Deciphering source-to-sink history from a solute perspective: A Sr isotope approach in the Qaidam Basin, NE Tibet

Abstract

Sediment source-to-sink history is pivotal to investigating the evolution of ancient sedimentary basin. Previous study focuses mostly on reconstruction of various components of siliciclastic sedimentary systems from initial source areas through the dispersal system to deposition areas, but less on the dissolved load that displays distinct transport and deposition dynamics. Here we take the Qaidam Basin (NE Tibet) as a case to provide a solute perspective for deciphering the source-to-sink history of an intracontinental basin. The modern observations exhibit a remarkable contrast of the solute Sr isotopic regime with the northern sources (the Qilian Shan) with high 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios and the southern sources with low 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios. The paleowater solute 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios in the northern basin fluctuate between 0.711 and 0.715 since 54 Ma. Most of the interval remains a higher 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio of 0.713, indicating that the solute Sr was supplied solely by the Qilian Shan. But two periods of low 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio (0.711-0.712) at 44.5-32 Ma and after 16 Ma suggest that there may be two paleo-megalakes connecting the northern and southern sources, and the solute with low 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio from the southern sources can thus approach the northern basin via lake water mixing. The two low 87 Sr/ 86 Sr paleo-megalakes developed at the northwest of the basin at 44.5-32 Ma and at southeast of the basin after 16 Ma, suggesting a southeastward migration of the basin depocenter that was mainly caused by tectonic uplift with a subordinate impact of climate-induced lake expansion. Our results show a more complex and dynamic solute transport routing history in a large basin than that indicated by coarse clastic provenance studies, and suggest that such a solute Sr approach can be useful to trace sediment routing linked to denudation of high-grade metamorphic rocks and hydrological connections under drainage reorganization. Ó

Full text

Deciphering source-to-sink history from a solute perspective: A Sr
isotope approach in the Qaidam Basin, NE Tibet
Yudong Liu
a,b
, Yibo Yang
a,
⇑
, Rongsheng Yang
a
, Albert Galy
c
, Zhangdong Jin
d
, Xiaomin Fang
a,b
,
Bowen Song
e
a
State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System Science, Environment and Resources (TPESER), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100101, China
b
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
c
Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, UMR7358, CNRS - Université de Lorraine, 54500 Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France
d
State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi’an 710075, China
e
Institute of Geological Survey, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
article info
Article history:
Received 14 September 2022
Revised 20 January 2023
Accepted 17 February 2023
Available online 23 February 2023
Handling Editor: Y. Liu
Keywords:
solute Sr isotope
Qaidam Basin
Paleolake
Provenance
Qilian Shan
abstract
Sediment source-to-sink history is pivotal to investigating the evolution of ancient sedimentary basin.
Previous study focuses mostly on reconstruction of various components of siliciclastic sedimentary sys-
tems from initial source areas through the dispersal system to deposition areas, but less on the dissolved
load that displays distinct transport and deposition dynamics. Here we take the Qaidam Basin (NE Tibet)
as a case to provide a solute perspective for deciphering the source-to-sink history of an intracontinental
basin. The modern observations exhibit a remarkable contrast of the solute Sr isotopic regime with the
northern sources (the Qilian Shan) with high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios and the southern sources with low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios. The paleowater solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the northern basin fluctuate between 0.711
and 0.715 since 54 Ma. Most of the interval remains a higher
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio of 0.713, indicating that
the solute Sr was supplied solely by the Qilian Shan. But two periods of low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio (0.711–0.712)
at 44.5 - 32 Ma and after 16 Ma suggest that there may be two paleo-megalakes connecting the
northern and southern sources, and the solute with low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio from the southern sources can thus
approach the northern basin via lake water mixing. The two low
87
Sr/
86
Sr paleo-megalakes developed at
the northwest of the basin at 44.5 - 32 Ma and at southeast of the basin after 16 Ma, suggesting a
southeastward migration of the basin depocenter that was mainly caused by tectonic uplift with a sub-
ordinate impact of climate-induced lake expansion. Our results show a more complex and dynamic solute
transport routing history in a large basin than that indicated by coarse clastic provenance studies, and
suggest that such a solute Sr approach can be useful to trace sediment routing linked to denudation of
high-grade metamorphic rocks and hydrological connections under drainage reorganization.
Ó2023 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Sediment-routing systems involve the transport of particulate
sediments and solutes (dissolved solids) from eroding source areas
to depositional sinks linked to the physical, biological, and chemi-
cal processes across the landscape (Allen, 2008). Source-to-sink
analysis offers fundamental insights into the understanding of
the location and nature of source areas of sediment, the routing
by which sediment is transferred from source to depositional
basin, and the factors (e.g., climate and tectonics) that impact sed-
imentary rocks composition (Haughton et al., 1991). It thus plays a
crucial part in reconstructing the development of landscape and
basin under tectonic and climatic forcings. Past provenance analy-
sis that is used to trace sediment routing was centred on sand
petrology (Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Dickinson, 1985) and
heavy minerals (Weltje and von Eynatten, 2004). Increasingly,
detrital geochronology (e.g., Chew et al., 2020; Condie et al.,
2009; Gehrels, 2012), thermochronology (e.g., Bernet et al., 2001;
Bernet, 2005; Zeitler et al., 1986), and isotope geochemistry (e.g.,
Sr-Nd isotopes, Goldstein and Jacobsen, 1988; McLennan et al.,
1993; Peucker-Ehrenbrink et al., 2010) together with bulk-
sediment, multi-mineral, and single-mineral measurements
(Garzanti, 2016) have become valuable techniques. These methods
focus mostly on clastic sediments, especially coarse detritus. How-
ever, the delivery of particulate sediments and dissolved solids
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2023.02.012
1342-937X/Ó2023 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
⇑
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yangyibo@itpcas.ac.cn (Y. Yang).
Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gr

from erosional source regions is neither uniform nor steady (Allen,
2017), and both forms of solid exhibit different source-to-sink
dynamics. A thorough understanding of sediment-routing systems
may benefit from the source-to-sink fate of dissolved solids.
The solute Sr isotope (
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio) in basin is expected to
reflect the contribution of water from different sources to stream-
flow. It is because water is the medium in which Sr isotopic mixing
from different sources occurs during weathering, erosion, trans-
port, and sedimentation in a drainage basin. Various source areas
with different Sr isotopes can thus be revealed by the Sr isotopic
compositions in water bodies, which provide us the window to
monitor the change in the source of dissolved load. For example,
the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio of dissolved load in a drainage area is usually
influenced by Sr isotopic composition of exposed lithologies and
the relative proportions of those lithologies during weathering
(e.g., Doebbert et al., 2014; Goldstein and Jacobsen, 1987;
Peucker-Ehrenbrink et al., 2010, 2019). Solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in
the paleowater in a drainage basin can be recorded in the concomi-
tant authigenic carbonate therein. The
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio in sedimen-
tary carbonates is thus a powerful provenance tracer of dissolved
Sr isotopes in ancient terrestrial basin water (e.g., Baddouh et al.,
2016; Chamberlain et al., 2013; Doebbert et al., 2014; Hart et al.,
2004; Jin et al., 2011; Jones and Faure, 1972; Ruan et al., 2019;
Song et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2017).
The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is Earth’s highest plateau with actively
growing and uplifting on its NE corner (Fig. 1). The NE TP is under
the influence of the middle-latitude westerlies and East Asian
monsoons, thus acting as an ideal area to reveal tectonic-climate
linkages in terms of continental deformation, Asian environment
evolution, and global change (e.g., Cheng et al., 2021; Fang et al.,
2019; Jolivet et al., 2001; Li et al., 2018b; Licht et al. 2014; Miao
et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2022b). The Qaidam Basin is the largest
intermontane basin in the NE TP (Fig. 1) where the Cenozoic thick
fluvial-lacustrine sequence in the basin has accumulated up to 10–
15 km (Zhou et al., 2006). Outcrops with precise age constraints
across the whole Cenozoic are exposed by active faulting within
the basin and the Neogene rise and growth of surrounding moun-
tains (Chang et al., 2015; Fang et al., 2007; Ji et al., 2017; Jolivet
et al., 2001; Lu et al., 2022; Nie et al., 2019; Tapponnier et al.,
2001; Wang et al., 2022). Despite many tectonic and climatic stud-
ies using such sediment records, the provenance history linked to
clastic inputs from N-S sources in the northern Qaidam Basin is
vague or disputable based on clastic-related proxies, e.g., Nd iso-
topes, detrital zircon U–Pb ages, heavy minerals, and paleocurrent
studies, with a focus on whether materials from the East Kunlun
Shan could reach the northern basin (Bush et al., 2016; Cheng
et al., 2016a; Li et al., 2021; Lu et al., 2019; Nie et al., 2019; Song
et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2020).
In this study, we present the first long-term solute Sr isotope
records of basin paleowaters from two parallel outcrops in the
northern Qaidam Basin since 54 Ma. The
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio of bulk
sample carbonates from the Hongliugou (HLG) section (54–
1.8 Ma) and Dahonggou (DHG) section (52–7 Ma) in the northern
basin are used to reconstruct the evolution of solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios
of the Qaidam paleolake. We define two stages of hydrological con-
nection between the northern and southern sources in the Paleo-
gene western basin and Neogene eastern basin. The two-stage
hydrological connections correspond to the two megalake stages
following a south-eastward migration of the basin depocenter
due to tectonic uplift.
2. Settings and methods
The Qaidam Basin is surrounded by the Qilian Shan to the north,
the East Kunlun Shan to the south, and the Altyn Tagh Range to the
west. The Qaidam Basin has an arid desert climate with mean
annual precipitation < 100 mm and potential
evaporation > 2000 mm. The Cenozoic basin sediment facies
includes mainly alluvial fans, braided rivers, meandering rivers,
lakeshores, shallow lakes, semi-deep lakes, and delta deposits
(Xia et al., 2001).
The Qilian Shan to the north consists of a series of subparallel
NW-SE striking ranges in relation to the northward movement of
the TP (e.g., Allen et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2019b; George et al.,
2001; Yin et al., 2002; Zuza et al., 2016; Zuza et al., 2018). Based
on the crustal lithologies and the occurrence of suture zones, the
Qilian Shan has been divided into four sub-terranes from north
to south, i.e., the northern Qilian Shan (NQS), the central Qilian
Shan (CQS), the southern Qilian Shan (SQS), and the North Qaidam
Thrust Belt (NQTB) (Bovet et al., 2009; Cheng et al., 2019b; Gehrels
et al., 2003; Ritts et al., 2004)(Fig. 1d). The NQS is composed of
Cambrian-Ordovician ophiolitic mélange and Ordovician calc-
alkaline volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (Ritts et al., 2004). An
early Paleozoic suture zone with high-pressure low-temperature
blueschists and eclogites is exposed within the NQS (Song et al.,
2014). The CQS and SQS are dominated by Paleoproterozoic base-
ment with gneiss, amphibolite, schist, and migmatite overlain by
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks (Song et al., 2006). The ultrahigh-
pressure gneisses intercalated with minor eclogites and garnet
peridotite blocks are well exposed along the NQTB (Song et al.,
2014).
The East Kunlun Shan to the south mainly consists of Protero-
zoic and Paleozoic metamorphic rocks overlain by Paleozoic to
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. The basement of East Kunlun Shan
was intruded by Ordovician-late Devonian and Permian-Triassic
plutons and was covered by Jurassic to Cenozoic continental
deposits (Cowgill et al., 2003; Mock et al., 1999; Robinson et al.,
2003; Roger et al., 2003; Wu et al., 2019a; Yin et al., 2007). Tecton-
ically, the East Kunlun Shan consists of a broad early Paleozoic arc,
on which a younger and narrower late Permian to Triassic arc was
superposed (Yin and Harrison, 2000).
The Altyn Tagh Range to the west is mainly comprised of Pre-
cambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks and Paleozoic igneous
and sedimentary rocks (Cheng et al., 2016b; Yin et al., 2002).
Within this range, the Altyn Tagh Fault, extending more than
1600 km along the NE-trending, connects the Qilian Shan thrust
belt to the northeast and the West Kunlun thrust belt to the south-
west (Burchfiel et al., 1989; Cheng et al., 2016b; Wang et al., 2006;
Xiao et al., 2015; Yue and Liou, 1999; Yin and Harrison, 2000; Yin
et al., 2002).
The study HLG and DHG fluvial-lacustrine sections are well
exposed in the northern Qaidam Basin (Fig. 1c). The HLG section
entirely shows a coarse–fine-coarse cycle. The sedimentology of
the HLG section from old to young is described as follows (Han,
2008; Zhang, 2006; Fig. 2). The Lulehe Formation mainly presents
a set of alluvial fan-delta facies with purplish-brick red fine sandy
conglomerate and sandstone interbedded with mudstone. The Xia-
ganchaigou Formation contains mainly a set of shallow lacustrine
and semi-deep lacustrine facies with maroon and dark purple
mudstone interbedded with sandstone. The Shangganchagou For-
mation is composed of shallow lacustrine facies with mudstone
interbedded with a large number of gray-green and dark-green
sandstone, containing a small amount of vein gypsum. The Xiay-
oushashan Formation consists of a set of shallow lacustrine facies
with dark green sandstone with maroon and tan mudstone and a
small amount of gravel sandstone. The Shangyoushashan Forma-
tion is a set of delta facies with dark green sandstone with a small
amount of gray green conglomerate and mudstone. The Shizigou
Formation is characterized by fan delta-diluvial fan facies with
sage green, gray sandstone and conglomerate clip taupe-light
brown mudstone. The DHG section is situated in the southern limb
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
77

of the DHG anticline, 90 km to the east of the HLG section
(Fig. 1c). The sedimentology of DHG section from old to young is
described as follows (Ji et al., 2017; Fig. 2). The Lulehe Formation
is characterized by an alluvial fan – braided fluvial facies with pur-
plish red conglomerate and gravelly sandstone. The Xiaganchaigou
Formation contains a set of meandering fluvial-delta facies with
sandstone and brown–red-purple siltstone and mudstone. The
Shangganchaigou Formation is similar to the Xiaganchaigou For-
mation in lithology and sedimentary structures, but consistent
with a more lacustrine-delta facies. The Xiayoushashan Formation
is characterized by meandering river to shallow lacustrine deposits
with brown–red sandstone, muddy siltstone, and mudstone
interbedded with fine gravel conglomerate. The Shangyoushashan
Formation is made up of brackish lake to meandering river depos-
its with yellowish-grey sandstone, greyish-green and brown–red
muddy siltstone and mudstone interbedded with yellowish-grey
gravels and gravelly coarse sandstones. The Shizigou Formation is
mainly composed of alluvial fan deposits with massive, grey con-
glomerate interbedded with thin sandstone. Such changes of sedi-
mentary facies in the two sections reflect the process from foothill
alluvial fan in the early stage to the rapid expansion of paleo-lake
to form a large area of lake deposition, and then the lake gradually
Fig. 1. (a) The location of ultrahigh and high-pressure metamorphic belts in the Tibetan Plateau (TP) (modified from Liou et al., 2004). (b) The map of
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in
various waters (river, spring, lake, and groundwater) on the TP and its surrounding areas (Liu et al., 2022). (c) The distribution of modern lakes in the Qaidam Basin and
locations of the Hongliugou (HLG) and Dahonggou (DHG) sections. (d) The distribution of
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in various waters (river, groundwater, spring, and lake) (circle) and
carbonates in surface sediments (triangle). NQS, CQS, SQS, and NQTB constrained by white lines represent the northern Qilian Shan, southern Qilian Shan, central Qilian Shan,
and North Qaidam Thrust Belt, respectively. XB and LB represent the Xining Basin and Linxia Basin, respectively. These maps show that the Qilian Shan is characterized by
higher
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios than those in East Kunlun Shan and Altyn Tagh Range.
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
78

shrank and dried up, and the foothill alluvial fan pushed into the
basin again. High-resolution magnetostratigraphy defines the
entire HLG section from 54 Ma to 1.8 Ma and the DHG section
from 52 Ma to 7Ma(Ji et al., 2017; Zhang, 2006;Fig. 2).
This study collected a total of 109 fine-grained samples (mostly
mudstone and siltstone) (58 samples from the HLG section and 51
samples from the DHG section) to measure element contents and
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the carbonate fraction of the samples. The sam-
ples were oven-dried at 40 °C, ground into a fine powder (<250
mesh), treated with ultrapure water to remove the water-soluble
salts, and finally reacted with 10% (v/v) acetic acid (HOAc) to
extract the carbonate fraction following Yang et al. (2015). The
concentrations of Ca, Mg, Sr, Mn, Al, Si, and K in the HOAc leachates
were determined by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission
spectrometry (ICP-OES) (Leeman Labs Prodigy-H) at Institute of
Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China.
For all measured elements, replicate analyses reveal a relative
standard deviation of < 2%.
The Sr separation for the HLG samples was carried out using
standard ion exchange and Sr isotopes was measured using a Tri-
ton Plus thermal ionization mass spectrometer at CRPG-CNRS-UL,
France. The
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios were normalized to
86
Sr/
88
Sr = 0.1194.
The reproducibility and accuracy were periodically checked by
running the Sr standard NBS 987 with a mean
87
Sr/
86
Sr value of
0.710259 ± 0.000016 (2
r
, n = 28). Sr separation for the DHG sam-
ples was performed at the Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese
Academy of Science, China, and included the use of a Sr-Spec ion-
exchange column (Eichrom Technologies). The Sr isotopic ratios
were measured via multicollector ICP–MS (Thermo Finnigan Nep-
tune Plus). NBS 987 yielded a mean value of 0.710244 ± 0.00002
7(2
r
, n = 12) during duplicate and periodic checks.
3. Results
The
87
Sr/
86
Sr isotopic ratios and elemental concentrations of
HOAc leachates are shown in Table S1-S4. The
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of
HOAc leachate of section samples vary between 0.7109 and
0.7137 with Sr content ranging from 11 to 403
l
g/g in the HLG sec-
tion and fluctuate between 0.7108 and 0.7148 with Sr content
ranging from 22 to 423
l
g/g in the DHG section (Fig. 3a). Except
for two periods, 44.5–32 Ma and post-16 Ma, the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios
in both sections exhibit a constant range of 0.7125–0.7130, which
is similar to the modern Da and Xiao Qaidam Lakes (Fig. 1c).
Besides, the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of the HLG section present a low stage
at 0.7115 during 44.5–32 Ma and an intermittently low stage at
16–14 Ma; whereas the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of the DHG section display
an intermittently low-value stage at 44.5–32 Ma and a low stage
at 16-7Ma(Fig. 4a).
The CaCO
3
contents of HLG and DHG sections (assuming that Ca
in HOAc leachates is solely from carbonate dissolution) range from
2.1% to 44.5% and from 0.7% to 34.3%, respectively (Fig. 4c). The car-
bonate Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, and Mn/Sr ratios range at 5.2–86.6 mmol/mol,
0.1–11.1 mmol/mol, 0.3–20.0 mol/mol in the HLG section and range
at 10.9–344.6 mmol/mol, 0.5–8.1 mmol/mol, and 0.1–17.1 mol/mol
in the DHG section, respectively (Fig. 4e, f and Fig. 3b). The Si, Al,
and K concentrations in HOAc leachates of both HLG and DHG sec-
tions range at 0.0 to 0.4
l
g/g, 0–342
l
g/g, and 41–362
l
g/g
(Fig. 4g, h, i).
The Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios show a positive correlation in both
sections (Fig. 3c). When the CaCO
3
contents are very low, the Mg/
Ca and Sr/Ca ratios exhibit extraordinarily high values (Fig. 3e, f).
This observation indicates that a sizable amount of non-
carbonate Mg and Sr is leached by the 10% acetic acid in the low-
carbonate samples, as also shown by the HOAc leachates in the
NE Tibet surface sediments and Miocene sediments (Yang et al.,
2015; Ruan et al., 2019). This implies that the diluted HOAc lea-
chates of the samples with low carbonate contents can also exact
non-carbonate Sr mainly from adsorbed phases (Ruan et al.,
2019; Song et al., 2020). In order to test its impact on the carbonate
Sr isotopes in the HLG and DHG sections, we selected samples con-
taining > 5% and > 10% CaCO
3
(CaCO
3
content is estimated based on
the Ca concentration in the HOAc leachate) to compare their
87
Sr/
86
Sr variations with those of all section samples (Fig. 4b). In
addition, there is no obvious correlation between
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios
and other compositions of HOAc leachate (e.g., CaCO
3
, Mn/Sr ratios,
Si, Al, and K contents; Fig. 3).
Fig. 2. Section profiles of the carbonate
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the DHG and HLG sections. Lithology, magnetostratigraphy, and paleocurrent direction of two sections are redrawn
from Li et al. (2020), Ji et al. (2017), and Zhang (2006).
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
79

4. Discussion
4.1. Modern N-S contrast of solute Sr isotopic sources
For solute Sr isotopes as effective traces of solute sources, there
must be significant contrasts in isotopic composition among catch-
ment minerals and weathering solutions. The compiled
87
Sr/
86
Sr
ratios of various surface waters in the NE TP and the surrounding
areas have displayed high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the Qilian region rang-
ing from 0.710 to 0.717, which are remarkably higher than those in
the surrounding areas from 0.709 to 0.712 (e.g., East Kunlun Shan
and Altyn Tagh Range) (Fig. 1b). Furthermore,
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of
carbonate (Fig. 1b) and silicates (Yang et al., 2022a) in surface sed-
iments also show that the Qilian Shan has higher
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios.
Denudation of these Qilian Shan rocks can provide highly radio-
genic Sr to the surface water in surrounding areas.
Such unique high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the Qilian Shan are mainly
caused by the denudation and weathering of rocks in early Paleo-
zoic high-pressure and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belts
(Liu et al., 2022). Weathering of these metamorphism-affected
lithologies together with the related hydrothermal input within a
tectonically active setting will provide a large amount of highly
radiogenic Sr to the rivers (Liu et al., 2022), similar to the highly
radiogenic Sr in Himalayan fluvial systems (Chamberlain et al.,
2005). Thus, the metamorphism-dominant radiogenic Sr release
should have been established when the high-grade metamorphism
developed at the early Paleozoic (Song et al., 2014) and may
become more pronounced when the Qilian Shan has been reacti-
vated by the Cenozoic India-Eurasia collision (Yin et al., 2008;
Zuza et al., 2018). For example, evidence from low-temperature
thermochronology, provenance, and seismic profile suggests that
the deformation of the NQTB together with the rapid exhumation
of ultra-high pressure metamorphic rocks therein initiated in the
early Cenozoic (Cheng et al., 2019a, 2019b; He et al., 2018, 2022;
Yin et al., 2008; Zhuang et al., 2018). There is also evidence that
the low
87
Sr/
86
Sr source area in the southern sources exists
throughout the Cenozoic. The rapid uplift of the East Kunlun Shan
occurred at Eocene (Clark et al., 2010), followed by rapid exhuma-
tion occurred at 20–10 Ma (Yuan et al., 2006; Duvall et al., 2013)
and 8–5 Ma (Duvall et al., 2013). The initial building of the Qimen
Tagh Mountains in the southwest of the Qaidam Basin occurred
at 40–30 Ma (Liu et al., 2017). Meanwhile, the left-lateral
strike-slip movement along the Altyn Tagh fault may have begun
around late Eocene (e.g., Ritts et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2006; Wu
et al., 2012; Ye et al., 2022; Yue and Liou, 1999) or earlier (Jolivet
et al., 2001; Cheng et al., 2016b).
Fig. 3. Correlations between the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios and elements content in carbonates of the HLG and DHG section sediments. (a)
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios vs. 1/Sr, (b)
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios vs.
Mn/Sr, (c) Sr/Ca vs. Mg/Ca, (d)
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios vs. CaCO
3
content, (e) Mg/Ca vs. CaCO
3
content, (f) Sr/Ca vs. CaCO
3
content, (g)
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios vs. Si, (h)
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios vs. Al, (i)
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios vs. K.
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
80

The highly radiogenic Sr in the Qilian Shan is thus mainly attrib-
uted to the unique lithology rather than regional climatic parame-
ters and landslides. A humid and warm climate may result in a
larger proportion of silicate-derived radiogenic Sr, thus leading to
higher
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in surface water. However, the regional cli-
mate on the NE TP is characterized by low precipitation in the
northwest and high precipitation in the southeast, which is con-
trolled by the monsoon rainfall from the southeast. The spatial dis-
tribution of riverine Sr isotopes does not follow the trend of
regional precipitation change. In addition, glaciers and landslides
are both factors that could accelerate radiogenic Sr release during
weathering of most reactive minerals in rocks (e.g., carbonate and
biotite) (Blum and Erel, 1995; Emberson et al., 2017). However,
both glacier and landslide factors should occur in the entire NE
TP region and not solely in Qilian Shan.
The unique high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the Qilian Shan yield a mod-
ern N-S
87
Sr/
86
Sr contrast pattern of lakes within the Qaidam Basin
(Fig. 1c). The Da and Xiao Qaidam Lakes supplied solely by Qilian
Shan have high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios (0.713) (Song et al., 2020). The
Qarhan salt Lake and Gasikule Lake in the southern basin that
Fig. 4. Variations of the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios and elements contents in the HLG and DHG sections. (a)
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of bulk carbonate from all samples, (b)
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of
carbonate from sample with CaCO
3
> 5% and CaCO
3
> 10%, (c) CaCO
3
contents in the sediment, (d) sediment facies, (e) Mg/Ca, (f) Sr/Ca, (g) Si content in HOAc leachates, (h) Al
content in HOAc leachates, and (i) K content in HOAc leachates.
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
81

are fed by East Kunlun Shan and Altyn Tagh Range have lower
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios (0.711–0.712, Tan et al., 2011; Fan et al. 2018).
This further confirms the N-S solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr contrast and thereby
provides a solid base for interpreting the history of solute Sr input
at the HLG and DHG sections.
4.2. Impacts of diagenesis, detrital carbonate, and non-carbonate
contributions
The reliability of
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the HOAc leachates of sedi-
ments should be examined before they can be utilized to trace
the Sr isotopic composition of paleo-water. The influence of diage-
nesis, detrital carbonate impact and non-carbonate Sr input during
the HOAc leaching may affect bulk carbonate
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios dur-
ing a drainage basin’s long-term evolution history, especially for
these thick fluvial-lacustrine sequences (5000 m) in this study.
Diagenesis can alter carbonate
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios by inducing car-
bonate recrystallization. But carbonate recrystallization does not
necessarily result in a resetting of the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio, unless at
exceptionally high water/rock ratios (Veizer et al., 1999). This is
because Sr recrystallization that occurs in a partially open system
will be buffered by the carbonate Sr sourced from the original
87
Sr/
86
Sr signature (Veizer, 1983). The high solubility of Mn under
reducing and mildly oxidizing conditions leads to increased mobil-
ity for Mn under sub-oxic diagenetic conditions, thus Mn has the
potential for tracing diagenesis (Maynard, 2004). Considering the
different partition coefficients of Sr and Mn in carbonate formation,
Mn/Sr ratio has been widely used in assessing the carbonate diage-
netic process, e.g., marine carbonates altered by meteoric waters
(Brand and Veizer, 1980). However, the Mn/Sr ratios of our two
study sections show a poor correlation with
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios
(Fig. 3b), suggesting a negligible diagenetic impact.
Carbonate oxygen isotopes in both sections (Kent-Corson et al.,
2009; Sun et al., 2020) suggest that bulk carbonates are most
authigenic therein. The carbonate oxygen isotopes in both sections
show meaningful correlations with inorganic/organic proxies of
global/regional climate change (Sun et al., 2020; Wu et al.,
2021b). Meanwhile, the sediment carbonate and ostracod shell
carbonate display nearly identical
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the DHG sec-
tion during 15–11 Ma (Fig. 5)(Song et al., 2020). It also confirms
that sediment carbonate
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios mainly reflect the infor-
mation of authigenic carbonate and are weakly affected by detrital
carbonate. In addition, sediment carbonate
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in two
sections do not show a particular association with shifts in sedi-
mentary facies (Fig. 2 and Fig. 4a-d), and the detrital carbonate
contribution examined in lacustrine-fluvial sediments in the Qai-
dam Basin is generally low (Kent-Corson et al., 2009; Zhuang
et al., 2011b).
Several trace elements are used to infer the potential influence
of silicate dissolution contribution during the HOAc leaching (e.g.,
Si, Al, and K). The low concentrations of Si, Al, and K and their poor
correlations with
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of HOAc leachates together
(Fig. 3) suggest a negligible impact of silicate dissolution-derived
Sr in general. Although diluted acetic acid can also leach a nonneg-
ligible amount of adsorbed Sr when carbonate content is very low
(e.g., Ruan et al., 2019), samples with CaCO
3
> 5% exhibit a similar
evolution to that of all data (Fig. 6). This similarity may be caused
by the fact that the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of the paleo-lake water can lead
to nearly identical
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios for the Sr either adsorbed by
clays or incorporated into authigenic carbonate, as shown by a
detailed ostracod shell leaching test in the DHG section (Song
et al., 2020). In addition, there is a poor linear relationship between
the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio and 1/Sr (Fig. 3a), implying that the
87
Sr/
86
Sr
ratios may be less affected by any process that can greatly modify
the primary Sr signals; otherwise, a mixing trend between the pri-
mary Sr domain and the secondary process can be revealed in this
plot. Hence, our Sr isotopic records in the HLG and DHG sections
mainly reflect
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of paleo-water in the basin.
4.3. Impacts of provenance, weathering, erosion, and sedimentary
facies
The bulk carbonate
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios maintain a stable value
of 0.713 most of the time in accordance with the modern Da
and Xiao Qaidam Lakes, suggesting that the exhumation of Qilian
Shan and the consequent release of radiogenic Sr occurred since
the Eocene. An unambiguously dominant southerly paleocurrent
direction based on clast imbrications and fluvial cross-beds in both
sections (Fig. 2) suggests that the Qilian Shan is the dominant
source of these two sections, at least for coarser detritus. This
interpretation is supported by provenance studies (Zhuang et al.,
2011a; Wang et al., 2020) and the initial Eocene deformation and
exhumation of the Qilian Shan from flexural modelling and ther-
mochronology studies (Cheng et al., 2019a; He et al., 2021; Wang
et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2021a).
It seems unlikely that the low
87
Sr/
86
Sr stages in the two sec-
tions can be induced by the change in nature of the exhumed Qil-
ian Shan material during the Cenozoic. Based on the modern
riverine
87
Sr/
86
Sr distribution, the NQS, CQS, and NQTB all have
highly radiogenic solute Sr (Fig. 1d). The Sr isotopic data of surface
water from SQS are relatively scarce and only a few available data
show that solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios are slightly lower than other ter-
ranes but still higher than that of East Kunlun Shan. As such, the
N-S provenance difference of Sr isotope across the Qilian Shan
may not be significant. Second, multiple methods, including bed-
rock and detrital mineral low-temperature thermochronology,
provenance analysis, as well as seismic profile reveal that the four
sub-terranes of the Qilian Shan have complex and different defor-
mation/growth history. Most early Cenozoic deformation was dis-
tributed in the NQTB and SQS (Bush et al., 2016; Cheng et al.,
2016c; Cheng et al., 2019a, 2019b; He et al., 2017, 2018, 2022;
Jolivet et al., 2001; Qi et al., 2016; Yin et al., 2008; Zhuang et al.,
2011a, 2018). Whether the NQS experienced an early Cenozoic
deformation is still controversial (He et al., 2018; Pang et al.,
2019; Yu et al., 2019), but abundant evidence suggests that the
strong deformation/exhumation in the NQS occurred since the
Miocene (e.g., Chen et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2019; Zheng et al.,
Fig. 5. Relationships of the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios between sediment carbonate and
ostracod shell carbonate from the DHG sections. Sr isotope data of ostracod shell are
from Song et al. (2020).
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
82

2010; Zheng et al., 2017). Notably, the entire Qilian Shan has expe-
rienced rapid exhumation in the Miocene, especially NQS, SQS, and
NQTB, as revealed by a series of bedrock and detrital mineral low-
temperature thermochronological analyses (Chen et al., 2021; He
et al., 2017, 2018, 2022; Jolivet et al., 2001; Li et al., 2019a;
Meng et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2013; Qi et al., 2016; Wang et al.,
2016a; Wang et al., 2016b; Yu et al., 2019; Zheng et al., 2010;
Zheng et al., 2017; Zhuang et al., 2018), and by sedimentology,
provenance analysis, and seismic profile (Bovet et al., 2009;
Cheng et al., 2016a, 2019b; Cheng et al., 2016c; Yin et al., 2008;
Zhuang et al., 2011a). Therefore, despite different denudation his-
tory and non-uniform
87
Sr/
86
Sr values of the terranes of the Qilian
Shan, the early Cenozoic exhumation of the NQTB and SQS as well
as the subsequent deformation of the entire Qilian Shan could pro-
vide a source of high
87
Sr/
86
Sr throughout the Cenozoic.
Silicate weathering in the source area can lead to changes in
riverine
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios. Given the high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in silicate
and low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in marine carbonates, silicate weathering
is strong under warm climate (Goddéris and Brantley, 2013), thus
yielding high solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios; while in cold climate, silicate
weathering is weak, resulting in release of solute Sr with low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios. First, the global climate exhibits an overall cooling
during the Cenozoic (Zachos et al., 2008), but our
87
Sr/
86
Sr records
do not show a continuous decline (Fig. 7). Especially, during past
climatic optimum periods (e.g., Middle Miocene Climate Optimum
and Early Eocene Climate Optimum), the expected high
87
Sr/
86
Sr
ratios resulting from silicate weathering did not occur. Thus, the
global climate may play a minor role. Further, changes in our
87
Sr/
86
Sr records are not consistent with regional climate and sili-
cate weathering histories (Fig. 7c-7e), precluding a dominant
regional climate control. In addition, if climate-driven silicate
weathering has regulated the evolution of regional Sr isotopes,
there should be a synchronous low
87
Sr/
86
Sr period in the two
sections. Likewise, our Sr isotopic records exhibit inconsistent vari-
ation with sediment rates (Fig. 7h), suggesting that erosion was not
a dominant factor either.
Fig. 6. The long-term evolution of
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in Qaidam paleo-water during Cenozoic. (a) The
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of sediments carbonate in HLG section (red circle represents
all sample; orange circle represents sample with CaCO
3
> 5%). (b) The
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of sediments carbonate in DHG section (blue circle represents all sample; green circle
represents sample with CaCO
3
> 5%). (c) The 15% LOWESS regression (bold line) and its 1
r
confidence intervals (dash line) for the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of Qaidam paleo-water. It is
calculated by Acycle software based on all data (Li et al., 2019b). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
83

The change in sedimentary facies cannot lead to a decline in
solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios if the Qilian source provides as the sole
solute Sr source to the fluvial or lacustrine systems. A detailed
comparison between sedimentary facias and carbonate Sr isotopes
indicates that the lower
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio stages in both sections are
not caused by the sedimentary facies change itself (Fig. 2). First,
the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of the HLG section have increased at 32 Ma
and 15 Ma. At 32 Ma, the HLG sequence is dominant by the
lacustrine environment without a change in sedimentary facies
(Figs. 2, 4). At 15 Ma, the HLG site experienced a short period
of shallow lake (Figs. 2, 4) with a decline in
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios, which
may suggest a transient expansion of megalake induced by a
warming and wetting climate in the mid-Miocene, as shown by a
pollen record in the basin (Miao et al., 2011). This lake expansion
might involve the HLG site into a megalake and receive solute Sr
with low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in other sources. Second, for the DHG sec-
tion, there is an obvious drop of
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios since 16 Ma with
a change in sedimentary facies from a short fluvial stage to a long
lacustrine stage. However, the lacustrine stage has exerted both
high and low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios throughout the section; if only consid-
ering data from the lacustrine stage, this drop does exist (Fig. 4a-
4d). This drop thus suggests that a lake solely receiving Qilian-
Fig. 7. Cenozoic Sr isotopes in Qaidam paleo-water and their comparison with other records. (a) The
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of Qaidam paleo-water with the age model of Ji et al.
(2017) and Zhang (2006). The bold and dash lines represent 15% LOWESS regression and its 1
r
confidence intervals calculated by Acycle software (Li et al., 2019b). The purple
circle represents
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of ostracod shell carbonate from DHG section and the green cross represents modern Da Qaidam lake and Xiao Qaidam lakes. (b) The
87
Sr/
86
Sr
difference between the DHG and the HLG sections (DHG section minus HLG section). (c) Carbonate d
18
O record in the DHG section (Sun et al., 2020). (d) Mean annual
precipitation (ANNP) of the Qaidam Basin (Jia et al., 2021). (e) (Smectite + illite/smectite mixed layers)/(illite + chlorite) ratios in the NE TP (Yang et al., 2021b). (f) Marine
benthic d
18
O record (Zachos et al., 2008). (g) Paleomagnetic rotations in the northern Qaidam marginal thrust belt (Ji et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018a). (h) Sedimentary rates of the
DHG and HLG sections (Ji et al. 2017; Zhang, 2006) and sediment yield of the Cenozoic Qaidam Basin (Bao et al., 2017). Stage I and Stage II refer to two stages of hydrological
connection between the northward and southward sources based on the traditional age model. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader
is referred to the web version of this article.)
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
84

derived Sr with high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios before 16 Ma may evolve to
a megalake receiving both Qilian-derived Sr and other source-
derived Sr with low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios after 16 Ma. Therefore,
regardless of the change in sedimentary facies,
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of
paleo-water were mainly controlled by mixing of multiple solute
sources.
4.4. Sr isotope evolution linked to megalake development
The low
87
Sr/
86
Sr stages in the two sections can thus be induced
by low
87
Sr/
86
Sr solute from other sources via wind or river. It
seems unlikely that aeolian input outside the basin from the Tarim
Basin and the Tianshan-Altai Mountains or inside the basin from
the East Kunlun Shan or the Altyn Tagh Range. Although Asian dry-
ing and aeolian history were proposed to extend to the Eocene in
Asian inland (Li et al., 2018b; Licht et al., 2014; Meijer et al.,
2021), dust input should non-selectively settle in the downwind
region independent of the sedimentary environment. That is, the
two sections should respond to aeolian input simultaneously and
display both low
87
Sr/
86
Sr stages, which is, however, not the case
in our records.
The river input of low
87
Sr/
86
Sr solute from the East Kunlun
Shan and/or Altyn Tagh Range should be the most plausible driver.
The low solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr periods in the northern basin reflect
hydrological connections between the northern source with high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios and the southern source with low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios.
Solutes from these mountains could affect the whole Qaidam basin
water through effective water mixing in a megalake system or a
long river directly draining into the northern basin. Detailed anal-
ysis of lithology and depositional environments across the Qaidam
Basin from north to south shows that fluvial facies only distributed
in front of mountains and lacustrine facies distributed in the basin
center (e.g., Cheng et al., 2018), thus it is unlikely that a long river
across the basin can exist persistently at the 44.5–32 Ma and post-
16 Ma. Paleocurrent analysis of the DHG and HLG locations does
not support the existence of such a large river (Fig. 2) (e.g., Meng
and Fang, 2008; Zhuang et al., 2011a; Ji et al., 2017; Lu et al.,
2019; Li et al., 2020). Instead, the widespread distribution of lacus-
trine deposits within the central basin supports the presence of
lakes (Bao et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2018; Yin et al., 2002, 2008).
Therefore, we propose that these two stages with southern low
87
Sr/
86
Sr input (44.5–32 Ma and post-16 Ma) represent the exis-
tence of a basin-scale megalake to mix the northern and southern
sources at both DHG and HLG sites. The HLG low
87
Sr/
86
Sr lacus-
trine stage suggests that the HLG section connected to the Qaidam
paleo-(mega) lake during 44.5–32 Ma and received solute from
both southern and northern sources, while it was not the case for
the DHG section. This inference is supported by the 40.5–
35.5 Ma basin isopleth map, where the depositional center was
located in the western basin (Fig. 8a) (Bao et al., 2017; Cheng
et al., 2018). The HLG section was located at the eastern margin
of the megalake system fed by Qilian Shan, East Kunlun Shan,
and Altyn Tagh Range at 44.5–32 Ma, while the DHG section was
to the far east of the megalake system and probably isolated from
East Kunlun Shan input or only connected intermittently (Fig. 8a).
Similarly, the decrease in the DHG solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios after
16 Ma represents that the depositional center of megalake
migrated to the southeastern basin, resulting in a hydrological con-
nection with the DHG site and change in the source of dissolved
load (Fig. 8b). This migration would involve the DHG section but
isolate the HLG section from the megalake systems. The carbonate
d
18
O record in the southwestern basin shows an 1.5‰negative
shift at 15 Ma, suggesting the topographic growth of Altyn Tagh
Range and East Kunlun Shan (Li et al., 2016) and the resulting east-
ward migration of the megalake. Furthermore, a short low
87
Sr/
86
Sr
stage at 16–14 Ma in the HLG section is consistent with the post-
16 Ma low
87
Sr/
86
Sr stage in the DHG section, which may suggest
an additional climate-induced megalake expansion in the mid-
Miocene. The monsoon rainfall and the westerly vapor were both
enhanced at that time (Miao et al., 2011). The Qaidam paleolake
could expand to a great extent, allowing the HLG and DHG sections
to be involved in the megalake. However, regional drying
since 14–12 Ma (Bao et al., 2019; Fu et al., 2022; Miao et al.,
2011; Song et al., 2017; Zhuang et al., 2011b) may have led to
the south-eastward shrinkage of the megalake, allowing only the
DHG section to connect with this megalake system with solute
input from both southern and northern sources.
Many lines of independent tectonic evidence support our inter-
pretation. First, the NW-SE- and NE-SW-oriented cross-sections
constructed from seismic profiles represent the eastward migra-
tion of the basin depocenter (Fig. 8c). This eastward depocenter
migration is mainly attributed to the continuous exhumation of
the Altyn Tagh Range during the Cenozoic (Cheng et al., 2021;
Wang et al., 2006; Yin et al., 2008). Two stages of rapid exhumation
of the Altyn Tagh Range during the Eocene–Oligocene and Miocene
are well evidenced by growth strata (Cheng et al., 2016a; Cheng
Fig. 8. Schematic maps of two megalake stages in the Qaidam Basin during 44.5–
32 Ma (a) and post 16 Ma (b). Red and Yellow solid arrows represent solute input
with high and low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios, respectively. Yellow dotted arrow represents
intermittent solute input of low
87
Sr/
86
Sr. The two schematic maps are modified
from the basin isopach maps during 40.5–35.5 Ma and 8.1–2.5 Ma (Bao et al., 2017).
(c) NW-SE-oriented profile and cross section (A-A’) and NE-SW-oriented cross
section (B-B’), showing the general distribution of the Cenozoic series (modified
from Bao et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2018). (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
85

et al., 2019c; Meng et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2019b), provenance anal-
ysis (Cheng et al., 2016b; Ritts et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2012), and
low-temperature thermochronology (Jolivet et al., 2001; Wang
et al., 2006; Yu et al., 2019). In addition, the temporal variations
in solute Sr isotopes are consistent with the rotational history of
the northern basin based on paleomagneto-stratigraphy studies
(Fig. 7g). Specifically, the clockwise rotation at 32 Ma, which
might cause the HLG site to be isolated from the megalake, coin-
cides with the disappearance of the low
87
Sr/
86
Sr stage. The coun-
terclockwise rotation at 17–16 Ma had little influence on the
HLG section due to the depocenter being in the eastern basin at
that time.
The solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of the DHG site remain low (0.711)
until 7 Ma, which is different from the modern Da and Xiao Qai-
dam Lakes near the DHG section, suggesting that the DHG site was
isolated from the Qaidam megalake after 7 Ma. This result may
be associated with the Qaidam paleolake shrinkage and dissocia-
tion, which is caused by continuous drying of the Qaidam Basin
after 7 Ma (e.g., Bao et al., 2019; Fu et al., 2022; Liu et al.,
2021; Miao et al., 2011).
In addition, a new age model has been assigned to the HLG sec-
tion and Honggou section (10 km west of DHG section) (Duan
et al., 2022; Nie et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017). The new age mod-
els have yielded a distinct evolution of climate and tectonics in the
Qaidam Basin (e.g., Cheng et al., 2018; Sun et al., 2020; Song et al.,
2020; Wang et al., 2022). Our Sr isotopic data with new age model
exhibit the similar overall pattern with that with traditional age
model. For example, two low
87
Sr/
86
Sr stages still exist, although
both stages occurred at different time periods (22–18 Ma and
post-8 Ma). Further, these two Sr isotopic records also display no
dependency on local and global climate, implying a minor climatic
control (Fig. 9). As such, our proposed model could be still valid,
that is, the low
87
Sr/
86
Sr stages represent the input of southern
source together with formation of the megalakes connecting
northern and southern sources.
5. Implications for source-to-sink process at varying scales
At a basin scale, our solute Sr isotope records could better show
the process of diverse sources input for a given site within the Qai-
dam Basin. The basin isopach maps reconstructed based on sedi-
mentary sequences only reflect the average state in a certain
time period (several million years or more). It cannot well explain
the dynamic process of lake migration and expansion in terms of
the range and location. Given the transport limit of coarse detrital
materials, the siliciclastic sediments from the HLG and DHG sec-
tions may still be dominantly derived from Qilian Shan, even when
the Qaidam megalake has expanded to the locations of both sec-
tions. The reconstructed paleowater Sr input history highlights a
distinct source-to-sink manner of solute Sr and probably very
fine-grained materials (clays), because both solute and clays can
be long-distance transported and well mixed by water while
coarse grains cannot. Nevertheless, our parallel Sr isotope records
in the northern basin have exhibited a more explicit and dynamic
source-to-sink process than that from previous studies using
coarse grains (Bush et al., 2016; Cheng et al., 2016a; Li et al.,
2021; Nie et al., 2019; Song et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017). The
paleohydrological Sr isotopes can reveal the extent to which the
section was affected by the southern source input and then reflect
the migration and expansion range of the paleolake in the basin.
The implications would also be valid even using a recently pro-
posed younger age model of basal sediments in the northern Qai-
dam Basin (Lu et al., 2022; Nie et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017,
2022) because the Sr isotope offset between the two sections
already exists.
At a regional scale, our view of hydrological connection is
mainly based on the observation of higher
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of ero-
sion and weathering products from the Qilian Shan than other sur-
rounding terranes (Fig. 1). Thus, the solute Sr isotope approach can
be used to trace the delivery of Qilian Shan to the adjacent areas by
river or the downwind region by wind. For example, in the down-
wind Linxia Basin to the southeast of the Qilian Shan (Fig. 1), a
rapid rise in
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios from water-soluble salt and authigenic
carbonate with a dramatic change in carbonate Mg–Sr systematics
since 8 Ma suggest an impact of eolian dust with a labile (carbon-
ate and water-soluble salt) fraction of
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio > 0.712 on
basin hydrochemistry (Yang et al., 2017). Given the Sr isotopic dis-
tribution in the Asian dust source area (Fig. 1b), it could be reason-
able to infer that the dusts are mainly from the Qilian Shan.
Moreover, for the Xining Basin to the NE margin of the Qilian Shan
(Fig. 1), a concurrent impact of eolian dust from the Qilian Shan
since 8 Ma can also be witnessed by authigenic carbonate Mg–
Sr systematics (Ruan et al., 2019) and clay mineral assemblages
and clay-size elemental geochemistry (Yang et al., 2021a). How-
ever, the NE margin of the Qilian Shan defines the northern moun-
tains of the Xining Basin; thus, solute Sr with high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios
could also be delivered into the basin by a river. In such a setting,
the rapid rise in the
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio as shown in the Linxia Basin
cannot be seen in the Xining Basin. Instead, the Xining Basin dis-
plays generally higher
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios from 0.7115 to 0.7130 in
water-soluble salt and authigenic carbonate before 8 Ma, which
is similar to the present Qilian-sourced water (see Fig. 1), but much
higher than contemporary
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in the Linxia Basin (Ruan
et al., 2019). The two cases in the Linxia and Xining Basins suggest
Fig. 9. Carbonate Sr isotopes with the chronology of Wang et al. (2017) in Qaidam
Basin and their comparison with climatic and environmental records. (a) The
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of Qaidam paleo-water bold and dash lines represent 15% LOWESS
regression and its 1
r
confidence intervals calculated by Acycle software (Li et al.,
2019a; 2019b). The green cross represents modern Da Qaidam lake and Xiao
Qaidam lakes. (b) Carbonate d
18
O record in the DHG section (Sun et al., 2020). (c)
Mean annual precipitation (ANNP) of the Qaidam Basin (Jia et al., 2021). (d) Marine
benthic d
18
O record (Zachos et al., 2008). Stage I and Stage II refer to two stages of
hydrological connection between the northward and southward sources based on
the new age model (Wang et al., 2017; Duan et al., 2022). (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
Y. Liu, Y. Yang, R. Yang et al. Gondwana Research 118 (2023) 76–91
86

that the solute
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios could be a useful diagnostics indica-
tor of the source-to-sink history of the Qilian-sourced materials.
Combined with other provenance indicators, it can even distin-
guish the potential transport process, fluvial or eolian, in such a
less-humid region.
At a global scale, our finding upon high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in
ancient water from the Qilian Shan is closely linked to the exhuma-
tion and reactivation of late Paleozoic ultrahigh pressure metamor-
phic belts in the Qilian-Qaidam region (Liu et al., 2022). To be
specific, the metamorphic hydrothermal system formed in the
high-grade metamorphic belts could deliver more radiogenic Sr
to river and lake, giving rise to an elevated
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio of surface
water in the surrounding area (Fig. 1). There are two global impli-
cations of the solute Sr isotope approach used in the Qaidam Basin
for source-to-sink studies. One is that the solute Sr isotope
approach can be more useful in revealing the impact of the
denudation of high-grade metamorphic rocks and the subsequent
transport and deposition in catchments. Specifically, Sr isotope
resetting during high-grade metamorphism can produce high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in surface waters when those metamorphic rocks
are denuded, e.g., Qilian-Qaidam region (Liu et al., 2022), and
Himalayas (Edmond, 1992; Chamberlain et al., 2005). It is therefore
recommended to use solute Sr isotope for deciphering the source-
to-sink process in a catchment where high-grade metamorphic
belts are exposed. For example, late Cenozoic
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios of
lowland Himalayan river water reconstructed by fossil shells
and paleosol carbonate demonstrate that denudation of high -
87
Sr/
86
Sr metalimestone varies in extent across the Himalayas
(Quade et al., 1997). The other implication is that seawater Sr iso-
topic evolution, which reflects the continental-scale source-to-sink
systems, can be linked to the abundant radiogenic Sr release into
the ocean caused by intense metamorphism like Himalaya and
Qilian-Qaidam regions. The rise in seawater
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio
since 40 Ma is thought to be caused by radiogenic Sr release from
the Himalayas (Edmond, 1992; Richter et al., 1992). Although the
solute Sr impact of the Qilian-Qaidam region is regional during
the late Cenozoic (Liu et al., 2022), a large-scale continental sub-
duction/collision occurred in the late Paleozoic in this region
where an intense metamorphic belt like Himalaya was formed
(Liou et al., 2004). If past continental subduction/collision-formed
high-grade metamorphism and its extent of radiogenic Sr release
could be comparable to those in the Cenozoic Himalayas, high-
grade metamorphism could play a significant role in the evolution
of global seawater
87
Sr/
86
Sr in the past.
6. Conclusions
The compiled Sr isotopes of water and surface sediments car-
bonate around the NE TP show a uniquely high
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio of
the Qilian Shan. Based on modern observations, this study recon-
structs the Cenozoic source-to-sink history of the Qaidam Basin
using long-term parallel solute Sr isotope records from the HLG
and DHG sections in the northern basin. There are two low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio stages caused by hydrological connections between
the northern source (Qilian Shan) and the southern source (domi-
nantly from East Kunlun Shan) in the Paleogene western basin and
Neogene eastern basin, respectively. Both stages correspond to two
megalakes that developed following a south-eastward migration of
basin depocentre due to the tectonic evolution of the surrounding
mountains. Our study indicates a clear differentiation in prove-
nance history for different phases (dissolved vs. particulate) and
grain sizes (coarse vs. fine) of fluvial-lacustrine sediments, which
helps us to better understand the migration and evolution of the
ancient lake as well as diverse provenance input in basins. Our
study suggests that the solute Sr isotope approach can act as a
more useful indicator to trace the sediment-routing systems asso-
ciated with high-grade metamorphic belts, which provides a
dynamic and continuous source-to-sink history linked to regional
fluvial and eolian processes and even global Sr isotope cycling.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yudong Liu: Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing –
original draft. Yibo Yang: Conceptualization, Investigation,
Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft. Rongsheng
Yang: Methodology, Investigation. Albert Galy: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Resources, Validation. Zhangdong Jin: Investigation,
Resources. Xiaomin Fang: Investigation, Resources. Bowen Song:
Investigation, Methodology, Resources.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was co-supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 42171010, 42072141), the Second
Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research (Grant No.
2019QZKK0707), the National Key Research and Development Pro-
gram of China (2022YFF0800502) and the Geological Survey of
China (No. DD20221645). We thank Catherine Zimmermann, Li
Deng for Sr isotope analytical assistance, Junliang Ji for sample
age estimate, and Qishun Fan for providing Qaidam Sr data
information.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2023.02.012.
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