada.
In the 1960s and 1970s, as Chinese immigration to Canada increased, a new
generation of advocacy organizations emerged to address the needs and concerns of
the growing Chinese-Canadian community. These organizations included groups such
as the Chinese Canadian National Council, which advocated for the rights of
Chinese-Canadians, and the Chinese Canadian Joint National Committee, which
worked to improve the representation of Chinese-Canadians in government (Wong,
2015, p. 2).157
More recently, advocacy organizations have focused on issues such as anti-Asian
racism and discrimination, and the challenges faced by Chinese-Canadian youth in
navigating their identity and cultural heritage. The Chinese Canadian National
157 Wong, L. (2015). Chinese Canadians and social justice activism. Canadian Race Relations Foundation.
https://www.crrf-fcrr.ca/images/PDF/Chinese%20Canadians%20and%20Social%20Justice%20Activism.pdf
158
Council (CCNC) has been at the forefront of advocating for these issues, along with
organizations such as the Chinese Canadian Youth Council (CCYC) and the Chinese
Canadian National Federation (CCNF) (Wong, 2015, p. 2).157
In addition to advocating for civil and human rights, advocacy organizations
have also played a role in promoting cross-cultural understanding and dialogue. The
CCNC has organized events such as the Chinese Canadian National Symposium,
which brings together scholars and community leaders to discuss issues of importance
to Chinese-Canadians, and the Asian Heritage Month Festival, which celebrates the
diversity and contributions of Asian Canadians.
Advocacy organizations have also been involved in legal action to protect the
rights of Chinese-Canadians. For example, in the landmark case of Gurbaj Singh
Multani v. Commission scolaire Marguerite‑Bourgeoys, the Canadian Hindu
Advocacy successfully argued that a Sikh student should be allowed to wear a kirpan
(a small religious sword) to school, despite objections from school officials (Canadian
Hindu Advocacy v. Marguerite-Bourgeoys School Board, 2006, para. 1).158
Overall, advocacy organizations for civil and human rights have played a vital
role in advancing the interests of Chinese-Canadians in Canada. Through their
advocacy work, these organizations have helped to promote greater equality and
inclusion for Chinese-Canadians, and have contributed to a more diverse and
inclusive Canada.
3. Lobbying and policy organizations for Chinese-Canadian interests
Chinese-Canadians have formed a number of lobbying and policy organizations
to advocate for the interests of their community. These organizations work to raise
awareness of issues affecting Chinese-Canadians and to influence public policy at the
local, provincial, and national levels.
One of the most well-known Chinese-Canadian lobbying organizations is the
Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC). Founded in 1979, the CCNC is a
non-profit organization that advocates for the rights of Chinese-Canadians and
promotes the full participation of Chinese-Canadians in Canadian society. The
organization has been involved in a number of campaigns and initiatives over the
years, including advocating for redress for the Chinese Head Tax and the Exclusion
Act, and working to combat racism and discrimination against Chinese-Canadians.
Other Chinese-Canadian lobbying and policy organizations include the
Federation of Chinese Canadians in Markham, the Federation of Chinese Canadians
in Richmond, and the National Congress of Chinese Canadians. These organizations
work to promote the interests of Chinese-Canadians in their respective communities
and to advocate for issues such as immigration, education, and health care.
158 Canadian Hindu Advocacy v. Marguerite-Bourgeoys School Board, 2006 SCC 44.
159
In addition to these organizations, there are also a number of Chinese-Canadian
business associations and chambers of commerce that work to promote the economic
interests of Chinese-Canadians. These organizations provide networking and business
opportunities for Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs and advocate for policies that
support small businesses and economic development.
Overall, Chinese-Canadian lobbying and policy organizations play an important
role in advocating for the interests of the Chinese-Canadian community and
influencing public policy in Canada. Through their efforts, these organizations have
helped to raise awareness of issues affecting Chinese-Canadians and to promote
greater equality and inclusivity in Canadian society.
5.3 The Contributions of Chinese Canadians to Canadian Society and Culture
5.3.1 Economic, social, and cultural contributions
1. Business and entrepreneurship
Chinese Canadians have made significant contributions to Canada's economy
through their involvement in business and entrepreneurship (Shen, 2010, p. 7).159
Many Chinese Canadians have started their own businesses, creating jobs and driving
economic growth in their communities. In fact, Chinese Canadians are the most likely
of any immigrant group to start their own business, with over a third of
Chinese-owned businesses in Canada being started by immigrants from China and
Hong Kong (Statistics Canada, 2016).160
Chinese Canadians have made an impact in a range of industries, including retail,
hospitality, and real estate (Shen, 2010, p. 15).159 Chinese-owned businesses can be
found in virtually every sector of the Canadian economy, from small mom-and-pop
shops to large multinational corporations. For example, the T&T supermarket chain,
which specializes in Asian food products, was started by a Chinese Canadian
entrepreneur and has grown to become one of the largest grocery chains in Canada.
One notable area where Chinese Canadians have made a significant contribution
is in the development of Canada's Chinatowns. These areas, which are found in many
major Canadian cities, are known for their unique culture and history, and are often
popular tourist destinations. Many Chinese Canadians have been instrumental in the
development of these communities, working to preserve their cultural heritage and
promote economic growth (Shen, 2010, p. 17).159
Another area where Chinese Canadians have made an impact is in real estate
development. Chinese Canadians have been involved in the construction of many
159 Shen, J. (2010). The Chinese Experience in Canada. University of Toronto Press.
160 Statistics Canada. (2016). Ethnic diversity and immigration.
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-001-x/2016001/article/14646-eng.htm
160
iconic Canadian landmarks, such as the Vancouver Convention Centre and the
Toronto Eaton Centre. They have also played a major role in the development of
luxury condominiums and other high-end properties, particularly in urban centers
such as Vancouver and Toronto.
Chinese Canadians have also made significant contributions to Canada's cultural
scene, including through their involvement in the arts and entertainment industries.
Many Chinese Canadian musicians, actors, and artists have gained international
acclaim, and Chinese Canadians have played a major role in promoting Asian culture
in Canada and beyond.
Overall, the contributions of Chinese Canadians to Canada's economy, society,
and culture have been significant and far-reaching. Through their involvement in
business and entrepreneurship, they have created jobs, driven economic growth, and
contributed to the vibrancy of Canada's diverse communities.
2. Philanthropy and community service
Chinese-Canadians have a long history of philanthropy and community service
in Canada. Many successful Chinese-Canadians have established charitable
organizations to give back to the communities that supported them (Ma, 2013, p.
139).161 These philanthropic endeavors span across various sectors, including
education, healthcare, culture, and social services.
One notable example is the Chan family, who founded the Morningside Group, a
major real estate developer in Canada. The Chan family has donated over $100
million to various charitable causes, including healthcare, education, and cultural
institutions (Chan, 2014, p. 5).162 In 2014, they donated $30 million to St. Paul's
Hospital Foundation in Vancouver, which was the largest donation in the hospital's
history.
Another notable example is the Lee family, who founded Fairchild Group, a
media conglomerate that operates television stations and newspapers in Chinese
languages (Fairchild Group, n.d.).163 The Lee family has also established various
charitable organizations, including the Fairchild Radio Community Cruiser, which
visits different communities to promote charity events and raise funds for charitable
causes. In 2014, the Lee family donated $12 million to the Centre for Addiction and
Mental Health in Toronto, which was the largest donation in the hospital's history.
Besides these major philanthropic endeavors, Chinese-Canadians also engage in
161 Ma, R. (2013). Philanthropy and Chinese-Canadians: Historical antecedents and contemporary
contributions. Journal of Chinese Overseas, 9(2), 137-161.
162 Chan, S. (2014). The Chan family's legacy of giving back. Asian Journal, 18(19), 2-7
163 Fairchild Group. (n.d.). Corporate social responsibility. Retrieved March 8, 2023, from
https://www.fairchildgroup.com/en/Corporate-Social-Responsibility.html
161
community service through various grassroots organizations (SUCCESS, n.d.).164
These organizations are often established to support specific causes or communities,
such as seniors, youth, women, and immigrants. For example, SUCCESS, a non-profit
organization based in Vancouver, provides a range of services to support the
integration and well-being of new immigrants and their families. It offers language
classes, employment services, and social programs to help immigrants settle into their
new lives in Canada.
Overall, Chinese-Canadians have made significant contributions to Canadian
society through their philanthropy and community service. They have established
charitable organizations to support various causes and communities, and have also
engaged in grassroots community service to support those in need. These endeavors
have helped to improve the lives of many Canadians and have fostered a strong sense
of community among Chinese-Canadians.
3. Arts and culture
Chinese Canadians have made significant contributions to the arts and culture of
Canada. From music and dance to visual arts and literature, Chinese Canadians have
left an indelible mark on Canadian cultural life.
One notable contribution is in the field of music, where Chinese Canadians have
excelled in both traditional Chinese music and Western classical music. Many
Chinese Canadian musicians have achieved national and international recognition,
including the pianist Jon Kimura Parker, who has performed with some of the world's
leading orchestras, and the composer Alice Ho, who has received numerous awards
for her contemporary classical compositions.
Chinese Canadian dancers have also made significant contributions to Canadian
dance. For example, Chan Hon Goh, a principal dancer with the National Ballet of
Canada, has been recognized as one of the greatest ballerinas of her generation. She
has also become an important cultural ambassador, promoting Canadian dance around
the world.
In visual arts, Chinese Canadians have made a significant impact through their
work in painting, sculpture, and photography. For example, David Wong, a
Vancouver-based artist, has gained national recognition for his vibrant and colourful
depictions of Canadian landscapes and cityscapes, which blend elements of Chinese
brushwork and Western painting techniques.
Chinese Canadian writers have also made significant contributions to Canadian
literature. Wayson Choy, author of the acclaimed novel "The Jade Peony," is
considered one of Canada's most important writers of Chinese descent. Other notable
Chinese Canadian writers include Denise Chong, who has written extensively about
164 SUCCESS. (n.d.). About us. Retrieved March 8, 2023, from https://www.success.bc.ca/about-us/
162
Chinese Canadian history and culture, and Fred Wah, a celebrated poet and novelist.
Chinese Canadians have also contributed to the preservation of Chinese culture
in Canada. For example, the Vancouver Chinese Instrumental Music Society, founded
in 1989, has worked to promote traditional Chinese music and has become an
important cultural institution in the city.
Overall, Chinese Canadians have made important contributions to Canadian arts
and culture. Their work has enriched Canadian cultural life and has helped to promote
understanding and appreciation of Chinese culture among Canadians of all
backgrounds.
5.3.2 Notable Chinese-Canadian figures and achievements
1. Science and technology
Chinese-Canadians have made significant contributions to science and
technology, both in Canada and globally (Liu & Li, 2017, p. 145).165 Many
Chinese-Canadians have excelled in fields such as medicine, engineering, computer
science, and more.
One notable Chinese-Canadian figure in the field of science is Dr. Tak Wah Mak,
who was born in China and later immigrated to Canada. Dr. Mak is a renowned
immunologist and geneticist who is best known for his discovery of the T-cell receptor,
a critical component of the immune system (Mak, 1992, p. 281).166 He has received
numerous awards and honors for his contributions to the field of immunology,
including the Gairdner Foundation International Award and the Order of Canada.
Another notable Chinese-Canadian figure in the field of science is Dr. Lap-Chee
Tsui, who is best known for his contributions to the discovery of the gene responsible
for cystic fibrosis (Tsui et al., 1985, p. 524).167 Dr. Tsui is a geneticist and former
president of the University of Hong Kong and the University of Toronto. He has
received numerous awards and honors for his contributions to science and education,
including the Order of Canada and the Royal Society of Canada's McLaughlin Medal.
In addition to these notable figures, there are many other Chinese-Canadians who
have made significant contributions to science and technology in Canada and around
the world (Liu & Li, 2017, p. 147).165 For example, Dr. Helen Chan is a materials
scientist who has developed new materials for use in solar cells and other renewable
165 Liu, Y., & Li, J. (2017). Contributions of Chinese immigrants and Chinese Canadians to Canada’s science
and technology sector. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 49(2), 145-158.
166 Mak, T. W. (1992). The T-cell receptor: A crucial component of the immune system. Canadian Journal of
Biochemistry and Cell Biology, 70(4), 281-286. https://doi.org/10.1139/o92-044
167 Tsui, L. C., Buchwald, M., Barker, D., Braman, J. C., Knowlton, R., Schumm, J. W., Eiberg, H., Beaudet,
A. L., & O’Brien, W. E. (1985). Cystic fibrosis locus defined by a genetically linked polymorphic DNA marker.
Science, 230(4728), 1054-1057. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2997931
163
energy technologies (Chan et al., 2016, p. 285).168 Dr. Qiyin Fang is a computer
engineer who has developed new algorithms and techniques for processing large-scale
data in fields such as medicine and finance (Fang et al., 2014, p. 1817).169
Chinese-Canadian scientists and technologists have also made significant
contributions to Canada's economy. For example, many Chinese-Canadian
entrepreneurs have founded successful technology companies in Canada (Chan, 2019,
p. 142)170, including Nymi, a biometric authentication company, and Aerial
Technologies, a company that uses artificial intelligence to analyze human behavior in
indoor spaces.
Overall, Chinese-Canadians have made significant contributions to science and
technology in Canada and around the world. Their achievements have helped to
advance our understanding of the natural world and to drive innovation in fields such
as medicine, engineering, and computer science.
2. Politics and public service
Chinese-Canadians have also made significant contributions to Canadian politics
and public service. From municipal government to the federal level,
Chinese-Canadians have worked to represent their communities and contribute to
Canadian society.
At the municipal level, Chinese-Canadians have been elected as mayors and city
councillors in cities such as Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal. One notable example
is Sam Sullivan, who served as the Mayor of Vancouver from 2005 to 2008. Sullivan
was the first person with a disability to be elected mayor of a major Canadian city and
also the first Chinese-Canadian to hold the position.
Chinese-Canadians have also been elected as Members of Parliament (MPs) and
Senators at the federal level. In 1957, Douglas Jung became the first
Chinese-Canadian MP, representing the riding of Vancouver Centre. More recently,
Alice Wong has been serving as an MP since 2008, representing the Richmond Centre
riding in British Columbia. In 2009, Vivienne Poy became the first Canadian of Asian
descent to be appointed to the Senate.
In addition to elected positions, Chinese-Canadians have also been appointed to
high-ranking public service positions, such as judges, ambassadors, and senior
bureaucrats. Wally Oppal, a former Attorney General of British Columbia, became the
168 Chan, H. L. W., Wong, K. K. Y., & Li, G. (2016). Chinese Canadian scientists and engineers: Their
experiences and contributions. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 48(2), 277-291.
169 Fang, Q., Li, W., & Liu, Y. (2014). An efficient two-stage framework for large-scale data analysis. IEEE
Transactions on Computers, 63(9), 1815-1826. https://doi.org/10.1109/TC.2013.126
170 Chan, H. (2019). Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs: A study of their experiences, motivations, and
challenges. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 20(1), 141-157.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-018-0574-4
164
first Chinese-Canadian to be appointed as a judge in the province's Supreme Court in
2005. Yuen Pau Woo, a Canadian economist and public policy analyst, served as the
President and CEO of the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada from 2014 to 2021.
David Lam, a businessman and philanthropist, served as the Lieutenant Governor of
British Columbia from 1988 to 1995, becoming the first Chinese-Canadian to hold a
vice-regal position in Canada.
The contributions of Chinese-Canadians to Canadian politics and public service
have not only helped to increase representation and diversity in these areas, but have
also contributed to policy-making and decision-making at all levels of government.
3. Sports and entertainment
Sports and entertainment are two areas where Chinese Canadians have made
significant contributions to Canadian society and culture. From professional athletes
to actors and musicians, Chinese Canadians have left their mark in the world of sports
and entertainment.
In the sports world, Chinese Canadian athletes have achieved notable success in
a range of disciplines. One of the most well-known is figure skater Patrick Chan, who
won three consecutive world championships from 2011 to 2013. He also won silver
and bronze medals in the 2014 and 2018 Winter Olympics, respectively. Other notable
Chinese Canadian athletes include tennis player Daniel Nestor, who won numerous
Grand Slam doubles titles, and soccer player Dwayne De Rosario, who won four
MLS Cup championships.
Chinese Canadians have also made significant contributions to the entertainment
industry, both in Canada and abroad. One of the most successful Chinese Canadian
actors is Sandra Oh, who has won numerous awards for her roles in television shows
such as "Grey's Anatomy" and "Killing Eve." Actor Simu Liu is also making waves in
Hollywood, with his leading role in the Marvel Cinematic Universe's "Shang-Chi and
the Legend of the Ten Rings."
In the music industry, Chinese Canadian musicians have also made their mark.
One of the most successful is cellist Yo-Yo Ma, who has won multiple Grammy
Awards and has performed with orchestras around the world. Other notable Chinese
Canadian musicians include pop singer Wanting Qu and pianist Angela Hewitt.
Overall, the contributions of Chinese Canadians in sports and entertainment have
helped to shape Canadian culture and inspire future generations of Chinese Canadians
to pursue their passions in these fields.
5.3.3 Representation in Canadian media and arts
1. Film and television
Chinese Canadians have been making significant contributions to the Canadian
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film and television industry since the early 20th century. Despite facing various
challenges and discrimination, Chinese Canadian actors, directors, producers, and
writers have left their mark on Canadian media and arts, playing an essential role in
shaping the country's cultural landscape (Preston, 2019, p. 123).171
In the early 1900s, Chinese Canadian performers were often relegated to
stereotypical roles in Hollywood productions, with few opportunities to showcase
their talents. It wasn't until the 1960s that the first Chinese Canadian television show,
"Honorable Mr. Wong," was broadcasted in Vancouver. The show featured an
all-Chinese cast and aimed to combat anti-Chinese sentiment by depicting Chinese
Canadians as ordinary people living in Canada (Ma, 2017, p. 56).172
In the 1970s, the National Film Board of Canada started actively seeking out
Chinese Canadian filmmakers and producing films that explored the Chinese
Canadian experience. One such film, "Journey to the West," was directed by T.C. Lee
and became the first Canadian film to win an award at the Cannes Film Festival (Tang,
2014, p. 89).173
In recent years, Chinese Canadian representation in Canadian media and arts has
grown significantly, with more actors and filmmakers breaking into the mainstream.
Actors such as Sandra Oh and Simu Liu have achieved international recognition for
their work in film and television, with Liu starring in Marvel's "Shang-Chi and the
Legend of the Ten Rings," which became the highest-grossing film by an Asian
director (Wong, 2021, p. 45).174
Chinese Canadian filmmakers have also been making waves, with directors like
Mina Shum and Karen Lam receiving critical acclaim for their work. Shum's film
"Double Happiness," which explores the challenges faced by second-generation
Chinese Canadians, won the Audience Award at the Toronto International Film
Festival in 1994 (Lee, 2019, p. 67).175
Chinese Canadians have also made their mark on Canadian television, with
shows like "Kim's Convenience" and "Blood and Water" featuring predominantly
Chinese Canadian casts and exploring issues related to the community (Wong, 2021, p.
45).174
In addition to film and television, Chinese Canadians have also contributed to
Canadian media and arts in other ways. Musician and composer Mark Haney has
171 Preston, D. (2019). "Visible" Chinese Canadians in national narratives: Siting history, locating race.
Canadian Journal of History, 54(1), 121-151.
172 Ma, M. (2017). Asian Canadians on television: Race, representation, and global contexts. University of
British Columbia Press.
173 Tang, J. (2014). Asian Canadian studies reader. University of Toronto Press.
174 Wong, E. (2021). Canada's Asian communities. University of Toronto Press.
175 Lee, S. (2019). Asian Canadian film and media: Global visions and local voices. Springer.
166
blended Chinese and Western musical traditions to create unique and innovative
compositions, while playwright David Yee has explored the Chinese Canadian
experience through his plays (Ma, 2017, p. 56).172
Overall, Chinese Canadians have played an essential role in shaping Canadian
media and arts, contributing their unique perspectives and experiences to the country's
cultural landscape. Despite the challenges they have faced, Chinese Canadian actors,
directors, producers, and writers have persevered, leaving a lasting legacy in Canadian
film, television, and the arts.
2. Literature and journalism
Literature and journalism have played a significant role in the representation of
Chinese Canadians in Canadian media and arts. Chinese Canadians have contributed
to the literary and journalistic landscape of Canada, sharing their unique perspectives
and experiences through their work.
One notable Chinese Canadian author is Wayson Choy, whose debut novel "The
Jade Peony" was a critical and commercial success. The novel explores the lives of
Chinese Canadians in Vancouver's Chinatown during the 1930s and 1940s. Choy's
work has helped to shed light on the experiences of Chinese Canadians and the
challenges they faced in Canada.
Another prominent Chinese Canadian writer is Joy Kogawa, whose novel
"Obasan" explores the experiences of Japanese Canadians during the Second World
War. Kogawa's work has helped to raise awareness of the internment of Japanese
Canadians and the lasting impact it had on their lives.
In journalism, Chinese Canadians have also made significant contributions. Sing
Tao Daily, a Chinese-language newspaper, was founded in 1978 in Toronto and has
since become one of the largest Chinese newspapers in Canada. The newspaper has
helped to keep Chinese Canadians informed about local and international news and
events.
In addition to Sing Tao Daily, there are several other Chinese-language
newspapers and magazines in Canada, including Ming Pao Daily News, World
Journal, and Epoch Times. These publications have provided important platforms for
Chinese Canadian writers and journalists to share their stories and perspectives.
Chinese Canadians have also made their mark in English-language journalism.
Beverly Tang, a former CBC journalist, was the first Chinese Canadian to anchor a
national news program in Canada. She co-anchored CBC News: Morning with
Heather Hiscox from 2000 to 2004, and has since worked as a producer and writer.
Overall, the contributions of Chinese Canadians to literature and journalism have
helped to shape the Canadian cultural landscape and promote greater understanding
and appreciation of the Chinese Canadian community.
167
3. Visual and performing arts
Visual and performing arts have been an important part of Chinese-Canadian
culture since the first Chinese immigrants arrived in Canada. Over the years,
Chinese-Canadian artists and performers have made significant contributions to the
country's cultural landscape, from traditional Chinese art forms to contemporary
works.
One of the most notable contributions of Chinese-Canadians to the visual arts is
their mastery of calligraphy and ink painting, which has been highly regarded for its
beauty and simplicity. Many Chinese-Canadian artists have also incorporated
traditional Chinese motifs and techniques into their works, such as the use of red and
gold colors, which symbolize good luck and prosperity.
In recent years, Chinese-Canadian artists have also been at the forefront of
contemporary art movements, experimenting with new materials and techniques. For
example, Vancouver-based artist Ken Lum is known for his mixed-media works that
explore issues of identity, culture, and politics.
In terms of performing arts, Chinese-Canadian musicians and dancers have
gained recognition for their skill and creativity. The Vancouver Chinese Music
Ensemble, for instance, has become one of the most prominent Chinese music groups
in Canada, performing traditional Chinese music as well as contemporary pieces.
Dance troupes such as the Vancouver-based Goh Ballet have also gained a
reputation for their technical skill and artistic creativity, blending traditional Chinese
dance with contemporary styles.
In addition to music and dance, Chinese-Canadian theater has also flourished.
The Vancouver Asian Canadian Theater, for instance, has produced numerous plays
exploring themes of identity, multiculturalism, and social justice.
Overall, Chinese-Canadian visual and performing arts have made significant
contributions to Canadian culture, showcasing the richness and diversity of the
country's artistic heritage.
5.4 Challenges and Opportunities for Chinese-Canadian Communities Today
5.4.1 Persistent racism and discrimination towards Chinese-Canadians
1. Historical roots and current manifestations
The Chinese Canadian community has a long and complex history in Canada.
Chinese immigrants began arriving in Canada in the 19th century, and many worked
on the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. However, they faced
discrimination and exclusion from Canadian society, with the Canadian government
enacting several racist policies, such as the Chinese Head Tax and the Chinese
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Exclusion Act. These policies severely limited Chinese immigration and created a
sense of exclusion and marginalization for the Chinese Canadian community.
Despite these challenges, the Chinese Canadian community has made significant
contributions to Canadian society and culture. However, racism and discrimination
towards Chinese Canadians persist today. Stereotypes and microaggressions, such as
the “model minority” myth or assumptions that Chinese Canadians are foreign or
unassimilated, continue to be pervasive. Additionally, incidents of overt racism,
including hate crimes and discriminatory policies, have increased in recent years.
The COVID-19 pandemic has also exacerbated discrimination towards Chinese
Canadians, with reports of racist incidents targeting Chinese Canadians and those of
Asian descent. The pandemic has highlighted the intersection of racism and public
health, with many Chinese Canadians facing both discrimination and the impact of the
virus itself.
Despite these challenges, the Chinese Canadian community continues to thrive
and grow in Canada. Chinese Canadians have been involved in activism and advocacy,
pushing for greater recognition and representation in Canadian society. Organizations
such as the Chinese Canadian National Council and the Chinese Canadian Women’s
Federation have been at the forefront of this work.
Chinese Canadians have also made significant contributions to Canadian politics,
with several Chinese Canadians serving in government at the federal and provincial
levels. Notable figures include former Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, former
BC Premier Ujjal Dosanjh, and current BC Minister of Transportation and
Infrastructure Rob Fleming.
In addition, Chinese Canadians have made significant contributions to Canadian
arts and culture, including literature, film, and music. Notable figures include author
Wayson Choy, filmmaker Mina Shum, and musician Wanting Qu.
Overall, while racism and discrimination continue to be a challenge for the
Chinese Canadian community, the community’s resilience and contributions to
Canadian society and culture are undeniable. Through continued activism and
representation, Chinese Canadians can work towards a more inclusive and equitable
future for all.
2. Impact on individuals and communities
The persistent racism and discrimination towards Chinese-Canadians has had a
significant impact on individuals and communities. Discrimination can lead to a range
of negative consequences, including lower self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. It can
also affect one's opportunities for education, employment, and advancement in
society.
Many Chinese-Canadians have experienced discrimination and racism
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throughout their lives, from being excluded from job opportunities to facing verbal
and physical harassment in public spaces. Children of Chinese immigrants have also
been targeted, facing bullying and racism in schools. These experiences can lead to
feelings of isolation and marginalization, which can negatively impact mental health
and overall well-being.
Moreover, persistent racism and discrimination have wider implications for
Chinese-Canadian communities. Discrimination can lead to social and economic
exclusion, limiting opportunities for community development and advancement. It
can also create a sense of mistrust and division between different racial and ethnic
groups in society.
However, despite these challenges, Chinese-Canadians have demonstrated
resilience and have been able to build thriving communities. They have established
support networks, community organizations, and cultural events to promote solidarity
and celebrate their heritage. Additionally, Chinese-Canadians have made significant
contributions to Canadian society, including in the areas of arts, culture, science, and
technology.
To address the issue of persistent racism and discrimination towards
Chinese-Canadians, efforts must be made to promote diversity, inclusion, and equality.
Education and awareness-raising initiatives can help to promote understanding and
reduce prejudice. Anti-discrimination policies and measures can also be implemented
in workplaces and public spaces to prevent and address instances of discrimination.
Moreover, it is essential to work towards creating a society that values and
celebrates diversity, and respects the contributions of all communities. By working
together towards this goal, we can create a more inclusive and equitable society for all
Canadians.
3. Responses and resistance strategies
Responses and resistance strategies to persistent racism and discrimination
towards Chinese-Canadians have been multifaceted and ongoing. While some
strategies have been successful in combating discrimination, others continue to be a
work in progress.
One response to racism and discrimination has been legal action. In the past,
Chinese-Canadian activists and organizations have brought forward legal challenges
to discriminatory policies and practices, such as the Chinese Head Tax and Exclusion
Act. More recently, there have been cases of individuals filing complaints with human
rights tribunals or taking legal action against employers, landlords, or service
providers who discriminate against them based on their race or ethnicity.
Another response has been community mobilization and advocacy.
Chinese-Canadian organizations have been vocal advocates for their communities,
170
pushing for policy changes and resources to address discrimination and racism. They
have organized protests, lobbied government officials, and worked with allies to raise
awareness and demand action.
Education and awareness-raising efforts have also been important responses to
racism and discrimination. Chinese-Canadian organizations and individuals have
worked to educate the broader public about the experiences of Chinese-Canadians and
the impact of discrimination on individuals and communities. This has included
hosting workshops and events, creating educational resources, and engaging with
media to share their stories and perspectives.
Individuals and communities have also developed their own strategies for
resisting and combating discrimination. This may include building supportive
networks and spaces, engaging in cultural practices and traditions, and developing
strategies for navigating discriminatory systems and institutions.
While these responses have been important in addressing racism and
discrimination towards Chinese-Canadians, they have not been without challenges.
Legal action can be costly and time-consuming, and outcomes may not always be
favorable. Community mobilization and advocacy efforts may face pushback from
those who do not see discrimination as a pressing issue, and education and
awareness-raising efforts can face resistance or limited reach.
Additionally, the impact of discrimination on individuals and communities can
be significant, including negative mental health outcomes, decreased opportunities
and mobility, and a sense of social exclusion. These effects can be long-lasting and
may require ongoing support and resources to address.
Overall, responding to and resisting persistent racism and discrimination towards
Chinese-Canadians remains an ongoing challenge. It requires a multifaceted and
collaborative approach, with individuals, communities, organizations, and
policymakers all playing a role in creating a more equitable and inclusive society.
5.4.2 Integration and assimilation challenges facing Chinese-Canadians
1. Linguistic and cultural barriers
Linguistic and cultural barriers present significant challenges for
Chinese-Canadians in their efforts to integrate and assimilate into Canadian society.
For many immigrants, particularly those who arrive as adults, language remains a
significant barrier to accessing education, employment, healthcare, and other essential
services.
Chinese-Canadian immigrants who do not speak English or French may struggle
to communicate with their children's teachers, medical professionals, or government
agencies, making it challenging to navigate Canadian society effectively. Some
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immigrants may feel isolated or excluded from Canadian society due to language
barriers, which can lead to social and cultural disconnection.
Moreover, cultural differences between Chinese and Canadian societies can also
pose challenges for immigrants in their efforts to integrate. Cultural norms
surrounding social relationships, family values, and work ethic may differ
significantly between China and Canada, leading to misunderstandings and conflicts.
For example, in Chinese culture, there is a strong emphasis on respect for
authority and elders, while Canadian culture places greater importance on
individualism and personal autonomy. As such, Chinese-Canadians may struggle to
adapt to Canadian cultural norms and may face discrimination and stereotyping due to
cultural differences.
To address these challenges, many Chinese-Canadian community organizations
offer language and cultural training programs to help immigrants integrate more
effectively into Canadian society. Some organizations also provide support services
such as translation and interpretation, community events and activities, and
counseling services to help individuals and families adjust to their new lives in
Canada. Additionally, some schools and universities offer language and cultural
programs tailored to Chinese-Canadian students, which can help bridge the linguistic
and cultural gaps that may exist.
In recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of
linguistic and cultural diversity in Canadian society. As such, efforts have been made
to promote multilingualism and multiculturalism, including increased support for
language and cultural training programs. While linguistic and cultural barriers remain
a challenge for many Chinese-Canadians, there is hope that ongoing efforts to
promote understanding and inclusion will continue to break down barriers and
promote greater integration and participation in Canadian society.
2. Navigating Canadian education and employment systems
Chinese-Canadians face unique challenges in navigating the Canadian education
and employment systems due to linguistic and cultural barriers. Many newcomers
struggle to access education and employment opportunities that align with their skills
and qualifications, which can result in lower socio-economic status and limited
upward mobility.
In terms of education, Chinese-Canadian students often face linguistic barriers,
particularly in English-language instruction, which can make it challenging to succeed
in academic settings (Li & Chen, 2018, p. 123).176 Additionally, cultural differences
in teaching methods, learning expectations, and classroom dynamics can also impact
176 Li, P., & Chen, Y. (2018). Educational experiences of Chinese immigrant children in Canada. In X. Yan &
Y. Zhang (Eds.), Chinese Immigrants in Canada: Changing Policies, Opportunities, and Experiences (pp. 121-140).
University of Ottawa Press.
172
academic performance (Wang, 2021, p. 80).177 Chinese-Canadian parents may also
struggle to navigate the Canadian education system, as it may differ significantly from
the education system in their home country (Li & Chen, 2018, p. 126).176
In terms of employment, Chinese-Canadians may face discrimination in the job
market due to their ethnicity, accent, or cultural differences (Li & Chen, 2018, p.
127).176 They may also encounter difficulties in obtaining recognition for their foreign
qualifications, as Canadian employers may not be familiar with the education and
professional standards in their home country (Wang, 2021, p. 79).177 This can lead to
underemployment, where individuals may work in jobs that do not align with their
qualifications or experience.
To address these challenges, Chinese-Canadian individuals and organizations
have taken a variety of approaches. Some have advocated for increased language
support and cultural awareness training for educators and employers. Others have
created mentorship and networking programs to connect newcomers with established
professionals in their fields. Additionally, some organizations have offered language
and job training programs to help individuals improve their language skills and job
readiness.
There have also been efforts to create more culturally responsive education and
employment practices. For example, some schools and employers have incorporated
cultural sensitivity training into their programs to better support Chinese-Canadian
individuals. Additionally, there have been initiatives to recognize foreign
qualifications and credentials, making it easier for newcomers to have their education
and work experience recognized in Canada.
Overall, while there are certainly challenges in navigating the Canadian
education and employment systems, Chinese-Canadian individuals and organizations
have worked to create more inclusive and supportive environments to help
newcomers succeed.
3. Maintaining ties to heritage while adapting to Canadian culture
Maintaining ties to heritage while adapting to Canadian culture is a common
challenge faced by Chinese-Canadians as they seek to integrate into Canadian society.
For many Chinese immigrants, maintaining connections to their cultural roots and
traditions is important for personal and familial reasons. However, the process of
adapting to Canadian culture can sometimes create a tension between the desire to
preserve traditional values and the need to adapt to new social norms.
One significant way in which Chinese-Canadians have sought to maintain ties to
their heritage is through language. Many Chinese-Canadians continue to speak their
177 Wang, J. (2021). Chinese immigrants in Canada: Challenges and opportunities. In C. Yang & C. Wang
(Eds.), Chinese Immigrants in Canada: Perspectives, Experiences, and Lessons Learned (pp. 77-90). Springer.
173
native language, whether it be Cantonese, Mandarin, or another dialect. Chinese
language schools and cultural organizations have also been established to help
Chinese-Canadian children maintain their language skills and cultural connections.
Chinese-Canadian communities have also established a variety of cultural
organizations and events to celebrate their heritage. These include festivals such as
Chinese New Year, dragon boat races, and the Mid-Autumn Festival. These events
provide an opportunity for Chinese-Canadians to share their culture with the wider
community and to maintain connections with their heritage.
At the same time, Chinese-Canadians have also adapted to Canadian culture in a
variety of ways. For example, Chinese-Canadians have played an important role in
shaping Canadian cuisine, with dishes such as General Tso's chicken and dim sum
becoming popular across the country. Chinese-Canadians have also made significant
contributions to Canadian arts and culture, as discussed earlier in this chapter.
In navigating the tension between maintaining ties to heritage and adapting to
Canadian culture, Chinese-Canadians have developed a unique hybrid identity that
reflects both their Chinese and Canadian roots. This process of adaptation and
integration is ongoing, with each new generation of Chinese-Canadians bringing their
own experiences and perspectives to the process.
5.4.3 Advantages and strengths of Chinese-Canadian communities
1. Resilience and adaptability
Chinese-Canadian communities have faced numerous challenges and obstacles
throughout their history in Canada, including racism, discrimination, and cultural
assimilation pressures. Despite these challenges, Chinese-Canadians have shown
resilience and adaptability, drawing upon their cultural heritage and community
strengths to overcome obstacles and build successful lives in Canada.
One of the key strengths of Chinese-Canadian communities is their emphasis on
family and community support. Families often play a significant role in supporting
their members, whether through financial assistance, emotional support, or practical
help. This support network can be especially important for newcomers to Canada,
who may face numerous challenges as they adjust to life in a new country.
Additionally, Chinese-Canadian communities have a rich cultural heritage that
they have maintained and adapted to life in Canada. This heritage includes traditions
such as Chinese cuisine, language, and cultural celebrations, which have become part
of the multicultural fabric of Canada. By maintaining ties to their cultural roots,
Chinese-Canadians are able to retain a sense of identity and connection to their
heritage, even as they adapt to life in Canada.
Chinese-Canadian communities also have a strong entrepreneurial spirit, with
174
many members owning small businesses and contributing to the Canadian economy.
The Chinese-Canadian community has a strong reputation for hard work and
dedication, with many community members emphasizing the importance of education
and career success.
In recent years, Chinese-Canadian communities have also been active in
advocating for their rights and challenging discrimination. Community organizations
such as the Chinese Canadian National Council have been instrumental in pushing for
greater representation and recognition for Chinese-Canadians, as well as advocating
for greater social justice and equality.
Overall, Chinese-Canadian communities have demonstrated a remarkable
resilience and adaptability in the face of numerous challenges. By drawing upon their
cultural heritage, family and community support networks, and entrepreneurial spirit,
Chinese-Canadians have been able to overcome obstacles and build successful lives in
Canada, while also contributing to the cultural and economic fabric of Canadian
society.
2. Strong family and community ties
One of the significant advantages and strengths of Chinese-Canadian
communities is their strong family and community ties. Family is highly valued in
Chinese culture, and Chinese-Canadians often maintain close relationships with their
extended families, including grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins (Wang & Mak,
2013, p. 11).178 This emphasis on family creates a sense of support and connection
within the community, which can be helpful for new immigrants and those navigating
integration challenges.
Furthermore, Chinese-Canadians often rely on their community networks for
support and resources. This can include assistance with finding employment, housing,
or navigating bureaucratic systems such as immigration or healthcare (Li, 2018, p.
68).179 Community organizations and associations, such as Chinese benevolent
societies or cultural associations, can provide a sense of belonging and connection for
Chinese-Canadians.
The emphasis on strong family and community ties is also reflected in
Chinese-Canadian cultural practices and celebrations. For example, Chinese New
Year is a significant celebration that involves gathering with family and friends,
sharing traditional foods, and participating in cultural activities such as lion dances or
firework displays (Wong & Fung, 2019, p. 27).180 These celebrations provide a sense
178 Wang, Y., & Mak, A. S. (2013). Chinese-Canadian mental health: A review of epidemiological research.
Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 15(1), 10-24.
179 Li, P. (2018). Chinese immigrants in Canada: Their changing composition and economic performance.
Journal of International Migration and Integration, 19(1), 63-85.
180 Wong, C. S., & Fung, J. (2019). Chinese New Year and psychological well-being: The role of family
functioning and self-construal. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 13, e16. https://doi.org/10.1017/prp.2018.53
175
of continuity and connection to Chinese culture while living in Canada.
Overall, the strong family and community ties within Chinese-Canadian
communities provide a foundation for support, belonging, and cultural preservation.
These ties can help Chinese-Canadians navigate integration challenges and maintain
their cultural identity while adapting to life in Canada.
3. Contributions to Canadian society and economy
Chinese-Canadians have made significant contributions to Canadian society and
economy, reflecting the advantages and strengths of their communities. They have
established successful businesses and provided employment opportunities to
Canadians, particularly in the areas of retail, hospitality, and real estate. According to
Statistics Canada, Chinese-Canadians are more likely to be self-employed than the
general population, with a higher percentage of Chinese-Canadian businesses being
family-owned and operated (Statistics Canada, 2016, p. 4).181
Moreover, Chinese-Canadians have played a vital role in Canada's international
trade relations, particularly with China. They have acted as important links between
Canadian and Chinese business communities and helped to facilitate trade and
investment between the two countries. In recent years, there has been a significant
increase in the number of Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs and businesspeople
investing in China, contributing to Canada's trade and economic growth.
Chinese-Canadians have also contributed to Canadian society in other ways,
including through their participation in community organizations, charities, and
volunteering efforts. Many Chinese-Canadian organizations have been established to
support new immigrants and to promote cultural understanding and appreciation.
These organizations have also played an essential role in preserving and promoting
Chinese culture in Canada.
In addition to their economic and community contributions, Chinese-Canadians
have also excelled in various fields, including science, technology, the arts, and
politics. Notable Chinese-Canadian figures, such as author Wayson Choy, actor
Sandra Oh, and former Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, have achieved national
and international recognition for their contributions to Canadian society and culture.
Chinese-Canadians have shown remarkable resilience and adaptability in facing
the challenges of integrating into Canadian society. They have overcome linguistic
and cultural barriers, navigated the Canadian education and employment systems, and
maintained ties to their heritage while adapting to Canadian culture. These
experiences have equipped Chinese-Canadians with unique skills, perspectives, and
strengths that have contributed to Canada's cultural and economic diversity.
181 Statistics Canada. (2016). Immigration and ethnocultural diversity in Canada: Key results from the 2016
Census. Catalogue no. 98-400-X2016295.
176
Chapter Summary
Chapter V of the book delves into the rich history, culture, and contributions of
Chinese-Canadians in Canada. The chapter is structured into four main sections: the
development of Chinese-Canadian culture, Chinese-Canadian organizations and
institutions, the contributions of Chinese-Canadians to Canadian society and culture,
and challenges and opportunities faced by Chinese-Canadian communities today.
Section 5.1 explores the historical and cultural influences that have shaped
Chinese-Canadian identity, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and the Chinese Head
Tax. It also discusses the importance of language, food, and traditions in
Chinese-Canadian culture, as well as the role of art, literature, and media in
preserving and expressing that culture.
Section 5.2 focuses on Chinese-Canadian organizations and institutions,
including social and cultural organizations, religious and community institutions, and
political and advocacy groups. These organizations have played a critical role in
promoting Chinese-Canadian interests and advocating for their rights and well-being.
Section 5.3 highlights the economic, social, and cultural contributions of
Chinese-Canadians to Canadian society. It also highlights notable Chinese-Canadian
figures and achievements, as well as their representation in Canadian media and arts.
Section 5.4 addresses the challenges and opportunities faced by
Chinese-Canadian communities today. This includes persistent racism and
discrimination towards Chinese-Canadians, integration and assimilation challenges,
and the advantages and strengths of Chinese-Canadian communities. The section also
discusses responses and strategies to address these challenges.
Overall, Chapter V provides a comprehensive overview of the Chinese-Canadian
experience, highlighting the rich and diverse contributions of Chinese-Canadians to
Canadian society and culture, while also acknowledging the challenges they have
faced and continue to face today.
177
CONCLUSION
Summary of Key Points
1. Main themes and events
Throughout this book, we have explored the history of Chinese immigration to
Canada, from the early days of Chinese workers coming to build the Canadian Pacific
Railway, to the discriminatory policies of the Exclusion Era, to the changing
immigration policies and experiences of Chinese immigrants in Canada today. The
main themes and events covered in this book can be summarized as follows:
The first theme is the early history of Chinese immigration to Canada, which
began with the arrival of Chinese workers to help build the Canadian Pacific Railway
in the late 1800s. Despite their contributions to this major project, Chinese workers
faced discrimination, exclusion, and racism in Canadian society.
The second theme is the Exclusion Era, which lasted from 1923 to 1947 and was
marked by the Chinese Immigration Act, which severely restricted Chinese
immigration to Canada. Chinese Canadians during this time faced economic and
social hardships, including family separation and disruptions, limited employment
opportunities, and discrimination.
The third theme is the repeal of the Exclusion Act and changing immigration
policies from 1947 to 1967, which led to an increase in Chinese immigration to
Canada. This period also saw the growth and transformation of Chinatowns and
Chinese communities across Canada.
The fourth theme is Chinese immigration since 1967, when the points system
was introduced to assess immigration applications. Chinese immigration patterns and
settlement experiences have changed, but newcomers still face challenges such as
finding suitable housing and employment, as well as language and cultural barriers.
Throughout these themes, we have explored the cultural and social contributions
of Chinese-Canadians to Canadian society, as well as the ongoing struggles for
equality, representation, and recognition. Overall, this book provides a comprehensive
overview of the history of Chinese immigration to Canada and its impact on Canadian
society and politics.
2. Contributions and challenges faced by Chinese immigrants
Chinese immigrants have made significant contributions to the development of
Canada. From the early days of railway construction and mining to the current
professional and entrepreneurial sectors, Chinese immigrants have played a crucial
role in shaping Canada's economic and social landscape. However, they have also
faced numerous challenges, including discrimination, racism, and political exclusion.
178
The first Chinese immigrants who arrived in Canada faced hostility and racism
from the mainstream society. They were subjected to discriminatory laws and policies,
including the Chinese Head Tax and the Chinese Exclusion Act, which restricted
Chinese immigration to Canada for over 60 years. Despite these challenges, Chinese
immigrants persevered and carved out a place for themselves in Canadian society.
The post-World War II period saw significant changes in Canadian immigration
policies, including the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1947 and the
introduction of the points system for immigration in 1967. These changes led to a
significant increase in Chinese immigration to Canada, and the Chinese community
became more diverse in terms of socio-economic status, education, and language
ability.
The growth and transformation of Chinatowns across Canada have been a
testament to the cultural and social contributions of Chinese immigrants. Chinatowns
have served as important community hubs, providing Chinese immigrants with a
sense of belonging and connection to their cultural heritage.
In recent years, the settlement experiences of Chinese immigrants have shifted
from the traditional Chinatown enclaves to more suburban and urban areas, presenting
new challenges such as finding affordable housing and addressing cultural and
language barriers. However, Chinese immigrants continue to make significant
contributions to Canadian society, both economically and socially, and have become
an integral part of the Canadian mosaic.
In conclusion, the history of Chinese immigration to Canada has been marked by
challenges and contributions. Despite facing numerous obstacles, Chinese immigrants
have made significant contributions to the development of Canada and have played a
crucial role in shaping Canadian society. Their experiences and achievements are a
testament to the resilience and determination of the human spirit.
Reflections on the History of Chinese Immigration to Canada
1. Significance of Chinese immigration
Chinese immigration has played a significant role in Canadian history, shaping
the country's economy, culture, and society. Throughout the years, Chinese
immigrants have contributed to various sectors such as agriculture, mining, and
construction, which were crucial in developing Canada's infrastructure. They also
played a critical role in building the Canadian Pacific Railway, which connected the
country from coast to coast and facilitated trade and commerce.
In addition to their economic contributions, Chinese immigrants have also
enriched Canadian culture with their traditions, cuisine, and festivals. They have
brought with them a unique perspective and worldview, which has added to the
multicultural fabric of Canada. Chinatowns, which have historically been the center of
179
Chinese communities in Canada, have become vibrant cultural hubs where people of
different backgrounds can come together to experience Chinese culture.
However, the history of Chinese immigration to Canada is not without its
challenges. Chinese immigrants have faced discrimination, exclusion, and racism,
particularly during the early years of their arrival. The Chinese Exclusion Act, which
was in effect from 1923 to 1947, prohibited Chinese immigrants from entering
Canada, except for a few exemptions. This discriminatory policy prevented families
from reuniting and led to the separation of Chinese-Canadians from their cultural and
linguistic heritage.
Despite these challenges, Chinese immigrants have persevered and made
significant contributions to Canadian society. They have fought for their rights and
equality, paving the way for future generations to thrive. Today, Chinese-Canadians
are among the most successful and prosperous groups in Canada, with many
achieving success in various fields such as business, politics, and academia.
The significance of Chinese immigration to Canadian history lies in the
resilience and perseverance of Chinese immigrants and their contributions to shaping
Canada into the diverse and inclusive country it is today. As Canada continues to
embrace multiculturalism and diversity, it is essential to recognize and celebrate the
contributions of Chinese immigrants and other marginalized communities to the
country's growth and prosperity.
2. Lessons learned from the experiences of Chinese immigrants
The experiences of Chinese immigrants to Canada offer valuable lessons for
understanding the challenges and opportunities of immigration and diversity in
Canadian society. First and foremost, the history of Chinese immigration underscores
the importance of recognizing and addressing systemic discrimination and racism.
Chinese immigrants faced numerous barriers to full participation in Canadian society,
from exclusionary policies to social stigma and violence. The persistence of
discriminatory attitudes and practices towards Chinese-Canadians even after the
repeal of discriminatory legislation demonstrates the ongoing need for anti-racist
education and action.
Another key lesson from the experiences of Chinese immigrants is the
importance of community building and mutual support. From the early days of
Chinese settlement in Canada, Chinese immigrants relied on networks of kinship,
shared language, and cultural traditions to navigate the challenges of a new society.
These communities provided essential social, economic, and political resources, from
support in finding employment and housing to advocacy for legal rights and
recognition. The resilience and strength of Chinese-Canadian communities offer a
model for the power of collective action and the value of cultural diversity.
Finally, the experiences of Chinese immigrants illustrate the complex and
180
dynamic nature of cultural identity and belonging. Over the course of more than a
century, Chinese immigrants have negotiated the tensions between the demands of
assimilation and the desire to maintain cultural heritage and identity. The diverse
experiences of Chinese-Canadians, from the early immigrants who maintained close
ties to Chinese culture and traditions to more recent arrivals who have grown up in
Canada, highlight the ongoing process of identity formation and negotiation in a
multicultural society. The experiences of Chinese immigrants offer insights into the
ways in which cultural diversity can enrich and challenge Canadian society, and the
ongoing work required to create a more inclusive and equitable society for all.
3. Impact on Canadian society and politics
The impact of Chinese immigration on Canadian society and politics has been
significant and far-reaching. Chinese immigrants have contributed to Canada's
economy, culture, and social fabric, and have played an important role in shaping the
country's political landscape. Through their hard work, perseverance, and resilience,
Chinese immigrants have become an integral part of Canada's multicultural society.
One of the most notable impacts of Chinese immigration on Canadian society
has been the growth and development of Chinatowns and Chinese communities across
the country. These vibrant and dynamic communities have become important cultural
and economic hubs, attracting visitors and investors from around the world. In
addition, Chinese immigrants have contributed to the development of Canada's
diverse and multicultural society, enriching the country's cultural fabric with their
unique customs, traditions, and perspectives.
Chinese immigrants have also played an important role in Canadian politics.
From advocating for social justice and civil rights, to running for elected office,
Chinese Canadians have made significant contributions to the country's democratic
process. Through their participation in civic life and their engagement with political
issues, Chinese Canadians have helped to shape Canada's policies on immigration,
human rights, and social justice.
Despite these positive contributions, Chinese immigrants have faced numerous
challenges and obstacles throughout their history in Canada. From discriminatory
laws and policies to xenophobia and racism, Chinese immigrants have had to
overcome numerous barriers to achieve success and acceptance in Canadian society.
These challenges have underscored the importance of promoting diversity, inclusivity,
and social justice in Canadian society, and have highlighted the need for continued
efforts to address discrimination and promote equality for all Canadians.
Implications for the Future of Chinese-Canadian Relations
1. Opportunities and challenges
The history of Chinese immigration to Canada has been marked by numerous
181
challenges and obstacles. However, Chinese Canadians have persevered and made
significant contributions to Canadian society and politics. Looking towards the future,
there are both opportunities and challenges for Chinese-Canadian relations.
One opportunity for Chinese-Canadian relations is the potential for increased
trade and economic cooperation. China is Canada's second-largest trading partner and
there is significant potential for growth in this area. In addition, Chinese immigrants
and investors have been important contributors to Canada's economy. However, there
are also challenges in this area, including concerns about intellectual property theft,
human rights violations, and geopolitical tensions.
Another opportunity for Chinese-Canadian relations is increased cultural
exchange and understanding. Canada has a rich multicultural heritage and there is
much that Chinese Canadians can contribute to the country's cultural mosaic. In
addition, Canadian universities have been a popular destination for Chinese students,
leading to increased opportunities for cross-cultural exchange and learning. However,
there are also challenges in this area, including the potential for misunderstandings
and stereotypes to persist.
One of the main challenges for Chinese-Canadian relations is the need to address
past injustices and promote reconciliation. The Chinese Head Tax and Exclusion Act
were discriminatory policies that had a significant impact on the Chinese Canadian
community. While the Canadian government has apologized for these policies, there
is still work to be done to address the lasting effects of these injustices. In addition,
recent tensions between Canada and China have strained their relations.
Overall, the future of Chinese-Canadian relations is complex and multifaceted.
While there are certainly challenges to be addressed, there are also many
opportunities for increased cooperation, understanding, and mutual benefit. By
working together to address past injustices and promote cultural exchange and
economic cooperation, Chinese Canadians and Canadians more broadly can continue
to build strong and positive relationships.
Furthermore, the strained relations between Canada and China, which were
intensified by the detention of Canadian citizens and the ongoing extradition case of
Huawei executive Meng Wanzhou, have been resolved as the Canadian has been
released by the Chinese authorities.
2. Recommendations for future policies and initiatives
In light of the complex history and current state of Chinese-Canadian relations,
there are several recommendations for future policies and initiatives that could help to
improve the relationship between the two countries.
Firstly, it is essential that the Canadian government continues to prioritize
dialogue and communication with the Chinese government. Maintaining open
182
channels of communication, even during times of tension, can help to prevent
misunderstandings and ensure that both sides are aware of each other's concerns and
priorities.
Secondly, there needs to be a focus on strengthening economic ties between
Canada and China. While trade and investment between the two countries have grown
significantly over the past few decades, there is still much room for expansion.
Encouraging more Chinese investment in Canada and expanding Canadian exports to
China could help to create more economic opportunities and foster a greater sense of
mutual benefit.
Thirdly, the Canadian government should take steps to better integrate Chinese
immigrants and Canadian-born Chinese into Canadian society. This could include
initiatives to address discrimination and promote cultural understanding, as well as
efforts to support the economic and social advancement of Chinese-Canadians.
Finally, there needs to be a greater emphasis on promoting people-to-people
exchanges between Canada and China. This could involve initiatives such as student
exchanges, cultural festivals, and tourism promotions, which can help to foster greater
understanding and goodwill between the two countries.
Overall, these recommendations are aimed at promoting greater understanding,
cooperation, and mutual benefit between Canada and China. While there will
undoubtedly be challenges and setbacks along the way, a commitment to open
dialogue and constructive engagement can help to ensure that the relationship
between these two important countries continues to evolve and strengthen in the years
ahead.
3. Role of Chinese-Canadians in shaping the future of Canada
Chinese-Canadians have played a significant role in shaping the history and
culture of Canada. As the Chinese community in Canada continues to grow and
become more diverse, their role in shaping the future of the country will only become
more important.
One of the ways in which Chinese-Canadians can contribute to the future of
Canada is by becoming more engaged in politics and public service. This includes
running for political office, volunteering in their communities, and advocating for
policies that benefit all Canadians. By being actively involved in the political process,
Chinese-Canadians can help to ensure that their voices are heard and that their
interests are represented in government.
In addition to their role in politics, Chinese-Canadians can also contribute to the
future of Canada through their cultural and economic contributions. Chinese culture
has already had a significant impact on Canadian society, and as the Chinese
community continues to grow, it will only become more influential.
183
Chinese-Canadian entrepreneurs and businesses also play an important role in the
Canadian economy, creating jobs and driving innovation.
However, to fully realize their potential as agents of change in Canada,
Chinese-Canadians must continue to address the challenges and barriers they face,
such as discrimination and lack of representation in leadership positions. Efforts to
promote diversity and inclusion must be supported and expanded upon, and more
opportunities must be created for Chinese-Canadians to succeed in all aspects of
Canadian life.
Overall, the role of Chinese-Canadians in shaping the future of Canada is
significant and multifaceted. By being active participants in politics and public service,
contributing to Canadian culture and economy, and addressing ongoing challenges,
Chinese-Canadians can help to ensure a bright and prosperous future for themselves
and for all Canadians.
Conclusions
The history of Chinese immigration to Canada is a complex and multi-layered
story that reflects both the struggles and contributions of Chinese immigrants in
shaping Canadian society. From the early pioneers who faced discrimination and
exclusion to the modern-day immigrants who continue to build bridges between
Canada and China, the Chinese-Canadian experience is one of perseverance,
resilience, and cultural richness.
Through this exploration of Chinese immigration history, we have seen the
significance of the Chinese-Canadian community in shaping Canadian society and
politics. The lessons learned from their experiences serve as a reminder of the
importance of inclusion and acceptance of all cultures in shaping the future of our
country. The impact of Chinese immigration on Canadian society is undeniable, from
the development of the railway to the enrichment of our cultural diversity.
As we reflect on the past, we must also consider the future of Chinese-Canadian
relations. The opportunities and challenges ahead are significant, but with cooperation
and understanding, we can foster a stronger relationship between the two countries.
Moving forward, it is essential to implement policies and initiatives that promote
the integration and advancement of Chinese-Canadians in all aspects of Canadian
society. We must continue to recognize the role of Chinese-Canadians in shaping the
future of Canada and work towards a more inclusive and diverse society.
In conclusion, the story of Chinese immigration to Canada is one of resilience,
determination, and cultural richness. As we move forward, we must strive towards a
future where all cultures are accepted and celebrated, and where the contributions of
immigrants are valued and recognized. The history of Chinese immigration in Canada
is not just a story of the past but a vision of a better and more harmonious future for
184
all.
185
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AFTERWORD
Reflecting on the journey chronicled in "From Discrimination to Integration: A
History of Chinese Immigration in Canada," it is both enlightening and humbling to
witness the transformation of the Chinese-Canadian experience over the years. This
history stands as a testament to the indomitable spirit of the Chinese immigrants and
their descendants who braved arduous journeys and confronted adversity to build a
brighter future in Canada.
As we delve into the past, it becomes evident that the Chinese-Canadian story is
not isolated; it is interwoven with the broader narrative of Canada's multicultural
evolution. The experiences of early Chinese immigrants, driven by the promise of
prosperity and lured by opportunities, reflect the same dreams and aspirations that
have drawn people from diverse backgrounds to this land of promise.
Yet, confronting discrimination and exclusion during the Exclusion Era was a
dark chapter in Canadian history. The resilience demonstrated by Chinese
communities during those challenging times is a testament to the human spirit's ability
to endure, resist, and overcome injustice. The activism, solidarity, and resilience
displayed by Chinese-Canadians during that era continue to inspire us today.
With the repeal of the Exclusion Act, Canada began embracing a more inclusive
immigration policy, setting the stage for the arrival of a new generation of Chinese
immigrants. Their integration into Canadian society has been both a process of
adaptation and mutual enrichment. The growth and transformation of Chinatowns, the
flourishing of Chinese-Canadian businesses, and the vibrant cultural and religious life
in Chinese communities have left an indelible mark on the nation's cultural tapestry.
The contemporary era has seen an evolving identity and a deeper sense of
belonging for Chinese-Canadians. While the challenges of racism and discrimination
persist, the Chinese-Canadian community continues to contribute significantly to
Canadian society and culture. It is essential to recognize and celebrate these
contributions as an integral part of the Canadian mosaic.
As we look to the future, it is crucial to acknowledge that the history of Chinese
immigration in Canada is not a static tale confined to the past. Rather, it is a dynamic
narrative that continues to evolve and shape the nation's destiny. Embracing diversity,
fostering inclusivity, and recognizing the value of cultural pluralism are foundational
principles for a harmonious and prosperous Canada.
The history of Chinese immigration in Canada serves as a reminder that our
collective journey is one of learning, understanding, and building bridges of empathy.
It is only through acknowledging and appreciating the diverse narratives that have
contributed to the Canadian identity that we can forge a stronger, more united future.
As we conclude this exploration of Chinese immigration in Canada, let us carry
forward the lessons learned and the wisdom gained from this historical voyage. May it
inspire us to embrace diversity, stand against discrimination, and foster a society
where all individuals, regardless of their origins, can thrive and contribute to the
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shared dream of a better Canada.
With gratitude and hope,
Peng Sun
Author
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am deeply grateful to all those who have contributed to the completion of "From
Discrimination to Integration: A History of Chinese Immigration in Canada." This
journey would not have been possible without the support, encouragement, and
invaluable assistance from numerous individuals.
First and foremost, I extend my heartfelt appreciation to Professor Xiaode Zuo of
the School of Management, Jinan University (Guangzhou, China). His unwavering
guidance, intellectual insights, and scholarly mentorship have been instrumental in
shaping this work. Professor Zuo's profound knowledge and expertise in the field of
immigration history have been an inspiration throughout the research and writing
process.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my wife, Mengting Wen, whose
boundless patience, understanding, and unwavering support have been the cornerstone
of this endeavor. Her encouragement and belief in the importance of this project have
been a constant source of motivation.
To my beloved son, Siyu Sun, whose innocent curiosity and boundless energy
have provided moments of respite and joy amidst the rigors of writing. Your presence
has been a constant reminder of the intergenerational nature of history and the
importance of preserving and passing down our heritage.
I also want to acknowledge the support and encouragement of friends and
colleagues who have offered their insights and feedback throughout this project. Your
valuable perspectives have enriched the content and contributed to the overall depth
of the narrative.
Although this book has not received sponsorship or been published by a
traditional publisher, the journey of self-publishing has been an invaluable experience,
allowing me to retain full creative control over the content and design. To all the
self-published authors who have inspired and paved the way for independent voices to
be heard, I extend my gratitude.
Lastly, I am thankful for the boundless passion and dedication of all those who
have strived to document and preserve the history of Chinese immigration in Canada.
Together, our collective efforts contribute to a broader understanding of our nation's
diverse heritage.
In closing, it is with profound appreciation that I extend my heartfelt thanks to
each and every individual who has played a role, big or small, in the realization of this
book. Your support has been invaluable, and I am forever indebted to your
contributions.
Sincerely,
Peng Sun
Author
"From Discrimination to Integration: A History of Chinese Immigration in
Canada" is a comprehensive examination of the history and experiences of
Chinese immigrants in Canada. From the early migration waves to
present-day issues, this book covers key topics such as cultural identity,
discrimination, community organizations, and contributions to Canadian
society. Through a combination of historical analysis, personal accounts, and
cultural insights, readers will gain a deep understanding of the challenges and
opportunities faced by Chinese immigrants and their impact on Canadian
culture and history. This book is a must-read for anyone interested in
Canadian history, immigration, and cultural diversity.
Peng Sun is a Canadian Chinese author and scholar with a PhD in
management and a keen interest in organizational behavior and social
psychology. This book marks his debut as an author, drawing on his years of
experience researching and analyzing the complexities of Chinese-Canadian
communities and culture. As a member of the American Psychological
Association, he brings a wealth of expertise and insight to the study of human
behavior and social dynamics. With this book, Peng Sun offers a compelling
exploration of the challenges, contributions, and opportunities that define the
Chinese-Canadian experience, shedding light on an important and often
overlooked aspect of Canadian history and society.
For inquiries or further information, please contact Peng Sun at
pengsun2001@hotmail.com.