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Food Processing and Nutrition Delivery
Abstract
For centuries man has understood the importance of food, diet, and diversity to deliver the required nutrition. What one eats has a profound impact on an individual’s health and well-being. Various data sources indicate that India is doing poorly in terms of correct deliveries of Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) in spite of the production of about 260 million tonnes of food grains (cereals, pulses, and oilseeds), about 300 million tonnes of fruits and vegetables, about 180 million tonnes of milk, 5.3 million tonnes of meat, and 75 billion eggs per year. Food and nutrition delivery systems have to cater to the adequacy of calories and proteins for energetic humans as well as provide required micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, and food fibres) for imparting immunity. Nutrient deficiency diseases create a burden on the economy on account of not-so-healthy manpower to contribute to national GDP as well as create a burden on “public-healthcare systems”. Recent data on child malnutrition, infant mortality, and the prevalence of lifestyle diseases in India and other developing countries is evidence requiring serious attention of the scientific community, executive bodies, and the conscious efforts by individuals themselves. Health costs on the public exchequer finding “health services” and related infrastructure are high, and an “Economy-in transition” can ill afford “malnutrition” and increasing health issues during decades ahead. This chapter discusses the detailed food processing operations (covering farm-to-fork) that can work as a conduit to carry food products both in their natural forms and “minimal processing”. Sensory appeal, tastes in particular, of the food is extremely important for the individuals in choosing food options in parallel with the nutrient content. The chapter further provides challenging opportunities in developing newer products to cater to this dual competing requirement towards meeting the goals of lifestyle and wellness world-over.KeywordsMacro- and micronutrientMalnutritionFarm-to-fork
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Millets are a traditional staple food of the dryland regions of the world and are rich in essential nutrients like protein, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and dietary fiber. Also, millets commonly synthesize a range of secondary metabolites to protect themselves against adverse conditions. These factors are collectively termed anti‐nutritional factors and the existence of these factors in millets might reduce the accessibility of the nutrients in humans. Some of these factors include protease inhibitors, tannins, non‐starch polysaccharides‐glucans, phytates, and oxalates each of which might directly or indirectly affect the digestibility of nutrients. Methods like soaking, germination, autoclaving, debranning, and the addition of exogenous enzymes have been used to reduce the anti‐nutritional factors and elevate the bioavailability of the nutrients. This review summarizes various methods that have been used to improve nutrient bioavailability, specifically emphasizing the use of enzymes to improve nutrient bioavailability from millets. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
Biopreservatives have received considerable attention in recent years as natural alternatives to synthetic preservatives. This seems to be a response to an increased demand for natural and organic foods. This study investigates the potential market for products enriched with biopreservatives in Italy. Data were collected from a sample of Italian consumers (N = 479) using a web-based survey. The main results indicate that 64% of respondents declared themselves to be willing to consume biopreservatives only if they replaced synthetic preservatives. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to reduce the number of variables. The factorial scores of the components obtained from PCA were used for a Cluster Analysis related to consumers’ perceptions about biopreservatives. Moreover, the survey highlights that the respondents had positive opinions about biopreservatives, although they showed difficulty in perceiving the exact meaning of the term. The study could provide useful implications for food manufacturers and facilitate the design of marketing strategies for foods enriched with biopreservatives.
Food‐to‐food fortification (FtFF) is an emerging food‐based strategy that can complement current strategies in the ongoing fight against micronutrient deficiencies, but it has not been defined or characterized. This review has proposed a working definition of FtFF. Comparison with other main food‐based strategies clearly differentiates FtFF as an emerging strategy with the potential to address multiple micronutrient deficiencies simultaneously, with little dietary change required by consumers. A review of literature revealed that despite the limited number of studies (in vitro and in vivo), the diversity of food‐based fortificants investigated and some contradictory data, there are promising fortificants, which have the potential to improve the amount of bioavailable iron, zinc, and provitamin A from starchy staple foods. These fortificants are typically fruits and vegetables, with high mineral as well as ascorbic acid and β‐carotene contents. However, as the observed improvements in micronutrient bioavailability and status are relatively small, measuring the positive outcomes is more likely to be impactful only if the FtFF products are consumed as regular staples. Considering best practices in implementation of FtFF, raw material authentication and ingredient documentation are critical, especially as the contents of target micronutrients and bioavailability modulators as well as the microbiological quality of the plant‐based fortificants can vary substantially. Also, as there are only few developed supply chains for plant‐based fortificants, procurement of consistent materials may be problematic. This, however, provides the opportunity for value chain development, which can contribute towards the economic growth of communities, or hybrid approaches that leverage traditional premixes to standardize product micronutrient content.
Food fortification is an important nutrition intervention to fight micronutrient deficiencies and to reduce their incidence in many low‐ and middle‐income countries. Food fortification approaches experienced a significant rise in the recent years and have generated a lot of criticism. The present review aimed to shed light on the actual effect of food fortification approaches on the reduction of malnutrition. A set of 100 articles and reports, which have dealt with the impact of food fortification on malnutrition, were included in this review. This review identified a broad selection of local raw materials suitable for a food‐to‐food fortification approach. Food fortification is an important nutrition intervention to fight micronutrient deficiencies and to reduce their incidence in many low‐ and middle‐income countries. Food fortification approaches experienced a significant rise in the recent years and have generated a lot of criticism. This review identified a broad selection of local raw materials suitable for a food‐to‐food fortification approach.
Cereals are one of the major food sources in human diet and a large quantity of by-products is generated throughout their processing chain. These by-products mostly consist of the germ and outer layers (bran), deriving from dry and wet milling of grains, brewers' spent grain originating from brewing industry, or others originating during bread-making and starch production. Cereal industry by-products are rich in nutrients, but still they end up as feed, fuel, substrates for biorefinery, or waste. The above uses, however, only provide a partial recycle. Although cereal processing industry side streams can potentially provide essential compounds for the diet, their use in food production is limited by their challenging technological properties. For this reason, the development of innovative biotechnologies is essential to upgrade these by-products, potentially leading to the design of novel and commercially competitive functional foods. Fermentation has been proven as a very feasible option to enhance the technological, sensory, and especially nutritional and functional features of the cereal industry by-products. Through the increase of minerals, phenolics and vitamins bioavailability, proteins digestibility, and the degradation of antinutritional compounds as phytic acid, fermentation can lead to improved nutritional quality of the matrix. In some cases, more compelling benefits have been discovered, such as the synthesis of bioactive compounds acting as antimicrobial, antitumoral, antioxidant agents. When used for baked-goods manufacturing, fermented cereal by-products have enhanced their nutritional profile. The key factor of a successful use of cereal by-products in food applications is the use of a proper bioprocessing technology, including fermentation with selected starters. In the journey toward a more efficient food chain, biotechnological approaches for the valorization of agricultural side streams can be considered a very valuable help.
Iron and calcium are two essential micronutrients that have strong effects on nutrition and human health because of their involvement in several biological and redox processes. Iron is responsible for electron and oxygen transport, cell respiration, and gene expression, whereas calcium is responsible for intracellular metabolism, muscle contraction, cardiac function, and cell proliferation. The bioavailability of these nutrients in the body is dependent on enhancers and inhibitors, some of which are found in consumed foods. Hydrolyzed proteins and peptides from food proteins can bind these essential minerals in the body and facilitate their absorption and bioavailability. The binding is also important because excess free iron will increase oxidative stress and the risks of developing chronic diseases. This paper provides an overview of the function of calcium and iron, and strategies to enhance their absorption with an emphasis on hydrolyzed proteins and peptides from foods. It also discusses the relationship between the structure of peptides and their potential to act as transition metal ligands.
Cereals and legumes are outstanding sources of macronutrients, micronutrients,
phytochemicals, as well as antinutritional factors. These components present a complex
system enabling interactions with different components within food matrices.
The interactions result in insoluble complexes with reduced bioaccessibility of nutrients
through binding and entrapment thereby limiting their release from food matrices.
The interactions of nutrients with antinutritional factors are the main factor
hindering nutrients release. Trypsin inhibitors and phytates inherent in cereals and
legumes reduce protein digestibility and mineral release, respectively. Interaction of
phytates and phenolic compounds with minerals is significant in cereals and legumes.
Fermentation and germination are commonly used to disrupt these interactions and
make nutrients and phytochemicals free and accessible to digestive enzymes. This
paper presents a review on traditional fermentation and germination processes as a
means to address myriad interactions through activation of endogenous enzymes
such as α-amylase, pullulanase, phytase, and other glucosidases. These enzymes degrade
antinutritional factors and break down complex macronutrients to their simple
and more digestible forms.
Background Consumers’ perceptions of naturalness are important for the acceptance of foods and food technologies. Thus, several studies have examined the significance of naturalness among consumers. Nonetheless, the aspects that are considered essential in perceiving a food item as natural may vary across consumers and different stakeholder groups. Scope and approach This systematic review identified 72 studies conducted in 32 countries involving 85,348 consumers. We aimed to answer the following questions: 1) How has the perceived importance of naturalness for consumers been defined and measured? 2) To what extent is perceived naturalness important to consumers? 3) Are there individual differences regarding the importance given to food naturalness that can be explained by consumers' characteristics? 4) Do consumers’ attitudes toward food naturalness influence their intentions and behavior? Key findings and conclusions The review clearly shows that for the majority of consumers, food naturalness is crucial. This finding could be observed across countries and in the different years when the studies were conducted. Therefore, neglecting the aspect of naturalness in the food industry may be very costly in the end. Our review also reveals differences across studies in how naturalness has been defined and measured. Based on a content analysis of the measurement scales, the items used to measure the importance of naturalness can be classified into three categories: 1) the way the food has been grown (food origin), 2) how the food has been produced (what technology and ingredients have been used), and 3) the properties of the final product.
Abstract
Essential micronutrients, such as lipophilic vitamins are vital for human health and wellbeing. There is a growing demand on consuming vitamin-fortified foods due to the increasing awareness of consumers to common life-treating diseases. People may not take the required daily intake (RDI) amount of these vitamins due to the limited natural sources, malnutrition facts, and loss of their chemical stability during food production, storage, and transportation. Protective encapsulation technologies are required during food fortification to prevent vitamins from degradation and enhance their bioavailability in human gastrointestinal system. Oil-in-water nanoemulsions are described as promising delivery systems by the researchers to encapsulate and stabilize lipophilic vitamins and thus enhance their bioavailability. This review covers the challenges in production methods and factors affecting the stability of lipophilic vitamins and nanoemulsion delivery systems as well and the most recent studies on bioavailability evaluation of vitamins A, D, E encapsulated in oil-in-water nanoemulsions.
Global data indicate a high prevalence of hidden hunger among population. Deficiencies of certain micronutrients such as folic acid, iodine, iron, and vitamin A have long lasting effects on growth and development and therefore have been a National priority from many decades. The strategy implemented so far limits to the use of supplemental sources or fortified foods in alleviating the burden of deficiencies. These approaches however undermine the food-based strategies involving dietary diversification as the long-term sustainable strategy. There is lack of understanding on the level of evidence needed to implement such strategies and the level of monitoring required for impact evaluation. Dietary diversity concerns how to ensure access for each individual to a quality and safe diet with adequate macro- and micronutrients. The key to success in using dietary diversity as a strategy to tackle hidden hunger is in integrating it with the principles of bioavailability, translated to efficient food synergies with due emphasis on food accessibility, affordability, and outdoor physical activity/life style modifications. Promoting enabling environment and sustainable agriculture is crucial for practicing dietary diversification with behavior change communication as an integral segment. It can be concluded that food-based strategies require careful understanding of the factors associated with it and moderate it to form an effective strategy for controlling multiple micronutrient deficiencies.
More than 2 billion individuals globally suffer some degree of deficiency of one or more micronutrients, with the largest numbers in Africa and Asia. Fortification of foods with vitamins and minerals is a proven public health intervention. In Asia, salt iodization, fortified flour and condiments such as fish sauce and soy sauce are reaching hundreds of millions. However, many individuals still do not have adequate intakes of numerous micronutrients, and better fortification strategies and practices will help to alleviate these deficiencies. The International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) has supported research and scientific dialog about technical and health issues related to micronutrients. Recent studies have indicated widespread vitamin D deficiency among children in SE Asia, and in India. A new trial shows the efficacy of vitamin D-fortified milk in addressing deficiencies, which may have applicability in school feeding programs in India and other parts of Asia. Infant nutrition is also critical, and complementary foods can play an important role after exclusive breastfeeding in providing critical nutrients. A formulation developed in China, Ying Yang Bao, has shown significant reduction of anemia and improved growth in infants. Fortification in Asia has the potential to greatly reduce micronutrient deficiencies and improve health, but more structured efforts are needed to achieve these goals.
This review aims at emphasizing the role played by physical characteristics and physico-chemical properties of food matrix on the digestive and metabolic fate, and health effects of grain products. It is today obvious that the food matrix conditions the health effects of food products and that we are able to modify this matrix to control the digestive fate of foods, and the metabolic fate of nutrients and bioactive compounds (reverse engineering). In other words, there is no more to consider nutrition in a quantitative perspective (i.e., a food is a only sum of macro-, micro- and phyto-nutrients) but rather according to a qualitative perspective involving concepts of interaction of nutrients within the matrix, of enzymatic bio-accessibility, bioavailability and metabolic fate in relation with release kinetics in the gastrointestinal tract, and food nutrient synergy. This new perspective on the food health potential also reflects the urge to consider preventive nutrition research according to a more holistic and integrative perspective after decades of reductionist researches based on the study of the health effects of food components in isolation. To illustrate the importance of food structure, a focus has been made on grain-based products such as rice, leguminous seeds and nuts, and on soft technological treatments that preserve food structure such as pre-fermentation, soaking and germination.
Objective:
To assess the impact of an intervention modifying dietary habits for the prevention of anaemia in rural India.
Design:
Intervention study with data on anthropometric (weight, height) measurements, Hb and diet pattern. As per the cut-off for Hb in the government programme, women with Hb <11 g/dl had to be given Fe tablets and formed the supplemented group while those with Hb > 11 g/dl formed the non-supplemented group. Settings Three villages near Pune city, Maharashtra, India.
Subjects:
Rural non-pregnant women (n 317) of childbearing age (15-35 years).
Results:
After 1 year of intervention, mean Hb increased (from 10.94 (sd 1.22) g/dl to 11.59 (sd 1.11) g/dl) significantly (P < 0.01) with a consequent reduction in the prevalence of anaemia (from 82.0% to 55.4%) as well as Fe-deficiency anaemia (from 30.3% to 10.8%). Gain in Hb was inversely associated with the initial level of Hb. Significant gain in Hb (0.57 g/dl) was observed among women attending >50% of the meetings or repeating >50% of the recipes at home (0.45 g/dl) in the non-supplemented group and was smaller than that observed in the supplemented group. Consumption of green leafy vegetables more than twice weekly increased substantially from 44.7% to 60.6%, as did consumption of seasonal fruits. Logistic regression showed that women with lower participation in the intervention had three times higher risk (OR = 3.08; 95% CI 1.04, 9.13; P = 0.04) for no gain in Hb compared with those having high participation.
Conclusions:
Developing action programmes for improving nutritional awareness to enhance the consumption of Fe-rich foods has great potential for preventing anaemia in rural India.
Background
Grains are an important source of many nutrients and minerals and because of the phytochemicals they contain, they help to maintain optimum health. Millets, a category of small-seeded grasses, widely cultivated around the world as cereal crops, are one of the oldest grains known to mankind. These are extremely nutritious and are proven to play a pivotal role in preventing and curing several health issues. However, millet flour has poor shelf life due to its high fat content as well as lipase activity which causes rapid development of rancidity and bitterness. Its keeping quality greatly depends on different pre-treatments applied and storage conditions.
Scope and approach
In the present review, the effect of various processes/treatments like mechanical processing, thermal treatments, fermentation, germination, addition of preservatives, and some novel techniques like gamma irradiation, microwave processing, infrared heating, high-pressure processing, pulsed light processing, and ultrasound processing on storage stability and other nutritional properties of different millet flour was reviewed. Their principle of action, advantages, and disadvantages have also been highlighted.
Key findings and conclusions
All the technologies emphasized in this review have proven to augment the shelf life of millet flour. However, traditional processes are accompanied by changes in nutritional and functional properties, which necessitate the need for alternatives. Novel thermal and non-thermal techniques were found to cause both microbial decontamination and enzyme inactivation, although their application is limited as far as millet flour is concerned. These techniques are yet to be explored as millets are regaining popularity and have become part of the staple diet of many health-conscious consumers.
The physicochemical, functional, thermal properties and in vitro digestibility of flours from germinated Bambara groundnut (BGN) were monitored over 72 h. In a time dependent manner, germination led to significant (p ≤ 0.05) increases in protein (26.1–28.79 g/100 g), dietary fiber components, digestible starch, in vitro protein digestibility (73.67–88.9%), calcium, magnesium, potassium, total phenolic content, and majority of the amino acids. Germination significantly decreased phytic acid, tannin and trypsin inhibitory activity. Protein solubility, oil and water absorption capacity, foaming capacity, emulsion stability and activity of BGN flour increased significantly with germination. Germination also modified the thermal and pasting properties of the flour. However, scanning electron microscopy did not reveal significant changes in starch granular structure. There were significant decreases in relative crystallinity (57.94–20.92%) as observed from the X-ray diffractograms. This study has demonstrated that germination significantly improved the nutritional, total phenolic content, functional and processing properties of BGN flour. This could encourage its utilization in food product development, particularly as a functional food ingredient.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the bioaccessibility of nutrients and antioxidant activity of O. radicata after subjecting to four types of domestic cooking and followed by in vitro digestion. The result demonstrated that the group with the lowest amino acid release and the degree of protein hydrolysis (5.6%) was frying, but both reducing sugar content and antioxidant activity were the highest. The composition of fatty acids was different than undigested samples, especially the relative content of linolenic acid was significantly decreased (e.g., 34.49 to 8.23%, boiled). The difference of the minerals bioaccessibility was slightly affected by the cooking method, but mainly related to their natural properties, such as the highest phosphorus (62.73%) and the lowest iron (21.53%) in the steaming. The above data provides a starting point for the design of processes at an industrial and gastronomic level.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the oral bioavailability of liposomal vitamin C and non-liposomal vitamin C in healthy, adult, human subjects under fasting conditions through an open label, randomized, single-dose, two-treatment, two-sequence, two-period, two-way crossover, study. The vitamin C loaded liposome was well characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS) and zeta potential measurements for evaluating morphology, particle size and stabilities, respectively. Microscopic image shows the core-type structure that confirms the characteristic pattern of liposome. The encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and the particle size were 65.85 ± 1.84% and below 100 nm, respectively. The results of the clinical studies of liposomal vitamin C by oral delivery to be 1.77 times more bioavailable than non-liposomal vitamin C. The liposomal vitamin C demonstrated higher values of Cmax, AUC0-
t
and AUC0-∞ related to non-liposomal vitamin C due to liposomal encapsulation. No adverse events were reported. It could be concluded that liposomal encapsulated ascorbic acid (vitamin C) shows well-organized morphological pattern, uniform particle size and highly efficient, which leads to have enhanced bioavailability.
Co-crystallization is a popular technique to stabilize active compounds and is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industry. This work aimed at development and characterization of vitamin B12 fortified co-crystallized sugar cubes. Among the different hydrocolloids used for co-crystallization of sugar cubes, the maximum retention of 97.5% vitamin B12 was seen with gum acacia at 2.5% (w/w of sucrose). The product showed lower crystallinity than pure sucrose crystals. In vitro digestibility indicated a slow release of encapsulated vitamin B12 than control vitamin B12. The degradation kinetics of vitamin B12 during storage at different combinations of temperature and relative humidity (RH) showed a half life of 693 days at 25 °C/30% RH and significantly better stability than other storage conditions. Co-crystallization can be considered as a simple, convenient, scalable, and attractive strategy for the fortification of vitamin B12.
Background: Proteins are essential macronutrients of the human diet. Currently, major dietary sources in developed countries are of animal origin. However, the association of red meat consumption to the increased risks of
some health conditions and its unsustainable pressure on the environment have increased the interest in plant
proteins as healthier and sustainable alternatives. Of these, legumes have a great potential, but part of their proteins are indigestible due to interaction with other components such as phytate and polyphenols. As such, the
quest to improve protein accessibility has become of interest to many researchers. Germination is proposed to be
a bioprocess method to improve protein digestibility and protein biological properties.
Scope and approach: This review discusses the importance of plant proteins and the hindrance of protein digestibility. This paper also highlights the role of germination in the deactivation of antinutritional factors, hydrolysis of
indigestible proteins, and improvement of properties and content of proteins of different legume seeds.
Key findings and conclusions: Protein digestibility is dependent on the nature of antinutritional factors (e.g. trypsin
inhibitors and phytate) in the food matrix. Germination represses the activity of trypsin inhibitors and removes
the phytate-related inhibition through hydrolysis. Protein content increases in germinated seeds when compared
to non-germinated ones, suggesting that proteins were either hydrolysed or dissociated from antinutritional factors. Germination seems like an adequate bioprocessing method to improve the content and nutritional quality of
legume seed proteins.
Claims in the lay literature suggest soaking nuts enhances mineral bioavailability. Research on legumes and grains indicate soaking reduces phytate levels, however, there is no evidence to support or refute these claims for nuts. We assessed the effects of different soaking regimes on phytate and mineral concentrations of whole and chopped almonds, hazelnuts, peanuts, and walnuts. The treatments were: 1. Raw; 2. soaked for 12 hours in salt solution; 3. soaked for 4 hours in salt solution; 4. soaked for 12 hours in water. Phytate concentrations were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and minerals by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Differences in phytate concentrations between treated and untreated nuts were small, ranging from -12% to +10%. Overall, soaking resulted in lower mineral concentrations, especially for chopped nuts, and did not improve phytate:mineral molar ratios. This research does not support claims that ‘activating’ nuts results in greater nutrient bioavailability.
Blends of cereals and nutrient dense plant materials are increasingly being explored as a strategy for food-to-food fortification in areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, where processing is often applied to enhance product attributes, shelf life and safety. However, little is known regarding the potential impact of these strategies on micronutrient retention and bioaccessibility. In this study whole grain pearl millet (WGM) was blended with carrot powder (source of provitamin A) and Adansonia digitata (Baobab) and Moringa oleifera (Moringa) leaf powders (source of iron) to provide formulations with 25% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for Vitamin A. These blends were extruded to produce instant cereal porridges appropriate for consumer markets. Recovery of provitamin A carotenoid ranged from 60.0 to 90.3% after extrusion with higher recoveries in formulations including Moringa and Baobab. Extrusion had a significant negative (p < 0.05) impact on β-carotene bioaccessibility compared to corresponding dry blends (52% versus 47%; P < 0.05). However, the presence of Baobab in the formulation did enhance provitamin A carotenoid bioaccessibility. These results suggest that extruded blends of native plant materials with whole grain millet has potential to deliver products with stable and bioaccessible provitamin A.
Background:
Rice fortification with vitamins and minerals has the potential to increase the nutrition in rice-consuming countries where micronutrient deficiencies exist. Globally, 490 million metric tonnes of rice are consumed annually. It is the dominant staple food crop of around three billion people.
Objectives:
To determine the benefits and harms of rice fortification with vitamins and minerals (iron, vitamin A, zinc or folic acid) on micronutrient status and health-related outcomes in the general population.
Search methods:
We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and 16 other databases all up to 10 December 2018. We searched ClinicalTrials.gov, and World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) on 10 December 2018.
Selection criteria:
We included randomised and quasi-randomised trials (with either individual or cluster randomisation) and controlled before-and-after studies. Participants were populations older than two years of age (including pregnant women) from any country. The intervention was rice fortified with at least one micronutrient or a combination of several micronutrients (iron, folic acid, zinc, vitamin A or other vitamins and minerals) compared with unfortified rice or no intervention.
Data collection and analysis:
We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. Two review authors independently screened studies and extracted data.
Main results:
We included 17 studies (10,483 participants) and identified two ongoing studies. Twelve included studies were randomised-controlled trials (RCTs), with 2238 participants after adjusting for clustering in two cluster-RCTs, and five were non-randomised studies (NRS) with four controlled before-and-after studies and one cross-sectional study with a control (8245 participants). Four studies were conducted in India, three in Thailand, two in the Philippines, two in Brazil, one each in Bangladesh, Burundi, Cambodia, Indonesia, Mexico and the USA. Two studies involved non-pregnant, non-lactating women and 10 involved pre-school or school-age children. All 17 studies reported fortification with iron. Of these, six studies fortified rice with iron only; 11 studies had other micronutrients added (iron, zinc and vitamin A, and folic acid). One study had one arm each with vitamin A alone and carotenoid alone. Elemental iron content ranged from 0.2 to 112.8 mg/100 g uncooked rice given for a period varying from two weeks to 48 months. Thirteen studies did not clearly describe either sequence generation or allocation concealment. Eleven studies had a low attrition rate. There was no indication of selective reporting in the studies. We considered two RCTs at low overall risk of bias and 10 at high overall risk of bias. One RCT was at high or unclear risk of bias for most of the domains. All controlled before-and-after studies had a high risk or unclear risk of bias in most domains. The included studies were funded by Government, private and non-governmental organisations, along with other academic institutions. The source of funding does not appear to have altered the results. We used the NRS in the qualitative synthesis but we excluded them from the quantitative analysis and review conclusions since they provided mostly contextual information and limited quantitative information. Rice fortified with iron alone or in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified rice (no micronutrients added) Fortification of rice with iron (alone or in combination with other micronutrients) may make little or no difference in the risk of having anaemia (risk ratio (RR) 0.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.54 to 0.97; I2 = 74%; 7 studies, 1634 participants; low-certainty evidence) and may reduce the risk of iron deficiency (RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.51 to 0.84; 8 studies, 1733 participants; low-certainty evidence). Rice fortification may increase mean haemoglobin (mean difference (MD) 1.83, 95% CI 0.66 to 3.00; I2 = 54%; 11 studies, 2163 participants; low-certainty evidence) and it may make little or no difference to vitamin A deficiency (with vitamin A as one of the micronutrients in the fortification arm) (RR 0.68, 95% CI 0.36 to 1.29; I2 = 37%; 4 studies, 927 participants; low-certainty evidence). One study reported that fortification of rice (with folic acid as one of the micronutrients) may improve serum or plasma folate (nmol/L) (MD 4.30, 95% CI 2.00 to 6.60; 215 participants; low-certainty evidence). One study reported that fortification of rice with iron alone or with other micronutrients may slightly increase hookworm infection (RR 1.78, 95% CI 1.18 to 2.70; 785 participants; low-certainty evidence). We are uncertain about the effect of fortified rice on diarrhoea (RR 3.52, 95% CI 0.18 to 67.39; 1 study, 258 participants; very low-certainty evidence). Rice fortified with vitamin A alone or in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified rice (no micronutrients added) One study had one arm providing fortified rice with vitamin A only versus unfortified rice. Fortification of rice with vitamin A (in combination with other micronutrients) may increase mean haemoglobin (MD 10.00, 95% CI 8.79 to 11.21; 1 study, 74 participants; low-certainty evidence). Rice fortified with vitamin A may slightly improve serum retinol concentration (MD 0.17, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.21; 1 study, 74 participants; low-certainty evidence). No studies contributed data to the comparisons of rice fortification versus no intervention. The studies involving folic acid and zinc also involved iron in the fortification arms and hence we reported them as part of the first comparison.
Authors' conclusions:
Fortification of rice with iron alone or in combination with other micronutrients may make little or no difference in the risk of having anaemia or presenting iron deficiency and we are uncertain about an increase in mean haemoglobin concentrations in the general population older than 2 years of age. Fortification of rice with iron and other micronutrients such as vitamin A or folic acid may make little or no difference in the risk of having vitamin A deficiency or on the serum folate concentration. There is limited evidence on any adverse effects of rice fortification.
Adding sucrose improved the reconstitution process of powdered cocoa beverage (PCB). However, high amount of sucrose is undesirable from a nutritional perspective. This study aimed to understand the impact of sucrose reduction on the powder and reconstitution properties of powdered cocoa malted beverage (PCMB), which has a different ingredient composition and processing method from previously studied PCB. Five PCMB powder samples were prepared with their sucrose levels successively reduced from 20% to 0%. Powder properties (particle size distribution, bulk density) and reconstitution properties (wettability, dispersibility, solubility, rate of reconstitution) of the PCMB powders were investigated. Novel methods to measure the reconstitution of PCMB were also developed because the standard methods were incompatible with PCMB. Sucrose reduction was found to significantly increase particle size, wetting time and overall reconstitution time. It influenced wettability to the largest extent, and wetting appeared to be the rate-determining step of PCMB powder reconstitution process.
Fermented foods are experiencing a resurgence due to the consumers’ growing interest in foods that are natural and health promoting. Microbial fermentation is a biotechnological process which transforms food raw materials into palatable, nutritious and healthy food products. Fermentation imparts unique aroma, flavor and texture to food, improves digestibility, degrades anti-nutritional factors, toxins and allergens, converts phytochemicals such as polyphenols into more bioactive and bioavailable forms, and enriches the nutritional quality of food. Fermentation also modifies the physical functional properties of food materials, rendering them differentiated ingredients for use in formulated foods. The science of fermentation and the technological and health functionality of fermented foods is reviewed considering the growing interest worldwide in fermented foods and beverages and the huge potential of the technology for reducing food loss and improving nutritional food security.
The aim of this paper is to review the effects of several different types of freeze-drying processes on some nutritional properties of foodstuff. Both the vacuum freeze-drying (VFD) process and the atmospheric freeze-drying (AFD) process have been considered, as well as the possibility of accelerating both using ultrasound (US), microwave (MWD), infrared (IR) heating, and other techniques. The effects of these processes on ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, and total antioxidant capacity have been extensively reviewed in this paper, as these molecules were widely investigated in the literature. Finally, a summary of effects on other less recurrent studied compounds is also presented. It appears that for vitamin C, VFD most of the time gives the best results; MWD and IR combined processes with VFD seem to be able to decrease processing time, while having a mild effect on product quality. With respect to phenolic compounds and total antioxidant capacity, VFD and AFD seem to have fairly similar effects, with a mild effect of IR and US.
Foxtail millet is one of the few crops that can thrive under relatively few agricultural inputs and have valuable amount of nutritional components. Therefore, processing of foxtail millet for value addition to various food products can significantly help in economic development as well as enhancing food and nutritional security. This study deals with the effect of high pressure soaking on water uptake, gelatinization characteristics, and nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of foxtail millet grains. The results demonstrated that high pressure soaking of germinated foxtail millet grains significantly increased the water uptake, thereby increasing the degree of starch gelatinization of the flour to attain a maximum value of 64.93%. The effective diffusion coefficient of water was found to increase with increasing pressures and temperatures, reaching maximum value of 6.77 × 10⁻⁹ m²s⁻¹ for germinated foxtail millet grains treated at 200 MPa and 60 °C. For germinated foxtail millet grain flour, the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity (FRAP assay) improved significantly, although the protein content did not vary significantly. Further, the levels of anti-nutrients (phytic acid and tannin) decreased with high pressure soaking, which conclusively establishes that the quality of foxtail millet grains and its flour can be improved by using high pressure soaking.
Cereals are of low iron and zinc bioavailability because of high phytic acid (PA) and phenolic compounds (PC). Affordable and sustainable food based strategies are crucial in alleviating mineral deficiencies. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of enriching fermented cereals commonly consumed in Zimbabwe with baobab fruit pulp as a source of ascorbic acid and mopane worm as a source of the “meat factor”, on the iron and zinc content and bioaccessibility. A general positive effect on iron and zinc bioaccessibility was observed for baobab fruit pulp enriched cereals (BEC) while for mopane worm enriched cereals (MEC), a negative effect was generally observed. However, MEC had increased iron and zinc contents such that both BEC and MEC could make a meaningful contribution to iron and zinc nutrition for people in developing countries. Innovation of new value added cereal products using sustainable ingredients is crucial for developing countries.
Ultrasound technology has been successfully demonstrated for several food processing and preservation applications. The majority of food processing applications reported refer to liquid foods. Ultrasound has been applied to solid foods in some niche applications, e.g., tenderization of meat, mass transfer applications, and drying. Similar to any other technology, ultrasound also has some positive and negative effects on food quality depending on the application and processing conditions employed. This chapter outlines various applications of ultrasound to food and its effect on food and nutritional quality.
This study was conducted to provide a mechanistic account for understanding the synthesis, characterization and solubility phenomena of vitamin complexes with cyclodextrins (CD) for enhanced solubility and stability employing experimental and in silico molecular modeling strategies. New geometric, molecular and energetic analyses were pursued to explicate experimentally derived cholecalciferol complexes. Various CD molecules (α-, β-, γ-, and hydroxypropyl β-) were complexed with three vitamins: cholecalciferol, ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol. The Inclusion Efficiency (IE%) was computed for each CD-vitamin complex. The highest IE% achieved for a cholecalciferol complex was for 'βCDD3-8', after utilizing a unique CD:cholecalciferol molar synthesis ratio of 2.5:1, never before reported as successful. 2HPβCD-cholecalciferol, γCD-cholecalciferol and α-tocopherol inclusion complexes (IC's) reached maximal IE% with a CD:vitamin molar ratio of 5:1. The results demonstrate that IE%, thermal stability, concentration, carrier solubility, molecular mechanics and intended release profile are key factors to consider when synthesizing vitamin-CD complexes. Phase-solubility data provided insights into the design of formulations with IC's that may provide analogous oral vitamin release profiles even when hydrophobic and hydrophilic vitamins are co-incorporated. Static lattice atomistic simulations were able to validate experimentally derived cholecalciferol IE phenomena and are invaluable parameters when approaching formulation strategies using CD's for improved solubility and efficacy of vitamins.
Only some of ingested nutrients are available for absorption by the organism. The foods generally are submitted to some heat processing that may interfere in the bioaccessibility of nutrients. There are no studies of the influence of cooking under vacuum (sous vide) on the bioaccessibility of minerals. This study evaluated the in vitro bioaccessibility of Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg and Zn in bovine liver samples after traditional cooking in water and using the sous vide procedure. All heat treatments of bovine liver promoted the increase of the bioaccessibility of Ca, Cu, Fe, K and Mg, except for Zn when the effect was the opposite. The sous vide method provided higher bioaccessibility of these minerals than cooking in boiling water, except for K when both methods presented equivalent values. Samples of raw liver and liver cooked using sous vide method presented the following percentage of bioaccessible fraction, respectively: 39.7% and 95.8% (Ca), 8.78% and 26.9% (Cu), 8.80% and 39.5% (Fe), 30.2% and 42.6% (K), 26.4% and 43.9% (Mg), 24.8% and 36.3% (Zn). Thus, under the aspect of improvement availability of studied minerals by organism, the sous-vide technique was the most suitable to cook bovine liver.
Background
Advanced food processing technologies such as microwave heating have experienced increased popularity, as alternatives to conventional processing methods for diverse applications in the food industry. A new dimension, is the concept of microwave-assisted food processing techniques, which utilize the advantages of microwave energy to overcome the shortcomings of conventional and some emerging food processing methods.
Scope and approach
This paper reviews some microwave-assisted (MA) food processing technologies, such as MA-ultrasonication, MA-ohmic heating, MA-electron irradiation, MA-freezing, MA-osmotic dehydration, MA-infrared heating, and microwave-vacuum processing (MA-VC). In particular, their effects in terms of enhancing product quality and process efficiency, including principles and mechanisms are discussed. Promising food applications includes drying, extraction, baking, roasting, pasteurization/sterilization, tempering. Future strategies to further widen their applications are highlighted and salient drawbacks are also taken into consideration.
Key findings and conclusions
In general, the resultant benefits of microwave assistance to conventional or emerging food processing technologies include high thermal efficiency, shorter processing time, reduced operational cost and improved product quality. It is hoped that this paper will increase positive ratings for microwave assisted food processing technologies and promote their adoption by the food industry. However, it is important that appropriate simulation models for process optimization be developed alongside.
Fermented fruits and vegetables form an integral part of some cuisines all over the world. The practices may vary regionally for the same fruit or vegetable. Standardized protocols have been developed for those commercialized. Novel preservation techniques in combination with fermentation for certain products have been reported. Toxicity studies have been reported for the popularly consumed fermented fruits and vegetables but not for those indigenously consumed. A study in this direction becomes important as these are widely consumed among certain sections of populations. Valorization of certain fruits and vegetables is being performed by fermentation that was not conventionally practiced. This aids in making products with improved organoleptic properties, vitamin content, and probiotic potential along with a preservation function. In a nutshell, this is a field with continuous research and newer findings every day to make nutritious and safe products with good sensory appeal, in addition to promoting indigenous products.
High pressure processing (HPP) has been demonstrated to be an effective inactivation technique for a variety of pathogenic microorganisms, spoilage microorganisms, yeasts, molds, as well as quality-deteriorating enzymes. The microbial inactivation during HPP is mainly caused by an alteration in cellular morphology and inhibition of cell division under pressure. The high pressures used in HPP have little to no effect on the covalent bonds in the foods; hence HPP retains the original quality of food products in terms of micronutrients, color, flavor, and aroma while extending its microbial shelf life. Since HPP was first applied to foods in 1899, it has become a commercial technology in food industry over the last three decades. It has been approved as a cold pasteurization technique by the United States and other regulatory agencies for a limited number of pressure–time combinations for 6-log reduction of key food pathogens in acid foods held at room temperature and in low-acid refrigerated foods. Vegetable and fruit products such as juices, salsa, dressing and guacamole; meat products such as ready-to-eat deli meats and poultry; and seafood such as shellfish and fish products, are some of the commercially available HPP food products in the United States. HPP is proving to be an excellent cold pasteurization technique that causes effective inactivation of target spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms near room temperature, without significantly altering the nutritional and sensory qualities.
Malting is a beneficial approach to improve the nutritional value of cereals used in infant preparations. Malted finger millet and amaranth might be considered as potentially appropriate gluten-free alternatives for common wheat-based weaning products, especially in case of those suffering from celiac disease. In this study, the effects of germination temperature and duration on the main nutrients of malted finger millet and amaranth, are evaluated and optimized. Grains were germinated for 24, 36 and 48 h at 22, 26 and 30 °C. In the case of finger millet, germinating for 48 h at 30 °C resulted into 17% increase in protein availability, 10% increase in total energy and 60% reduction in resistant starch (RS). For amaranth, germinating for 48 h at 26 °C was preferable, resulting in 8% increase in protein availability, 11% increase in total energy, 70% reduction in RS and a 10% increase in the linoleic acid.
Changes in vitamin C concentration along the processing chain of canned green beans were predicted with a probabilistic and modular process model using vitamin C concentrations in raw green beans, constants of chemical reactions (activation energy, reaction rates and diffusivity) and process descriptors (time and temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration). The model accounts for the statistical uncertainty and/or variability of these quantities. The initial vitamin C concentration in green beans, partly established with n = 65 proper vitamin C assays, was (mean [variability interval at 95 %]) 17 mg vitamin. 100 g-1 [4.1, 30.3] and markedly decreased to 7.5 mg. 100 g-1 [0.6, 14.9] after blanching, to 6.2 mg. 100 g-1 [0.3, 12.5] after sterilization, and to 2.3 mg. 100 g-1 [0, 5.6] after storage. The model predictions were globally on agreement with independent observations that include specific vitamins C assays (n = 26) at different steps of processing.
Driven by increased health awareness among consumers, the production of foods and beverages enriched with functional bioactive components is gaining more attention. Malting and lactic acid fermentation are biotechnological processes having potential for producing functional foods and beverages. Due to various biochemical and enzymatic induced changes in raw materials, malting of cereal grains and probiotic lactic acid fermentation of plant-based media increases the nutritional quality of treated raw materials. The improved nutritional quality is attributed to the accumulation of functional bioactive components along with the degradation of anti-nutritional components. The selection of raw materials and process parameters are important factors to be considered for increasing the functional bioactive components such as dietary fibres, antioxidants and probiotics. This review article reports the current knowledge on the changes of bioactive components during malting and lactic acid fermentation using probiotic bacterial strains. Process parameters which affect the concentration of bioactive components in raw materials will also be described.
Studies examining the association between dietary diversity score (DDS) and obesity have led to inconsistent findings. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to summarize and elucidate the source of heterogeneous results reported in different studies.
PubMed, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar were searched through December 2013 to identify all relevant articles. Sixteen publications met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review and 10 articles were entered into the meta-analysis. Eight studies had data on the odds ratio (OR) for overweight/obesity and eight compared the mean body mass index (BMI) among subjects with highest versus the lowest DDS.
A meta-analysis on eligible studies failed to show a significant association on either overweight/obesity OR (OR: 0.72; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.45-1.16; P=0.174) or mean differences (MD) in BMI (MD: 0.22; 95% CI: -0.70-1.14; P=0.643) comparing the highest and lowest diverse diets. Between-study heterogeneity was high, and subgroup analysis failed to identify the source of heterogeneity.
Our systematic review and meta-analysis showed that there was no significant association between DDS and BMI status, which may be due to use of different methods for assessing dietary intake and determination of DDS. Thus, well-designed prospective studies with similar approaches to assess DDS are highly recommended.European Journal of Clinical Nutrition advance online publication, 29 July 2015; doi:10.1038/ejcn.2015.118.
Improved leafy vegetable (LV) sauces, with amaranth, sorrel, and Ceylon spinach/spider plant leaves were formulated from traditional recipes to assess their potential use for food-to-food fortification in iron, zinc and vitamin A in the diet of young children and their mothers in Burkina Faso. Improvement was based on an increase in LV proportion and a decrease in mineral absorption inhibitors. An increase in iron content of up to 3 mg/100 g was obtained in some improved sauces in which dried fish was replaced by chicken liver, and vitamin A content was about 40 times higher than in traditional sauces. Fractional dialyzable iron was low in all sauces. Intakes of sauce were measured to assess their acceptability and no significant difference was found between traditional and improved formulations. The mean intakes of sauces were 66 ± 40 g for young children and 166 ± 65 g for their mothers. Amaranth or Ceylon spinach/spider plant sauces, consumed with the cereal based paste "tô" twice a day, would contribute 80 to 86 % of children's estimated average requirement (EAR) of iron and to 90 to 170 % of EAR of vitamin A but their contribution to zinc and energy needs would remain low.
The food industry expects increasingly complex properties (such as delayed release, stability, thermal protection, and suitable sensorial profile) from food ingredients, which often would not be able to be achieved without microencapsulation. This paper presents the state of the art in encapsulation technology for delivery of bioactive compounds to food. It reviews common encapsulation technologies (emphasizing their advantages and limitations) versus novel, interesting approaches in emerging technologies. This review includes a presentation of benefits resulting from the use of microencapsulated ingredients in the food industry; these benefits are going to be illustrated via few case studies bringing innovative processing. Spray drying has been used for more than 60 years to protect flavor oils against degradation/oxidation/evaporation, but melt dispersion technique has been used lately to effectively stabilize an aroma compound. Microgels produced by extrusion and emulsification techniques are considered for delivering synergistic antioxidant effects of plant extract polyphenols, their off-taste masking, and improved handling. Apart from microgels, microemulsions (produced by microfluidization or micelle formation techniques) are taken into account for entrapment of extracts containing polyphenols and essential oils. Innovative and interesting coacervation processes are depicted here as they facilitate the commercialization of coacervated food ingredients. Liposomes are gaining increasing attention in the food sector as they can provide good stability even in a water surrounding and also targeted delivery. The new scalable manufacturing protocols for the production of liposomes evolved in recent years (e.g., proliposome method) are presented here. Fluidized bed technology has been offering a versatile possibility to produce encapsulates which should release ingredients at the right place and the right time. Complex systems such as lipids in hydrogels are newly developed structures for controlled release of bioactive compounds. Finally, the effect encapsulates have when incorporated into real food products will be discussed, in particular with regard to the production of innovative functional food products. As an example, textural, sensorial, and physical quality assessment of chocolates enriched with encapsulated polyphenolic antioxidants from yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) will be reviewed.
Improved infant and young child feeding practices have the potential to improve child growth and development outcomes in India. Anganwadi Workers, the frontline government functionaries of the national nutrition supplementation programme in India, play a vital role in promoting infant and young child feeding practices in the community. The present study assessed the Anganwadi Workers' knowledge of infant and young child feeding practices, and their ability to counsel and influence caregivers regarding these practices. Eighty Anganwadi Workers from four districts of Gujarat participated in assessment centres designed to evaluate a range of competencies considered necessary for the successful promotion of infant and young child feeding practices. The results of the evaluation showed the Anganwadi Workers possessing more knowledge about infant and young child feeding practices like initiation of breastfeeding, pre-lacteal feeding and colostrum, age of introduction of complementary foods, portion size and feeding frequency than about domains which appear to have a direct bearing on practices. A huge contrast existed between the Anganwadi Workers' knowledge and their ability to apply this in formal counselling sessions with caregivers. Inability to empathetically engage with caregivers, disregard for taking the feeding history of children, poor active listening skills and inability to provide need-based advice were pervasive during counselling. In conclusion, to ensure enhanced interaction between the Anganwadi Workers and caregivers on infant and young child feeding practices, a paradigm shift in training is required, making communication processes and counselling skills central to the training.
Four landrace carrots ("Becaria", "CRS", "González" and "Rodríguez") and two marketable cultivars (Kuroda and Brasilia), raw and steamed, were characterised by the total content of β-carotene Ca, Mg and Zn, in vitro bioaccessibility and by colour and were evaluated to determine the effect of particle size in nutrient bioaccessibility. Steaming increased the content of β-carotene extracted from "CRS" and Brasilia (29% and 75%) and decreased the content of β-carotene extracted from "CRS" by 23% in "Rodríguez." In addition, steaming caused a loss of Ca (21%) but did not change the amount of Mg and Zn. The bioaccessibility of β-carotene in raw and pulped carrots was very low (<0.5%). Furthermore, steaming and a smaller particle size increased the bioaccessibility of β-carotene by 3-16 times. Additionally, cooking increased the in vitro bioaccessibility of Ca and Zn but had no effect on Mg. Moreover, homogenisation increased the bioaccessibility by 20% in Ca, 17% in Mg, and 10% in Zn compared to pulping.
Fermented foods are of great significance because they provide and preserve vast quantities of nutritious foods in a wide diversity of flavors, aromas and textures which enrich the human diet. Fermented foods have been with us since humans arrived on Earth. They will be with us far into the future as they are the source of alcoholic foods/beverages, vinegar, pickled vegetables, sausages, cheeses, yogurts, vegetable protein amino acid/peptide sauces and pastes with meat-like flavors, leavened and sour-dough breads. While the Western world can afford to enrich its foods with synthetic vitamins, the developing world must rely upon biological enrichment for its vitamins and essential amino acids. The affluent Western world cans and freezes much of its foods but the developing world must rely upon fermentation and dehydration to preserve its foods at costs within the budgets of the average consumer. All consumers today have a considerable portion of their nutritional needs met through fermented foods and beverages. This is likely to expand in the twenty-first century when world population reaches 8–12 billion.
Iron is a mineral that is necessary for producing red blood cells and for redox processes. Iron deficiency is considered to be the commonest worldwide nutritional deficiency and affects approximately 20% of the world population. Lack of iron may lead to unusual tiredness, shortness of breath, a decrease in physical performance, and learning problems in children and adults, and may increase your chance of getting an infection. This deficiency is partly induced by plant-based diets, containing low levels of poorly
bio-available iron. The most effective technological approaches to combat iron deficiency in developing countries include supplementation targeted to high risk groups combined with a program of food fortification and dietary strategies designed to maximize the bio-availability of both the added and the intrinsic food iron. In this paper, different aspects related to iron-fortified foods is reviewed. These include used iron compounds, considering its bioavailability and organoleptic problems, food vehicles and possible
interactions.