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Digital Language Learning: A Sociocultural Theory Perspective
Abstract
The article reviews Digital Language Learning (DLL) research that has used principles and concepts of Sociocultural Theory (SCT) to support the research. We explain several key principles of the theory and shows how they have been misused or used in a superficial way in the DLL research. These include the assumption that SCT is a social rather than a psychological theory as well as misinterpretation of the central concepts of imitation and the Zone of Proximal Development. The article argues that the assumption that Virtual Reality pedagogy—which claims it is a means to avoid a parasitic relationship between L1 and L2—is problematic and not supported by an SCT perspective because the theory assigns a central role to L1 in all aspects of psychological development. It also argues that DLL pedagogy that seeks to avoid explicit instruction in favor of implicit learning through comprehensible input may well hinder full development of a new language. Finally, the article suggests ways in which DLL and SCT‐based language pedagogy can be integrated into a coherent instructional program.
... More specifically, cognitive and sociocultural developments stemming from Vygotsky's (1978) Sociocultural Theory, which emphasizes the pivotal role of social interaction in learning, have significantly influenced the rise of collaborative and communicative methodologies. The impact of this theory on education and language learning has grown considerably in recent decades (Lantolf & Xi, 2023). Another factor includes globalization and internationalization of education and English as a Lingua Franca. ...
... Another factor includes globalization and internationalization of education and English as a Lingua Franca. The increasing mobility of students has led to the multilingual and plurilingual policies worldwide and to the implementation of CLIL and other contentdriven approaches to ensure academic success in multilingual settings (Dalton-Puffer, 2011;Lantolf & Xi, 2023). Furthermore, advancements in educational technology represent another factor that implies an integration of digital tools in the learning process has supported personalized learning and increased accessibility to language resources (Levy & Stockwell, 2013;Gm, Goudar, Kulkarni, Rathod & Hukkeri, 2024). ...
... 69). The use of strategies for the development of meta-cognitive skills by teachers at the One-Year Georgian Language program aligns with the broader emphasis in contemporary language pedagogy on developing learners' ability to regulate their own learning, as advocated by cognitive and sociocultural theories of language acquisition (Vygotsky, 1978;Lantolf & Xi, 2023). ...
This study examines the effectiveness of the quota system introduced in Georgia’s higher education admissions process in 2010, with a specific focus on language teaching methods and students’ preparation for undergraduate studies. The research investigates how language teachers utilize diverse instructional strategies, resources, and skill development techniques and assesses the extent to which these align with contemporary pedagogical approaches. A survey research design was employed, collecting data from approximately 700 students enrolled in the One-Year Georgian Language Program across multiple universities. The study’s findings indicate a strong reliance on traditional teaching methods, such as grammar instruction and lecturing, while interactive approaches, including role-playing, student presentations, and discussions, remain underutilized. The results also reveal a gap between instructional strategies used for developing language skills and fostering higher-order cognitive abilities, such as analytical thinking and synthesis. The research highlights the need for a pedagogical shift towards a more interactive, student-centered approach to language instruction. These insights provide valuable implications for enhancing language education policies and practices within Georgia’s higher education system.
... It has been interpreted as social assistance benefiting learners: they scaffold one another as they take part in interactive activities and such interactions lead to co-construction of linguistic knowledge [35]. Seamless learning platform provides an essential context that scaffolds students' language learning as it is delivered in multimodal forms, including discussion forums, online feedback mechanisms, and multimedia content sharing tools, which enhance the learners' perceptions and supported social learning and engagement [1,36,37]. [1]adopted the MyCLOUD (My Chinese Language ubiquityOUs learning Days); a social media platform that involves a long-term school-based intervention to scaffold learners vocabulary learning and communicative writing activities under a seamless learning framework. ...
... During peer interaction, they frequently encountered new vocabulary, which they then considered, learned, and applied in their subsequent writing. The finding supported [36]'s assertion that social interactions with other people expose learners to rich and diverse input and output, which is critical. The more frequently a learner encounters a vocabulary item, the more likely he is to learn the word. ...
... Language use and language learning co-occur through this integrated process, with language use for meaning-making in mediating language learning. Notably, DingTalk is an SCVL platform that aims to foster a mediated social network for the Chinese language learning community [28,36]. It nurtures a social network where language learning and applications are intertwined over time. ...
This study investigates the effectiveness of Seamless Chinese Vocabulary Learning (SCVL) among international students learning Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) to foster vocabulary knowledge building. A new theoretical framework of SCVL was introduced and validated to guide this exploration. The research involved 32 international students enrolled in a Chinese university. Data collection included Chinese Lexical Frequency Profile (LFP) were at HSK Level 4, a SCVL questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews. The findings indicate that SCVL significantly enhances students’ HSK Level 4 vocabulary learning and retention across diverse performance groups over time, while also providing a positive and engaging learning experience. SCVL creates an authentic and repetition-enabled learning context, fostering higher levels of interaction and multi-modal, immediate, and learner-friendly scaffolding. Moreover, the study reveals that SCVL motivates students to actively participate in vocabulary acquisition, despite facing certain challenges. By incorporating the SCVL framework, language instructors can enhance their pedagogical practices and promote sustainable language learning outcomes. Future research is recommended to include a broader range of learners with diverse backgrounds and language proficiency levels, as well as to compare seamless learning with traditional learning approaches. Additionally, exploring CFL teachers’ perceptions of SCVL would be valuable to further understand its impact on language instruction.
... The facilitating effects of gamification through engagement are also valid in language learning [3,21]. Gamification encourages individuals to immerse themselves in socializing activities in virtual settings [4], congruent with socio-constructivism that highlights the importance of social interactions in enhancing language [10,14,32]. Engagement in interpersonal interactions and contextualized settings is beneficial for language learning outcomes [14,32]. ...
... Gamification encourages individuals to immerse themselves in socializing activities in virtual settings [4], congruent with socio-constructivism that highlights the importance of social interactions in enhancing language [10,14,32]. Engagement in interpersonal interactions and contextualized settings is beneficial for language learning outcomes [14,32]. According to socio-constructivism, individuals acquire language knowledge via interactions with others, which sets solid foundations for designing participation-stimulating interactions to build on prior knowledge and enhance cognitive mastery of knowledge [5]. ...
... Inconsistent with the foci on tasks requiring comprehensive skills related to social interactions, mechanics-based tasks in cooperative/competitive gamification elicit individuals' mechanic-driven or easiness-oriented behaviors, most of which elicit individual tasks [21,34]. Individuals' excessively mechanic-and easiness-oriented behaviors debilitate social interaction beneficial for language learning [14,32]. These discussions imply that cooperative/competitive gamification experiences proceed with fixed mechanics that are incompatible with the collective needs of language learning [14,21,25,32,34]. ...
This study reflects how gamification with cooperation/competition mechanics enhances language learning regarding engagement, foreign language enjoyment, and classroom social climate. Although gamification as a whole is an innovative pedagogy that transforms pedagogical practices into entertaining experiences without distortion of educational purposes, few studies have investigated the gamification elements and compared the efficiencies of gamification with different elements. An experiment investigated how the cooperative/competitive gamification interventions, realized by Classcraft with cooperation/competition mechanics rather than ClassCraft as a whole, influence English learning outcomes. Aiming to update prior probability with new data, Bayesian analysis of covariate demonstrates that gamification with cooperation/competition mechanics exerts mixed effects on language learning considering engagement, foreign language enjoyment, and classroom social climate. Explicitly speaking, cooperative gamification shows more positive posterior distribution than competitive cooperation. Therefore, despite mixed effects that reflect the non-panacea role of gamification, efficiency in enhancing language learning is greater for cooperative gamification consistent with the socially interactive nature of learning than competitive gamification that stresses outperformance.
... The theoretical framework guiding this research is informed by a sociocultural perspective of second language acquisition (SLA). A sociocultural perspective takes as a starting point an understanding that the origin and structure of cognition are rooted in the daily social and cultural activities in which people participate (Lantolf, 2000;Vygotsky, 1978;Wertsch, 1998). As a point of departure, however, I foreground questions related to the role played by power dynamics in schools as institutions and the ways in which issues of English-language proficiency are implicated in the production and reproduction of social relations and material conditions (Gebhard, 1999(Gebhard, , 2000Olsen, 1997). ...
... This process entailed reviewing field notes and transcribed audiotape and videotape to code the different types of activities in which second language learners participated. I paid close attention to how activities were accomplished in terms of how participation was structured (Philips, 1972;Mehan, 1979;Cazden, 1988) and in terms of how teachers and students appropriated various signs and tools available to them in accomplishing tasks, especially tasks associated with language arts instruction (Kern, 2000;Lantolf, 2000;Wertsch, 1998). In doing this analysis I also identified the ways in which speaking position constructed the identities of second language learners as members of classroom communities, and the ways in which such identities supported or constrained second language learning opportunities (Norton, 2000;Toohey, 1998Toohey, , 2001Willett, 1995). ...
... Paradoxically, these approaches to teaching, learning, and language development reflect the logic and goals of the old capitalist work order, which are geared toward the mass production of material goods, not the tenets of new capitalism, which are geared toward the production of knowledgebased products through teamwork, collaboration, and collective expertise. Even more ironic for second language learners specifically, is that these more traditional schooling practices-leftovers from manufacturing's influence on public education (e.g., Bowles & Gintis, 1976;Tyack, 1974)-invisibly cut second language learners off from the much needed sociolinguistic knowhow that was distributed around them (e.g., Brown, 1994;Lantolf, 2000;Lave, 1988). As such, the engineered community of practice in which second language learners participated was not one that readily prepared them to take their place in the new Information Age as "symbolic knowledge workers." ...
This 2-year qualitative study explores the ironies of educational reform in the United States as experienced by three second language learners attending a school attempting to transform itself into a high-performance elementary school in California's Silicon Valley. Drawing on the concept of “fast capitalism” in a globalized economic work order (Gee, Hull, & Lankshear, 1996) and the tools of critical discourse analysis (Fairclough, 1989), the findings from this investigation reveal that the discourses of school reform in the United States visibly and invisibly placed second language learners in new highly vulnerable positions. In what follows I provide an analysis of this vulnerability by relating the experiences of three families and their attempts to enrol and stay enrolled in the school of their choice. Next, I provide a critical analysis of the discourses of reading and writing instruction and of a text produced by a focal student named Alma in this context. This analysis highlights the ways in which classroom literacy practices inadvertently constrained the efforts of second language learners to acquire academic literacies and ultimately legitimated the school's decision to declare Alma “not Web material.” The implications of this study relate to better understanding classroom SLA from a historical, institutional perspective and to supporting teachers and policy makers in addressing the needs of second language learners in a time of rapid social and economic change.
... Culture is also seen as an organization or process that operates at several levels; it is a behavior which has to be acquired (see, e.g., Goodenough 1964;Troike 1986;Lantolf 1999Lantolf , 2000Katan 1999;Lantolf and Thorne 2006;Kramsch 2014). Goodenough (1964: 36), for instance, holds that culture does not consist only of things, but also how these things are organized in such a way that the "things that people have in mind, their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances. ...
... The present study provides a very straightforward answer to this question, and that is, yes. A good number of scholars have addressed culture acquisition, be it of L1 or L2 (see, e.g., Katan 1999;Lantolf 1999Lantolf , 2000Lantolf and Thorne 2006;Kramsch 2014). Katan, for instance, holds that culture, like language, can be acquired because it "is not visible as a product, but is internal, collective" and requires natural, unconscious and informal watching and hearing (p. ...
... This chapter explores the role of learner's agency in the development and internalization of the grammatical concept of aspect (in Spanish, using pretérito 'preterite' and imperfecto 'imperfect') in the second language (L2) classroom from a Sociocultural Theory (SCT) approach to SLA (Lantolf, 2000). The notion of learner's agency in language learning plays a fundamental role in SCT research (Ahearn, 2001;Lantolf, 2013;Lantolf & Thorne, 2006; van Lier, 2008;Wertsch et al., 1993). ...
... One of the paramount constructs in SCT is the notion that the human mind is mediated (Vygotsky, 1978), that is, human beings do not interact directly with the world, but through physical and psychological tools (Lantolf, 2000). These tools and symbolic systems are socially constructed, ever evolving and passed on to future generations who continue to reshape them. ...
Framed within a Sociocultural Theory of Mind in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SCT-L2) (Lantolf, 2011), this chapter seeks to explore the role of agency in the development of the grammatical concept of aspect in the second language (L2) classroom. Using Vygotsky’s (1986) distinction between scientific and everyday concepts applied to L2 development (Negueruela, 2008), this work focuses on the role of the learners’ agency in the internalization of the grammatical concept of aspect. It is proposed that in the context of verbalizing, learners’ agency mediates between their initial understandings of the concept of aspect and the development of more conscious and complex conceptualizations in their written and oral production of preterite and imperfect grammatical forms.
Using a clinical analytic approach based on Vygotsky’s (1978) genetic method, this chapter analyzes data from thirty-two adult college students enrolled in an advanced Spanish conversation course. The study was conducted over a 12-week period and collected multiple sets of developmental data, including learners’ definition of the grammatical concept of aspect and verbalization data. It is proposed that the development of the learners’ agency and control over the concept of aspect can be observed by analyzing the students’ qualitative changes in mediation when solving verbalization tasks.
Findings suggest that learners’ agency in the context of verbalizing is a key factor to ascertain L2 conceptual development, allowing the researcher to have a more comprehensive picture of the learners’ development. Additionally, the construct of agency is seen as a meditational tool that fosters L2 learners’ internalization of grammatical concepts. In particular, the verbalizations analyzed in this study indicate that learners’ agency: 1) promotes the development of a more sophisticated semantic understanding of conceptual categories, and 2) fosters control over grammatical concepts during L2 communication.
... Vocabulary is an essential component of language, as highlighted by Wilkins (1972), who emphasized its importance for successful communication. Additionally, sociocultural perspectives on language learning highlight the importance of authentic contexts and social interactions for meaningful language acquisition (Almulla, 2020;Lantolf & Xi, 2023). However, research has indicated that CFL students often encounter de-contextualized and fragmented knowledge in Chinese language classrooms, which impede their language proficiency (Wong et al., 2021). ...
This study introduces a mobile-assisted Seamless Chinese Vocabulary Learning (SCVL) framework and examines its efficacy through the implementation of a “sentence-paragraph-essay” artifact-making writing process designed to enhance vocabulary growth among tertiary-level students. Employing a design-based research methodology, the study leveraged the DingTalk platform for the implementation of the SCVL framework. A quantitative analysis of 2,301 writing artifacts was performed across a 16-week duration involving 32 international students. This analysis utilized a two-way repeated-measures ANOVA to assess vocabulary usage. The findings indicated noteworthy enhancements in the Type-Token Ratio for sentences, paragraphs, and essays across different performance groups over time. The implementation of SCVL led to conspicuous advancements in Chinese vocabulary learning among students. This study underscores the potential of the SCVL approach to yield positive learning outcomes, thereby carrying implications for Chinese educators and the wider domain of language education.
... It is something that those educated in other traditions fail to appreciate, which results in their misinterpretation" (James Lantolf, personal communication, March 23, 2023, emphasis added). A specific example of this is a recent paper by Lantolf and Xi (2023) which reviewed literature about digital language learning research that used SCT as a theoretical framework. In it, the authors seemed dissatisfied with applications of the theory: Peterson (2013, p. 56) […] sees SCT as a theory that supports social interaction as the "primary driver of learning" and considers a major feature of the theory to be mediation as scaffolding (p. ...
Second Language Acquisition is a theoretically fragmented field, best described by the ontological, epistemological, methodological, axiological, and ethical tensions that exist between different scientific traditions. This situation entails a lack of standards of evidence interpretation and expertise, rendering the field’s research and findings largely and potentially permanently inconclusive. In this book I present a critical analysis of scientific disagreement in the field and a proposal for consensus building aided by perspectives from both the philosophy and the sociology of science. The analysis is divided into three themes. The first theme is the philosophical foundations of theory development. I examine the epistemic and social significance of theories, discussing their role in science-making, the sociological factors that shape them, their impact in society, as well as how all this reveals a need for more pluralism and coordination in the field. The second theme is theoretical disagreements in the field, where I examine how the tensions between formalist and functionalist notions of language result in clashing views of proficiency, and I further discuss the clashing assumptions surrounding acquisition and development, where controversies seem to stem from incommensurable notions of validity among different scholars. The third theme is propositional, where I offer my rationale as well as some proposed means for consensus building aided by ideas from contemporary philosophers of science. In this book I make the case for consensus, pluralism and a pure, rather than an applied science. This argument is built on social understandings of science making, where systemic scientific problems are not addressed through single proposals from individuals or thought collectives, but through social practices: sustained dialogue, analysis of values, informed (dis)agreement, collaborative analysis of evidence, collaborative theory testing, intentional pluralism, and an active effort to balance scientific curiosity and social responsibility.
... Lantolf's influential work has garnered significant recognition within the academic community, as evidenced by his impressive Google Scholar citations, totaling 35,634 as of 13 November 2024, with numbers increasing every single day. Among his most highly cited works (with over 6,200 citations by now) is his Oxford University Press monograph, Sociocultural Theory and Language Learning (Lantolf, 2000). These figures highlight the extensive impact of his research. ...
We are very pleased to publish this latest Special Issue in honor of Prof James P. Lantolf. Prof. Lantolf is the Greer Professor Emeritus in Language Acquisition and Applied Linguistics at The Pennsylvania State University. He also served as the Director of the Center for Language Acquisition and the U.S. Department of Education Title VI Center for Advanced Language Proficiency, Education, and Research. Prof. Lantolf is a distinguished scholar in applied linguistics, renowned for his pioneering work in sociocultural theory and second language acquisition (SLA). His five decades of groundbreaking research have significantly advanced our understanding of second language development through the lens of Vygotskian sociocultural psychology (Qin, 2021). Lantolf has authored and co-edited numerous influential books and articles in these areas. His contributions have earned him prestigious accolades, including serving as president of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (2005) and receiving its Distinguished Scholarship and Service Award (2016).
... Recent research has increasingly focused on the integration of VR technology and SCT in EFL learning (Parmaxi, 2023;Qiu et al., 2024). For instance, Lantolf and Xi (2023) offer a critical review of Digital Language Learning (DLL) research, stressing the importance of accurately applying SCT principles. They caution against misinterpreting concepts like the ZPD and advocate for a balanced approach that fuses DLL with SCT-based pedagogy. ...
This study investigated the effectiveness of a Virtual Reality (VR) intervention with integrated Electroencephalography (EEG) biofeedback (VR-EEG) in enhancing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learner proficiency compared to a traditional classroom setting. Learners (N = 60) were randomly assigned to either the VR-EEG group or the traditional classroom group. Both groups received 60 h of EFL instruction over four weeks. The VR-EEG group participated in VR learning environments with real-time adjustments based on their EEG data, while the traditional classroom group received conventional EFL instruction. Pre-test and post-test assessments evaluated EFL proficiency in vocabulary knowledge, grammar accuracy, speaking fluency, and learner engagement. The results revealed that the VR-EEG group demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in overall EFL proficiency, particularly in vocabulary acquisition, compared to the traditional classroom group. Additionally, the VR-EEG group reported higher levels of engagement. EEG data analysis for the VR-EEG group provided preliminary insights into the neural correlates associated with performance and engagement within the VR environment, specifically examining how alpha and beta wave activity relate to attention and cognitive processing during language learning tasks. This analysis explored the potential of EEG biofeedback to optimize learning by dynamically adjusting task difficulty and providing personalized support within the learner’s Zone of Proximal Development. These findings suggest that VR-EEG technology has promising potential as a method for enhancing EFL learner proficiency and warrants further investigation.
... Socio-cultural theory and constructivism theory are the theoretical rationales for the feasibility of metaverse in FLL. The socio-cultural theory emphasizes the essential role of interpersonal interactions in efficient and successful learning (Lantolf, 2000). Since metaverse can provide engaging experiences with synchronous interactions and competency-based training (AlSaleem, 2023), interaction-oriented experiences produced by metaverse are consistent with interaction as the premise of FLL according to the socio-cultural theory. ...
This study investigates how engagement (E), foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and ambiguity tolerance (AT) exert mediation/moderation in metaverse-based foreign language learning (FLL). Featuring augment/simulation-based experiences and self-fulfillment/external-control-oriented mechanics, metaverse provides virtualized interactive circumstances involving individuals’ embodied presence/behaviors, aligning with FLL that emphasizes social interaction. Based on the quantified survey data, partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analyses investigate the significance and positivity of the mediation/moderation relations. According to the results, E exerts fully positive mediation in the effect of intrinsic motivation (IM) on learning effectiveness (LE), FLE exerts partially positive mediation in the effect of classroom social climate (CSC) on E, and AT exerts negative moderation in the positive effect of E on LE. Notably, FLE exerts insignificant mediation in the effect of growth mindset (GM) on E. Therefore, efficient metaverse-based FLL requires synergies of affective factors, i.e., intrinsic motivation, perceptions of classroom social climate, moderate degrees of ambiguity tolerance, and engagement, for sustainable and long-term language learning progress in virtual interactive experiences. At the theoretical level, the findings extend the FLL-related models and advance the understanding of FLL. At the practical level, the findings provide references for more efficient metaverse implementations in FLL.
... It is here the findings emerging from studies on novice as well as expert writing are useful. As suggested in the literature, exposing students to nuanced expert writing models and allowing them to imitate the writing styles of expert writers, for example, in citing research to support a claim could be beneficial (Lantolf & Xi, 2023;Matthiesen, 2016). However, imitation activities could be challenging unless the students have gained a certain understanding of the schematic structure of the genre and its lexico-grammatical features (Hyon, 2018;Wu, 2019). ...
In academic writing, exemplification plays a crucial role in contextualizing complex ideational material through instances the readers can understand. In addition to illustrating ideas through concrete instances, the act of providing examples serves the purpose of helping the readers grasp the writer's intentions. However, strategically performing exemplification to elaborate the propositional material seems to be a challenge for many novice student writers. Although some studies have mentioned that students use significantly less frequently the exemplification resources in their writing, fewer studies have probed into EFL student writing to determine the problems they face in elaborating the ideas. Using the marker approach, which examines the discourse functions bottom‐up from markers to moves, the learner corpus of essay writing (LCEW) was analyzed for three major forms of exemplification: representation, argumentation, and analogy. The results indicate that the examples are strictly limited to certain patterns like specifying concepts through a subcategory and illustrating the arguments through everyday experiences. Moreover, many examples deviate from the usual patterns of exemplification causing confusion. These findings have pedagogic implications for academic writing courses in the EFL context.
... When overseas students communicate in Chinese, they may lead to misunderstandings or communication failures due to the limitations of thinking styles and cultural differences [10][11][12][13]. Therefore, the teaching of communicative culture can promote language communication, improve learners' language practice ability, enhance learners' cultural awareness, promote cultural communication, and avoid misunderstanding in communication [14][15][16]. However, the teaching of communicative culture has specific difficulties. ...
This paper collects data on teaching resources and traditional cultural elements for the Chinese language teaching abroad platform and mines and analyzes the behavior of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The association rule method is employed to analyze the correlation between Chinese language teaching and traditional culture based on the teaching data. According to the data, New Year’s Snacks (87.83 million) is the most-watched teaching video on YouTube, followed by Lotus Leaf Glutinous Rice Pork Ribs (67.74 million). Chinese cultural symbols (a total of 100) and Chinese cultural and artistic symbols were used more frequently (a total of 54), and optimal teaching aids were selected for different categories of Chinese cultural symbols. This study successfully explored the association relationship between traditional culture and Chinese language teaching to foreigners, providing a basis for the synergistic development of the two.
... This framework considers knowledge to be social and can only be acquired through an interaction between students/children and more knowledgeable others such as teachers, adults, and more proficient peers. However, in this regard learning does not occur as the end result of interaction but along the process of the interaction (Lantolf, 2000a(Lantolf, , 2000b. Accordingly, students' L2 development is undoubtedly dependent on dialogic interaction occurring in the classrooms between students and teacher or among students. ...
Oral corrective feedback (OCF) is considered a salient pedagogical process which teachers use to assist students to enhance their language learning. Less is known about which feedback practices students prefer or consider effective for particular language learning processes. From a sociocultural perspective, this study investigated the extent of congruency between teacher practices and student preferences for OCF in Islamic Senior High Schools in Indonesia. Using a mixed-methods approach, quantitative data were collected from 444 students using a five-point Likert scale and administered across one province. Complementary data were collected from classroom observations, teacher interviews and student focus groups. The analyses of these multiple datasets illustrate that teacher practices are not congruent with student preferences for OCF. Findings show that students favour feedback on vocabulary errors, whereas in practice, teachers respond more often to pronunciation errors. Students prefer negotiated feedback, but in practice teachers mostly use clarification requests. The groups are aligned in relation to one area; students indicate a preference for teacher feedback, likewise teachers’ practice demonstrably favours teacher feedback. Pedagogically, the findings indicate a need for teachers to transform their conceptual understanding and practices of OCF to better support student collaboration and mutual meaningful scaffolding for L2 development.
... According to Krashen's Input Hypothesis, language learners acquire language most effectively when they are exposed to "comprehensible input" that is slightly beyond their current proficiency level (Lantolf et al., 2023). This means that it should be understandable for the learner. ...
This study investigates the prospective of incorporating input hypothesis, output hypothesis, interaction hypothesis and metacognitive theory into the best practices of ChatGPT in foreign literature. The study used an online survey involving 146 Chinese internet users to examine opinions on the use of ChatGPT for foreign literature analysis and tasks. Specific skills enhanced by AI integration, such as critical thinking, nuanced comprehension, and advanced linguistic proficiency in foreign languages are discussed in the research. However, there were concerns about its ethical implications when used for literary purposes because it may lead to biases, wrong information and risks which include plagiarism. During the application of ChatGPT, it was emphasized that comprehensible input is crucial to ensure that AI provided content is both understandable and suitable to learners' current proficiency level. Moreover, learners are encouraged to actively utilize ChatGPT as feedback as well as correction tool. Furthermore, this research allowed learners to engage in live communication through using ChatGPT as a speaking partner thereby negotiating meaning and getting instant feedback to support interaction hypothesis (IH). Underpinned by metacognitive theory, instructing learners to reflect on their learning process with the help of ChatGPT involves identifying areas of difficulty and seeking specific assistance, for example, learners may ask about linguistic doubts from chat GTP or test their understanding about certain concepts or vocabulary using it. In order to effectively integrate these hypotheses with metacognitive theories, interactive chat GPTs were designed which required learners' involvement in comprehensible input generation of language, output meaningful interactions and reflection on learning process; reading or listening to foreign language content (input), responding or creating content (output), engaging in conversation (interaction) tasks are assessed for their comprehension and performance levels (metacognition).
... The findings suggest a need for more research to explore the factors that impede the utilization of digital platforms in EFL classrooms (Alakrash et al., 2022). The text suggests that a pedagogy focused on DLL that avoids direct instruction in favor of implicit learning through understandable information could impede the complete acquisition of a new language (Lantolf & Xi, 2023). DLL is an important factor for both teachers and students in digital learning. ...
Higher education is using DLL more. Both teachers and students are used to digital learning. We have several digital learning examples. Teacher and student struggles with digital learning, such as using it, persist. This study reviews five-year-old references on digital learning in higher education. The researchers reviewed the literature on digital learning issues in higher education to determine what lecturers and students encounter in teaching and learning. The results suggest that teachers and students encounter issues including readiness to use them. Teachers and students struggle with technology access in different places, thus they should be discussed.
... This study contributes significantly to the limited studies that examine the use of the digital platform for pedagogical purposes. The results recommend further investigation in addressing factors that hinder the use of digital platforms in EFL classrooms (Alakrash et al., 2022) It also argues that DLL pedagogy that seeks to avoid explicit instruction in favor of implicit learning through comprehensible input may well hinder the full development of a new language (Lantolf & Xi, 2023). DLL is a consideration for the teachers and the students in Digital learning. ...
The book is intended for a wide audience, including policymakers, business leaders, academics, and students. It offers practical insights and solutions for
building a more sustainable and resilient post COVID-19 world. It is our hope that this book will inspire and inform readers, and contribute to a more sustainable
and equitable future for all.
EDITORS:
Dr. Subathra Chelladurai,
Dr. Andi Asrifan,
Dr. Muthmainnah,
Associate Prof. Dr. Erkol Bayram
Prof. Muhammad Basri Jafar,
Associate Prof. Dr. Fides del Castillo
Prof. Dr. Luis Miguel Cardoso
Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed A. Elngar
Dr. Eng. Neyara Radwan
Adjunct Professor Dr. Supaprawat Siripipatthanakul
A S Durwin.
... There is no shortage of literature contending that what people say is seldom an accurate predictor of what they do (Jerolmack & Khan, 2014a:178-209) and that the espousal of knowledge and intentions does not always translate into practice (Rusch, 2004:42). Many studies that adopted sociocultural perspectives have found that teachers of EFAL should recognise the knowledge, skills, cultural heritage and preconceptions that their learners bring to the EFAL classroom (Lantolf, 2001;Thorne, 2001Thorne, , 2004Thorne, , 2005Lantolf & Thorne, 2006). Some studies have urged teachers to develop pedagogical practices of which the focus would be the exploration of the relationship between their learners' cognitive development and the social, cultural and historical contexts in which they learn (Engestrom, 2014). ...
This article examines, through the prism of the sociocultural theory’s concept of mediation, the discrepancy between what South African township English Second Language teachers claim they do in their classes and what they actually do when teaching speaking skills. The study adopted a qualitative research approach and a case study design, underpinned by the interpretivist paradigm. Eight (8) EFAL teachers were drawn from two (2) township high schools that were randomly selected from two (2) separate districts. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews and semi-structured lesson observations. The semi-structured interviews facilitated the participants’ introspection from a professional perspective with a view to both questioning and ratifying the teachers’ personal views, beliefs and the philosophical underpinnings of their professional practice regarding speaking skills. The thematic approach by Lacey and Luff (2009) was used for data analysis. The study found four major problems that influenced the process of teaching speaking skills: (1) a lack of actual learner speaking, (2) teachers’ misconceptions of what a speaking lesson should entail, (3) speaking for the sake of not keeping quiet and (4) ignorance of curriculum requirements. The study found that despite township EFAL teachers claiming to develop speaking skills in line with the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement, their lessons indicate differently. This could be explained by the crisis currently facing the South African education system, with poor quality teachers and low levels of teacher effort often cited as major drivers thereof.
... These professional approaches are based in a practitioner research Allwright, 2003) (herein PR) that looks at the researcher's own teaching practice from a socio-constructivist perspective (the notion that knowledge is a shared creation that takes place through interaction; cf. Lantolf, 2000Lantolf, , 2004Lantolf & Poehner, 2008;Vygotsky, 1978). ...
This article aims to compare two different methodologies (implemented by a single teacher in an practitioner research approach) used in a 4th year English classroom in a public primary school in Catalonia. To do this comparison, different outcomes from students were collected and analysed to answer different questions related to Project Based Language Learning approach (PBLL) and what the author calls Course-Book Driven approach (CBD). The article examines, through the analysis of the students’ productions and of the focus group, the evidence of gains in written language and the motivation of the students depending on the approach used. The article concludes with several implications for research and practice.
... The present study provides a very straightforward answer to this question, and that is, yes. A good number of scholars have addressed culture acquisition, be it of L1 or L2 (see Katan 1999;Lantolf 1999Lantolf , 2000Lantolf and Thorne 2006;Kramsch 2014). Katan, for instance, holds that culture, like language, can be acquired because it "is not visible as a product, but is internal, collective" and requires natural, unconscious and informal watching and hearing (p. ...
This study strives to answer one major question: Does culture translate?, employing the translation of English proverbs into Arabic by senior students majoring in English. The study involves 30 English proverbs collected from different sources, based on three criteria, namely complete Arabic equivalence, partial Arabic equivalence and zero Arabic equivalence. These 30 proverbs were distributed to 20 randomly selected senior students as participants. The participants translated the 30 proverbs in the form of a translation test in two phases. The results of the study show that teaching the cultural aspects of the proverbs has developed and improved the participants’ translations considerably, thus providing empirical evidence that culture translates .
... si confronta la propria e l'altrui rappresentazione con i significati che emergono da una nuova esposizione al testo A nostro modo di vedere, il terzo elemento, il confronto, colloca l'attività in una prospettiva socioculturale, per la quale il dialogo è l'elemento determinante dell'evolversi della competenza (Lantolf, 2000;Vygotskij, 1980). In altre parole, possiamo riconoscere negli scambi ripetuti una equalizzazione dei livelli di sviluppo potenziale (cfr. ...
Questo articolo analizza diverse attività di ascolto caratterizzate dalla ripetizione del brano audio per un numero di volte che oscilla tra le quattro e le sei. Le attività sono state somministrate in classi di studenti universitari di Lingua e letteratura italiana presso la Universidade Federal Fluminense (Niterói, Brasile). Lo studio rapporta la percentuale di comprensione, audizione dopo audizione, a tre ordini di variabili: la calibrazione del testo, la presenza di uno scambio con i compagni, il numero di volte in cui il testo viene ascoltato. Pur considerate le specificità del contesto della ricerca (in particolar modo, il fatto che le lingue coinvolte sono tipologicamente vicine: portoghese e italiano) e il numero ridotto di partecipanti, i dati che emergono offrono spunti per l’esercizio della pratica dell’ascolto ripetuto.
... La Teoría de la Actividad (Leontiev, 1987) señala que una actividad tiene una estructura compleja, por lo que cambiar las herramientas, aunque cambia la apariencia de la actividad, no necesariamente cambia su estructura fundamental (Lantolf, 2000). Así, utilizar las TIC no garantiza un cambio fundamental en la tarea que realizan los aprendices. ...
Tesis de Doctorado Interinstitucional en Educación
Ali Panahi and Hassan Mohebbi review James P. Lantolf’s 50-years of research in Sociocultural Theory and language-related issues. They read through his whole research works spanning a period of almost 50 years. To accomplish the systematic review, varying procedures were operationalized. All of his research works were first browsed and attempted to be accessed, based on which the objective themes were extracted and James P. Lantolf’s overall achievements were represented. Then, on the ground of a subjective framework and impressionistic criteria, some exclusion and inclusion rules were created for the systematic review. Next, the analysis was performed in the light of five components including his research works, theoretical justification, practical justification, micro-themes and macro-themes. In the end, James P. Lantolf provided his personal discussion and reflection on the systematic review.
This introductory chapter provides an overview of the stated aims of this edited collection and accessible definitions of relevant concepts and principles of Vygotskian sociocultural theory (VSCT). These concepts and principles represent the theoretical foundation for the L2 teacher education (SLTE) professional development innovations included in this collection. Overall, the goals of this chapter and edited collection are twofold: (1) to showcase the variety of praxis-oriented pedagogical interventions that L2 teacher educators/researchers who engage with VSCT have yielded across instructional contexts, teacher populations, languages, and borders and (2) to highlight meaningful insights into what it means to adopt and enact a VSCT theoretical perspective in L2 teacher education pedagogy and research through the frames of innovation, intentionality, and intervention.
This chapter presents the results of an innovative L2 teacher education initiative which aimed to foster the development of a novice teacher as he participated in a series of online cyclical dialogic interactions that combined narrative writing and synchronous discussions of video-recorded instruction. The study investigated how the interplay between a teacher educator (TE) and a novice teacher created social situations of development during which responsive mediation was offered, ZPD activities were forged, and the teacher's perezhivanie was capitalized on. The concepts of ‘student centeredness’ and ‘communicative context’ were constantly present in the TE's mediation to intentionally lead the teacher to revisit his everyday notions of grammar teaching through ideals to be achieved. The deliberately cyclical design of the initiative allowed the TE to continuously address the concerns the novice teacher brought forth, leading him to fly beyond the confines of his everyday experience and embrace a richer, more holistic conception of his craft, which harmoniously intertwines grammar, language use, communicative context, and student-centeredness, accomplishing a kind of teaching that would no longer cause him discomfort.
This paper reports a critical review of mobile language learning (MALL). It adopts the review principles suggested by Kraus et al. (RMS 16:2577–2595 [1]), Lim et al. (The Serv Ind J 7–8:481–513 [2]), and Page et al. (Int J Surg 88:105906 [3]) to analyze ten searched articles on MALL of which the findings are discussed from a perspective of sociocultural theory (SCT). With an evaluation of knowledge progression in the combined domains of MALL and SCT, two themes emerge from these ten research articles: perceptions of MALL via descriptive research and the effects of a certain application or a digital/cultural rool on language learning via experimental investigation. From a SCT perspective, mediation in these studies sheds light on two topics, namely mobile devices as mediating tools and mediated learning through social interaction. The review suggests directions for further studies to adopt other research methods than experimental or descriptive ones to gain more insights in the process of mediation by tools in language learning.
Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE) is often associated with Willingness to Communicate in a second language (L2 WTC). This study aims to examine whether English as an International Language (EIL) perceptions mediate the relationship between IDLE and L2 WTC of learners. Survey data was collected from 206 secondary school students in Korea. The questionnaire of IDLE activities asked whether they watch videos in English (Receptive IDLE) and communicate with others in English (Productive IDLE) through social media like YouTube and Instagram. L2 WTC survey asked how participants were willing to speak in English in the classroom. EIL perception scale examined the perception of the status of English, the variety of English speakers' accents, and communication strategies. The results found that EIL perception partially mediated the relationship between IDLE and L2 WTC. The findings suggest that learners who participate in IDLE activities have more positive EIL perceptions, which leads to a higher level of WTC. The present study has pedagogical implications for teachers to encourage secondary school students to engage more frequently in IDLE activities autonomously which may enhance positive attitudes toward the varieties of English and the level of L2 WTC in the classroom.
This chapter explores the connection between social interaction and personal intra-action in second language (L2) communication from a Sociocultural Theory perspective (SCT). For SCT, the interaction/intra-action link is the key to understanding learning and development in the classroom because communication in social interaction is the origin of conceptualization in personal intra-action. Learners engage in verbal thinking—while and through—speaking and interacting with others.
This link between social interaction and personal intra-action is fluid, transformative, and necessary from a learning/teaching perspective. In the L2 classroom, promoting developmental transformation is based on mindfully engaging with concepts as tools of the mind in meaningful pedagogical tasks. Pedagogical tasks that promote mindfully engaging with concepts are the critical element to transform interaction intro intra-action.
In order to explore these ideas we first review Vygotsky’s proposal on social interaction and development as the basis to understand a sociocultural take on L2 classroom interaction. Then, we explain the learning and development dialectic, the zone of proximal development in Vygotskyan theory, and the notion of internalization. Finally, we focus on three areas where interaction and intra-action meet from an SCT perspective: gestures as meaning-making resources with both a social and a private function, interaction and social speech as the basis for dynamic assessment, and conceptual categories of meaning as psychological tools to be transformed by L2 learners when properly guided by teachers. It is proposed that a SCT take on interaction leading to intra-action should focus on development as conscious awareness through internalizing conceptual categories. In this context, introducing meaning-based
conceptual categories, exploring the gesture-speech interface, and dialectically connecting teaching and assessment is critical for researchers and practitioners who intend to foster development in the L2 classroom.
In England, government initiatives to recruit more ethnic minority teachers into mainstream schools have met with only limited success. One important reason for this may be that the factors that contribute to their distinctive professional skills and identities, and their potential to help raise the achievements of ethnic minority pupils, are not well understood. These factors are complex and, as yet, under-researched. This paper presents evidence from interviews with bilingual primary teachers which illustrates their views on issues of bilingualism, language choices and pedagogy in multilingual classrooms and the importance of recognising community resources. An extended example of teacher–pupil interaction from a complementary classroom setting, showing codeswitching between English and Punjabi, is analysed and discussed using a sociocultural theory of learning which recognises the inseparability of language, culture and context and places emphasis on culture. This keys into broader ideas about ‘culturally responsive pedagogies’. It begins to show how codeswitching, as part of an ‘additive bilingual’ pedagogy, may have the potential to raise pupils' achievements. Finally, while the focus of the paper is on bilingual teachers, the important roles played by all teachers in their pupils' success is recognised.
The purpose of this study is to examine English as a second language (ESL) teachers' sensitivity to their students' social-cultural backgrounds and the kind of constraints they face as they translate sociocultural perspectives into practice. Through both quantitative (questionnaire surveys) and qualitative (interviews) analysis, the study reports how 73 middle and high school teachers in Los Angeles related their own pedagogical practices to the social-cultural experiences of their students. This researcher analyzed the quantitative data using descriptive statistics while qualitative data analysis was carried out using the framework of critical rejlexivity. Results showed that the teachers in the study were aware of and sensitive to the crucial role of their students' background experiences. However, the teachers pointed to institutional barriers and other constraints that have practical impacts on their sociocultural practices and outcomes.
Crosslinguistic Influence and Second Language Learning provides a comprehensive overview of what is currently known about prior language knowledge and experience in second language learning. Three bodies of research are critically reviewed to achieve this goal: (i) theories of language learning that attribute critical roles to prior experience in explaining second language development, (ii) empirical studies of second language learning that have investigated roles for crosslinguistic influence, and (iii) instructional studies that have supported second language learning by addressing the negative effects of crosslinguistic influence. Using this foundation, new research directions and theorization in the field of second language acquisition are proposed. This book will serve as an excellent resource for students and scholars with interests in (instructed) second language learning, applied linguistics, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, and language education.
How can we leverage digital technologies to enhance language learning and bilingual representation? In this digital era, our theories and practices for the learning and teaching of second languages (L2) have lagged behind the pace of scientific advances and technological innovations. Here we outline the approach of digital language learning (DLL) for L2 acquisition and representation, and provide a theoretical synthesis and analytical framework regarding DLL's current and future promises. Theoretically, DLL provides a forum for understanding differences between child language and adult L2 learning, and the effects of learning context and learner characteristics. Practically, findings from learner behaviors, cognitive and affective processing, and brain correlates can inform DLL-based language pedagogies. Because of its highly interdisciplinary nature, DLL can serve as an approach to integrate cognitive, social, affective, and neural dimensions of L2 learning with new and emerging technologies including VR, AI, and big data analytics.
In the initial sociocultural theory (SCT) timeline, Lantolf and Beckett (2009) surveyed a broad spectrum of research informed by sociocultural psychology as it was extended into the field of second language acquisition and language teaching. Since that time, the amount of research that has been published within the SCT framework has grown exponentially. With regard to the educational setting, two major strands of research have emerged; one that addresses pedagogical practice and the other that deals with assessment. The assessment strand, Dynamic Assessment, adheres to principles that emerge from the SCT concept of the Zone of Proximal Development and is the topic of a separate timeline (see Poehner & Wang, forthcoming). The pedagogical strand, the topic of the present article, is generally referred to as Concept-based Language Instruction (C-BLI), although in some publications the rubric Concept-based Instruction (CBI) is used. Unfortunately, the abbreviation of the alternative rubric has on more than one occasion been confused with content-based instruction, also abbreviated as CBI. We would like to suggest here that it would be better if SCT researchers were to adopt C-BLI to avoid misinterpretations going forward.
Theories formulated by Russian psychologist and educator Lev Vygotsky currently range from being applied and celebrated across multiple contexts to be considered outdated. In this paper, we maintain that such inconsistency in application stems from the overreliance on translated or reformulated Vygotskian theories, the attempts to understand these ideas in isolation from the scientific historical context of their development, and the impact of Vygotsky’s personal life circumstances on the development of his scholarship. It is known that Vygotsky’s untimely death prevented him from elaborating on his theoretical views and expanding his early empirical work. We suggest that Vygotsky’s scholarship could be better understood in light of the core principles that transcend all aspects of his work. In this paper, we elaborate on two such core principles: theories of language development and their relation to the integrated systemic approach to psychological development. We argue that although linguistic and historical boundaries have shaped the common perception of Vygotskian theories in anglophone research in a specific way, there is a potential for a renewed application of these theories to modern psychology that might be especially relevant in light of the increasingly interdisciplinary character of the modern science. To support our argument, we provide a brief overview and examples of potential connections between Vygotsky’s scholarship with contemporary landscape in psychological science. The paper presents a brief introduction to the topic of Vygotskian work and its application to modern psychology, rather than an addition to the field of Vygotskian scholarship. It is geared toward non-Vygotskian scholars and invites researchers working in interdisciplinary areas of psychology.
Behaviour-tracking technology has been used for decades in SLA research on focused practice with an eye toward elucidating the nature of L2 automatization (e.g. DeKeyser, 1997; Robinson, 1997). This involves longitudinally capturing learners' judgments or linguistic production along with their response times in order to investigate how specific skills become automatic over time. However, previous research in this area has been conducted mostly in laboratories (i.e., in vitro), sometimes with artificial languages, thereby compromising ecological validity of the findings. Building on this work, this article reports on a one-month study in which learners' (N = 126) behaviour was tracked while they practised two constructions of English grammar (varying in complexity) using mini-games that involved some time pressure and were embedded in meaning-focused reading and discussion activities in class. Feedback was randomly varied between participants. Multilevel statistical analyses of accuracy and response time suggest that practice helped to develop automaticity, and that rule complexity and metalinguistic feedback played a role. The methodological innovation of this study consists of the application of in vitro experimental research techniques in in vivo L2 learning contexts and of the use of statistical mixed effects models to account for the complexity of real-life tracking data.
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide “internal” guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
This article develops a conceptual framework for understanding how intercultural communication, mediated by cultural artifacts (i.e., Internet communication tools), creates compelling, problematic, and surprising conditions for additional language learning. Three case studies of computer-mediated intercultural engagement draw together correlations between discursive orientation, communicative modality, communicative activity, and emergent interpersonal dynamics. These factors contribute to varying qualities and quantities of participation in the intercultural partnerships. Case one, "Clashing Frames of Expectation --Differing Cultures-of-Use," suggests that the cultures-of-use of Internet communication tools, their perceived existence and on-going construction as distinctive cultural artifacts, differs interculturally just as communicative genre, pragmatics, and institutional context would be expected to differ interculturally. Case two, "Intercultural Communication as Hyperpersonal Engagement," illustrates pragmatic and linguistic development as an outcome of intercultural relationship building. The final case study, "The Wrong Tool for the Right Job?," describes a recent generational shift in communication tool preference wherein an ostensibly ubiquitous tool, e-mail, is shown to be unsuitable for mediating age peer relationships. Taken together, these case studies demonstrate that Internet communication tools are not neutral media. Rather, individual and collective experience is shown to influence the ways students engage in Internet-mediated communication with consequential outcomes for both the processes and products of language development. For some social classes and in highly privileged geographical regions, we have entered into a period of rapid and efficient global communication practices mediating an array of interpersonal, discursive-material, and cultural activities. Despite the robust connections between the increasing digitization of everyday communicative practice and issues such as globalization and homogenization, Internet-mediated intercultural educational activities remain demonstrably polymorphous. Reasons for this are many. Educational cultures and objectives vary across nation state boundaries (Belz, 2002) as well as across educational institutions within the US. Moreover, within the same university but across courses or time periods, student populations shift, pedagogical goals are reassessed, and micro-interactional phenomena illustrate their own "accentuality" (Volosinov, 1973), even when the task, as it were, is supposed to remain consistent across participants and time (Coughlan & Duff, 1994). The focus of this article is yet another dimension of human heterogeneity --the cultural embeddedness of Internet communication tools and the consequences of this embedding for communicative activity.
This article offers an empirically based contribution to the growing body of studies using Conversation Analysis (CA) as a tool for analyzing second/foreign language learning in and through interaction. Building on a sociointeractional view of learning as grounded in the structures of participation in social activities, we apply CA methods to examine the affordances offered by interaction during the activity of playing a video game for additional language learning. We focus on one type of interactional practice, lexical and prosodic repetition, as a recurring resource through which players attend to the game and collaboratively build their understanding and experience of game events. We argue that other-repetition offers participants a resource for not only interpreting the game but also for engaging with the second language, analyzing it, and putting it to use in ways that enable players to display and develop their linguistic and interactional competence.
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide “internal” guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional designmodels that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
This timeline is concerned with Dynamic Assessment (henceforth, DA) as it has been taken up and elaborated in contexts involving the teaching, learning, and assessment of learners of second languages (L2s). DA is distinguished by its insistence that an individual's independent performance of assessment tasks reveals only part of his/her abilities, namely those that have completed their development at the time of the assessment; insights into abilities that have begun to emerge but have not yet fully developed can be determined according to an individual's responsiveness to particular kinds of support, referred to as mediation (e.g., reminders, leading questions, hints, provision of a model, feedback), offered during the assessment as difficulties arise (Haywood & Lidz, 2006). In this respect, DA differs from more conventional distinctions in assessment, such as that between assessments concerned with the results of previous learning (‘summative assessment’) and those intended to provide information relevant to subsequent instruction (‘formative assessment’). Instead, the embedding of an interactive, instructional element within the assessment procedure allows for the possibility of expanding the evidential basis upon which summative interpretations of learner abilities are made; that is, the results encompass previous learning that has resulted in both complete and partial understanding of relevant concepts. At the same time, DA serves a formative function in so far as interaction allows insights into the underlying sources of learner difficulties and the kind of support to which they are most responsive (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2002).
For nearly four decades, a variety of social science disciplines have assumed that the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and the metaphor of scaffolding reflect more or less the same process. However, we will argue that any similarity is at best partial and at worst superficial. Equating the processes adds nothing to Vygotsky's general theory and in fact may weaken and dilute the robustness of the theory. To make the non‐equivalence case, the paper first presents an overview of Vygotsky's approach to psychology that includes an expansive discussion of the ZPD not only as the activity in which instruction leads development, but also as the key to his approach to experimental research. This is followed by a critical review of the relevant statements that have appeared in the literature on the nature of scaffolding, its presumed link to the ZPD and that brings to the fore the inadequacies of the metaphor itself that disqualify it as an equivalent process. While the ZPD can be understood to include the kind of interaction that is described in the scaffolding literature, it is a much broader and far more robust process than scaffolding, as is made apparent when the two processes are compared, which is the focus of the concluding section of the article. In the comparison we summarize the analyses presented, especially with regard to the implications and relevance of the metaphors underlying each concept.
This volume is the outcome of the author’s observations and puzzlement over seventeen years of teaching English and French as second languages, followed by 30 years of research into the neurolinguistic aspects of bilingualism. It examines, within the framework of a neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism (Paradis, 2004), the crucial and pervasive contributions made by declarative and procedural memory to the appropriation, representation and processing of a second language. This requires careful consideration of a number of concepts associated with issues pertaining to second language research: consciousness, interface, modularity, automaticity, proficiency, accuracy, fluency, intake, ultimate attainment, switching, implicit linguistic competence and explicit metalinguistic knowledge. It is informed by data from a variety of domains, including language pathology, neuroimaging, and, from each side of the fence, practical classroom experience. This book introduces four further proposals within the framework of a neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism: (1) There are two sets of cerebral representations, those that are capable of reaching consciousness and those that are not; implicit grammar is inherently not capable of reaching consciousness. (2) The increased activation observed in neuroimaging studies during the use of a second language is not devoted to the processing of implicit linguistic competence. (3) Intake is doubly implicit. (4) Given the premise that metalinguistic knowledge cannot be converted into implicit competence, there can be no possible interface between the two.
This book offers a comprehensive examination of the theory, research, and practice of the use of digital games in second and foreign language teaching and learning (L2TL). It explores how to harness the enthusiasm, engagement, and motivation that digital gaming can inspire by adopting a gameful L2TL approach that encompasses game-enhanced, game-informed, and game-based practice. The first part of the book situates gameful L2TL in the global practices of informal learnful L2 gaming and in the theories of play and games which are then applied throughout the discussion of gameful L2TL practice that follows. This includes analysis of practices of digital game-enhanced L2TL design (the use of vernacular, commercial games), game-informed L2TL design (gamification and the general application of gameful principles to L2 pedagogy), and game-based L2TL design (the creation of digital games purposed for L2 learning). Designed as a guide for researchers and teachers, the book also offers fresh insights for scholars of applied linguistics, second language acquisition, L2 pedagogy, computer-assisted language learning (CALL), game studies, and game design that will open pathways to future developments in the field.
Jonathon Reinhardt is Associate Professor of English Applied Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition and Teaching at the University of Arizona, USA.
1. Introduction 2. Informal Learning and Languages 3. The Practices of Online Informal Learning of English 4. Language Acquisition From Online Informal Learning Activities 5. The Theoretical Implications of OILE 6. OILE and the Classroom 7. Studying OILE: Research Methodologies and Perspectives 8. Conclusions ?
In the last ten years, there has been a steady increase in reported cases of successful high-level acquisition by out-of-classroom, informal learners through the affordances of the Internet, while mainstream SLA research has continued to focus on instructed learning contexts with assessments often relying on classroom-based tasks. In this article, we report a study comparing high-level, well-motivated Central Brazilian classroom-trained learners (CTLs) with fully autonomous self-instructed learners (FASILs). Thirty-four FASILs and fifty CTLs, matched for socio-economic status, age, educational level and years of English learning, were assessed on seven distinct but related aspects of language proficiency, completed a questionnaire and were interviewed to gather data on behaviour, beliefs and attitudes. FASILs scored significantly higher than CTLs on all assessments while questionnaires and interviews revealed key differences in attitudes and motivational development. Mode of learning correlated significantly with grammatical and lexical knowledge and range, with detailed analysis indicating that fossilized errors in high-frequency structures were significantly more common among CTLs than FASILs. The results reveal how the new affordances for naturalistic learning through the Internet have transformed informal language learning, enabling significant numbers of independent, informal learners in foreign language contexts to achieve very high levels of proficiency.
Interest in using mobile applications to enhance students’ learning in Spanish classrooms runs high; however, little empirical research about their effects has been conducted. Using intentionally designed classroom activities to promote meaningful learning with a mobile application, we investigated the extent to which students of Spanish as a second language (L2) could improve accuracy in conjugating verbs. Pre- and posttest results show that these activities helped students improve not only accuracy but also confidence in conjugating Spanish verbs. The 80 students who participated in this study for four consecutive semesters reported an overall positive experience with the verb-conjugating activities but noted some limitations. Results of this empirical study enhance the learning of Spanish with a mobile application in the classroom.
Learners engaged in synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) work collaboratively to construct knowledge by providing each other with implicit and explicit feedback. In addition to its value in encouraging learners to make modifications toward target-like forms, the implicitness or explicitness of the feedback provides a means to understand the individual learner's language development (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994). Being that microgenetic growth results from learners who provide each other with gradual and contingent help in face-to-face interactions (Ohta, 2000), it would be of interest to learn if such gradual and contingent help appears in SCMC with the same positive effects. Thus, this study explores two questions: (a) To what extent do learners in SCMC engage in similar patterns of assistance to those used in face-to-face interactions between students? (b) To what extent does microgenetic growth occur as a result of learner-learner interactions? For this study, two full classes of Intermediate Spanish I students were selected. Students were placed in pairs (plus two triads) and participated in a series of tasks as a part of their assigned class work. The researcher analyzed the discussion transcripts, identified different moments of assistance, and examined the data for instances of microgenetic growth. The results of this study suggest that, although learners did indeed provide each other with gradual and contingent feedback and, in some instances, showed microgenetic growth, neither were as apparent as those found in face-to-face interactions.
The current study was designed to assess the central claim of the Teachability Hypothesis (TH), a corollary of general Processability Theory (PT), which predicts instruction cannot alter posited universal, hierarchically organized psycholinguistic constraints behind PT's developmental sequences. We employed an interventional design, which adhered to instructional procedures of Systemic Theoretical Instruction, and we taught four university learners at Stage 2 (subject-verb-object) Chinese topicalization for Stage 4 (object-first, e.g., Pizza tā yě chī le, Pizza 他 也 吃了, ‘Pizza he also ate’). We believe the findings show that, under the instructional conditions utilized in the study, the predictions of TH do not hold. We conclude it is possible to artificially construct a developmental route different from the one predicted by natural developmental sequences, in agreement with the claims of Vygotsky's developmental education.
The article reports on a mixed-methods study evaluating the use of a three-dimensional digital game-based language learning (3D-DGBLL) environment to teach German two-way prepositions and specialized vocabulary within a simulated real-world context of German recycling and waste management systems. The study assumed that goal-directed player activity in this environment would configure digital narratives, which in turn would help study participants in the experimental group to co-configure story maps for ordering and making sense of the problem spaces encountered in the environment. The study further assumed that these participants would subsequently rely on the story maps to help them structure written L2 narratives describing an imagined personal experience closely resembling the gameplay of the 3D-DGBLL environment. The study found that immersion in the 3D-DGBLL environment influenced the manner in which the second language was invoked in these written narratives: Participants in the experimental group produced narratives containing more textual indicators describing the activity associated with the recycling and waste management systems and the spaces in which these systems are located. Increased usage of these indicators suggest that participants in the experimental group did indeed rely on story maps generated during 3D gameplay to structure their narratives, although stylistic and grammatical features of the narratives suggest, however, that changes could be made to the curricular implementation of the 3D-DGBLL environment. The study also puts forward ideas for instructional best practices based on research findings and suggests future areas of development and investigation.
For L. S. Vygotsky the end of the '20s was a time of intensive theoretical and experimental work in developing the basic postulates of his cultural-historical theory of the human mind. The relatively calm and, in spite of everything, happy first five years of his life in Moscow, after moving there in 1924 from Gomel', lay behind him. This was a period of his development as a psychologist when his star was in the ascendancy; when within a few years, this still quite young man was transformed from a provincial teacher, known to no one, into one of the leading and most outstanding figures in young Soviet psychology, a scholar with an inviolable scientific authority, surrounded by a group of young, also talented, and solemnly dedicated disciples; a man with a deep awareness of his mission in the development of science, full of ideas, intentions, and plans, most of which, unfortunately, were destined to remain unrealized because of Vygotsky's premature death. Vygotsky worked all these years rapidly and intensively, as if he had a presentiment of his death. One after the other, great works, which today constitute the body of the cultural-historical concept, and have long since become part of the treasures of Soviet and world psychological literature, flowed from his pen. Almost every one of them was prepared by degrees, in preliminary sketches and notes Vygotsky had made mostly for himself, not intending them for print. But even this special "inner speech" of Vygotsky's is usually in the form of independent, coherent, and sometimes fully finished texts, thanks to his generally striking capacity to live and do everything in his life immediately "from scratch," without any "rough drafts." Such is the manuscript published below, which Vygotsky wrote in 1929; it is from his family archives, kindly provided by his daughter, G. L. Vygotskaya. This work gives us a glimpse into the creative laboratory of this extraordinary thinker, enabling us, with almost visual clarity, to view the process of crystallization of some of the basic postulates of his cultural-historical theory, which we know well from Vygotsky's classical works of the early '30s. Moreover, it also contains a number of original ideas and reflections that were not dealt with further in his later works. In this sense, Vygotsky's notes published here should shed new light on some of the fundamental postulates of his concept, sometimes within a context that makes them extremely timely for contemporary psychology as well.
Explicating clearly and concisely the full implication of a praxis-oriented language pedagogy, this book argues for an approach to language teaching grounded in a significant scientific theory of human learning—a stance that rejects the consumer approach to theory and the dichotomy between theory and practice that dominates SLA and language teaching. This approach is based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, according to which the two activities are inherently connected so that each is necessarily rooted in the other; practice is the research laboratory where the theory is tested. From the perspective of language education, this is what is meant by the ‘pedagogical imperative.’
In this article I demonstrate that the teachability of language is constrained by what the learner is ready to acquire. I set out a series of psychological constraints on teachability and relate these to the 'multidimensional model of SLA', taking a speech processing approch towards the explanation of language acquisition. This article supplies the empirical evidence for these constraints-namely experiments and longitudinal studies-which were available at the time of submission (1985). I take the position that while this research has important implications for 'formal interventions' in the acquisition process, the nature of such interventions do by no means follow from the research on teachability reported on in this article.
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The point of departure for this article is the contrast between the theoretical landscape within view of language teaching professionals in 1991 and that of today. I argue that the pragmatic goal of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) developers and researchers to create and evaluate learning opportunities pushes them to consider a variety of theoretical approaches to second language acquisition (SLA), which have developed, in part, in response to the need to theorize the role of instruction in SLA. To illustrate connections between SLA and CALL, I touch on multiple theoretical perspectives grouped into four general approaches: cognitive linguistic (Universal Grammar, autonomous induction theory, and the concept-oriented approach); psycholinguistic (processibility theory, input processing theory, interactionist theory); human learning (associative–cognitive CREED, skill acquisition theory); and language in social context (sociocultural, language socialization, conversation analysis, systemic–functional, complexity theory). I suggest that such theoretical approaches can be useful in the development and evaluation of CALL materials and tasks. Finally, I propose that the expanding use of technology changes the nature of communicative competence theory, challenges SLA theory, and increases the number of consumers for SLA research.
This study investigates EFL learners’ dialogues in synchronous task-based computer-mediated communication (CMC). The focus is on whether learners engage each other in text-based dialogues regarding the language use in pursuit of the task goal in the CMC context and how their mutual engagement impacts their language learning. Sixteen Chinese tertiary-level learners voluntarily participated in this study. They were randomly assigned to eight virtual pairs, and completed four collaborative tasks via Moodle, a course management system. The study was conducted within a sociocultural framework, especially Swain’s concept of collaborative dialogue. Language-related episode (LRE) was employed as a research tool to analyze the learners’ dialogue concerning their language use during the completion of the tasks. The data set includes recorded online chat logs, a post-task survey that elicited the learners’ perspectives on the online collaborative learning and two individualized posttests (immediate and delayed). The findings revealed that learners did assist each other in attending to language forms through collaborative dialogue, which consequently enhanced their language learning.
Twenty-five years of digital literacies in CALL
- R Kern
Kern, R. (2021). Twenty-five years of digital literacies in CALL. Language Learning
& Technology, 25(3), 132-150.
Getting wrong from the beginning
- K Egan
Egan, K. (2002). Getting wrong from the beginning. Our progressivist inheritance from
Herbert Spencer, John Dewey, and Jean Piaget. New Haven, CT: Yale University
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I~You > I~Me: The hidden "other" in second language development
- J P Lantolf
Lantolf, J. P. (2020). I~You > I~Me: The hidden "other" in second language
development. In L. Gurzynski-Weiss (Ed.), Cross-theoretical explorations of interlocutors and their individual differences (pp. 79-97). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
The handbook of technology and second language teaching and learning
- J Heift
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language teaching and learning (p. 26). Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
Mediating online discourse
- C. R. Kost