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Les enseignantes et enseignants non légalement qualifiés au Québec : état des lieux et perspectives de rechercheNon-legally qualified teachers in Quebec: Current situation and research perspectivesLos maestros y maestras no legalmente calificados en Quebec: estado de la cuestión y perspectivas de investigación
Abstract
Depuis quelques années, le nombre d’enseignantes et d’enseignants non légalement qualifiés est en augmentation dans les écoles du Québec. Recrutées pour combler les besoins urgents dans un contexte de pénurie de personnel enseignant, ces personnes ne détiennent pas les certifications minimales requises par la loi pour enseigner. Des recherches scientifiques américaines suggèrent que le manque de formation du personnel enseignant peut avoir des impacts négatifs sur les apprentissages des élèves, et plusieurs institutions québécoises soulèvent également des inquiétudes quant aux impacts qualitatifs du recours à ce personnel non légalement qualifié. Or, il est difficile d’avoir des données fiables sur l’emploi de ce type d’enseignantes et d’enseignants au Québec. À ce jour, aucune recherche scientifique ne s’est spécifiquement intéressée à l’étude de cette catégorie de personnel enseignant en tant que groupe professionnel distinct et aux enjeux particuliers qui découlent de sa présence dans les écoles québécoises. Cet article propose un état des lieux de l’emploi d’enseignantes et d’enseignants non légalement qualifiés au Québec. Les résultats comprennent un état des politiques et des pratiques structurant l’emploi de cette catégorie de personnel, un bref portrait de ses caractéristiques socioprofessionnelles et les répercussions quantitatives de son emploi sur l’offre de personnel enseignant.
... In 2022, they represented about 25% of the current teacher population in Québec (Mukamurera et al., 2023), and their number doubled between 2013 and 2019 (Harnois & Sirois, 2022). From 2016 to 2023, the number of starting SCTs increased from 8.4% to 13.3% in Germany (Bresges et al., 2023). ...
... Others have used the age of entry in the teaching profession as a proxy to identify SCTs in a national database (Bresges et al., 2023), considering that if they start to teach at more than 30 years old, it is likely that they have had a previous professional life (Coppe, 2022). Some have defined SCTs as "non-legally qualified teachers," emphasizing that in some contexts, they often do not hold any teacher certificate (Harnois & Sirois, 2022). ...
... For both these examples, being on the margins of traditional teacher status implies much less employment security than for traditional teachers (Bertron et al., 2023;Coppe et al., 2023). The same dualization trend with the same consequences in terms of employment security has begun to be visible in Quebec as well (Dufour et al., 2023;Harnois & Sirois, 2022). This situation implies a clear contradiction between the expectations of SCTs and the reality of their employment status. ...
The topic of second-career teachers (SCTs) has gained significant attention among educational researchers and policymakers in recent years. This chapter delves into discussions surrounding the expanded presence of SCTs and the associated challenges. In doing so, the chapter is framed around four main topics of discussion. First, it offers an international perspective on the expanded presence of SCTs and discusses the difficulty of defining this specific population of teachers. Second, the chapter reflects upon two paradoxes associated with this expansion: on the one hand, the effort aiming at tackling teacher shortages by massively recruiting a population of teachers who suffer from a dramatically high attrition rate; on the other, the opening of schools’ doors to “unqualified/quickly qualified” teachers while also strengthening the teacher quality, education, and professional development narrative. Third, this chapter describes how the growth in the proportion of SCTs and the associated challenges contribute to redefining and shaking up the foundations of the contours of the teaching profession. Fourth, it provides reflections on addressing these paradoxes by drawing upon what we can learn from a comparative view of teacher-related policies and scholarship on SCTs.
... A-2.1), les diplômes obtenus par ces personnes s' échelonnent entre le diplôme d' études secondaires et la maîtrise. Ces milliers de personnes, bien qu'elles ne proviennent pas d'une formation formelle à l' enseignement, manifestent un grand intérêt à obtenir leur brevet en enseignement (Harnois et Sirois, 2022). ...
... Puisque des études antérieures montrent que l' expérience et la formation des personnes enseignantes ont une incidence sur le rendement des élèves (Bhai et Horoi, 2019), il convient de mieux s'informer sur l'expérience des NLQ et sur leur formation antérieure. Bien que la littérature scientifique nous informe sur différentes dimensions des personnes NLQ, il demeure que nous connaissons peu leur réalité en francophonie et notamment au Québec (Harnois et Sirois, 2022). Cet article porte sur les personnes enseignantes NLQ au Québec, plus spécifiquement sur leur profil socioprofessionnel, sur leur auto-évaluation du degré de maitrise de leurs compétences professionnelles en enseignement ainsi que sur leur intérêt à poursuivre dans la profession. ...
Personnes enseignantes non légalement qualifiées au Québec : quelle auto-évaluation à l'égard du degré de maitrise de leurs compétences professionnelles ? Formation et profession 32(3) 2024
Résumé La pénurie de personnel enseignant constitue un enjeu majeur au Québec. Peu de données spécifiques relatives aux personnes enseignantes non légalement qualifiées (NLQ) sont accessibles actuellement. Pour comprendre qui sont ces personnes, un questionnaire en ligne leur a été acheminé. Cet article présente les résultats recueillis auprès de 295 répondants NLQ, provenant de différentes régions du Québec, tirés du questionnaire abordant leur profil socioprofessionnel, l'auto-évaluation de leurs compétences professionnelles et leur souhait de persévérer dans la profession. Les constats sont les suivants : les personnes constituant notre échantillon ont des profils variés, se sentent compétentes en emploi et souhaitent demeurer en enseignement.. Mots-clés Pénurie d' enseignants, personnes enseignantes non légalement qualifiées, compétences professionnelles, formation initiale et continue.
Abstract The teacher shortage is a major issue in Quebec. Few data specific to not legally qualified teachers (NLQ) are currently available. To understand who these people are, an online questionnaire was sent throughout the school network. This article presents the results collected from 295 NLQ teachers from different regions of Quebec who completed a questionnaire assessing their socio-professional profile, their self-assessment, and their wish to remain (or not) within the profession. Findings indicate that the people constituting our sample have varied profiles, feel rather good in employment, and wish to remain in teaching. Keywords Teacher shortage, teaching persons not legally qualified, professional skills, initial and continuing training.
... A-2.1), les diplômes obtenus par ces personnes s' échelonnent entre le diplôme d' études secondaires et la maîtrise. Ces milliers de personnes, bien qu'elles ne proviennent pas d'une formation formelle à l' enseignement, manifestent un grand intérêt à obtenir leur brevet en enseignement (Harnois et Sirois, 2022). ...
... Puisque des études antérieures montrent que l' expérience et la formation des personnes enseignantes ont une incidence sur le rendement des élèves (Bhai et Horoi, 2019), il convient de mieux s'informer sur l'expérience des NLQ et sur leur formation antérieure. Bien que la littérature scientifique nous informe sur différentes dimensions des personnes NLQ, il demeure que nous connaissons peu leur réalité en francophonie et notamment au Québec (Harnois et Sirois, 2022). Cet article porte sur les personnes enseignantes NLQ au Québec, plus spécifiquement sur leur profil socioprofessionnel, sur leur auto-évaluation du degré de maitrise de leurs compétences professionnelles en enseignement ainsi que sur leur intérêt à poursuivre dans la profession. ...
... Cette situation entraine le recours fréquent à du personnel enseignant non légalement qualifié (ENLQ), dont la proportion a atteint le quart du personnel enseignant actif . Ce contexte critique soulève de nombreuses inquiétudes dans les milieux universitaire et scolaire (Harnois et Sirois, 2022) et nécessite la mise en place de réflexions concertées entre tous les acteurs afin de cibler rapidement les actions les plus efficaces . Étant donné cet enjeu, les rôles et responsabilités des milieux scolaire et universitaire gagneraient à être clarifiés (Institut du Québec, 2019). ...
... Toutefois, le réseau scolaire public fait face à une pénurie de personnel enseignant, ce qui amène les centres de services scolaires (CSS) à embaucher de plus en plus de personnes enseignantes non légalement qualifiées (Harnois et Sirois, 2022 ; Vérificatrice générale du Québec [VGQ], 2023). Le grand nombre de personnes en insertion professionnelle dans les CSS complique la mise en oeuvre des programmes d'insertion professionnelle dans le milieu scolaire, notamment à cause du manque de personnel disponible pour s'impliquer dans de tels dispositifs (Mukamurera et al., 2020 ;Dufour et al., 2023). ...
Depuis 2020, une mesure de mentorat pour soutenir l’insertion professionnelle du nouveau personnel enseignant est en place. Une équipe de conseillères pédagogiques de la région de Québec a souhaité être accompagnée pour développer un programme de mentorat adapté à son contexte. Cet article documente le dispositif d’accompagnement développé, les rôles joués par les divers acteurs scolaires et la satisfaction des personnes mentores et mentorées ainsi que des directions d’établissement quant au programme de mentorat expérimenté. La démarche de recherche-action a permis de préciser les rôles de chacun dans une perspective systémique et de construire du sens en vue d’optimiser l’efficience du soutien offert.
... Par exemple, en Suisse, l'étude de Girinshuti, (2020) s'intéresse surtout à leur insertion professionnelle. Au Québec, il existe des recherches qui portent sur la formation des enseignant.e.s travaillant dans le domaine de l'enseignement professionnel (Deschenaux et Roussel, 2010) ou sur les politiques et pratiques structurant l'emploi des enseignant.e.s non-légalement qualifié.e.s (Harnois et Sirois, 2022). En conclusion, la formation universitaire offerte aux enseignant.e.s de seconde carrière et son adéquation aux motivations et aux profils spécifiques de ces professionnel. ...
La pénurie d’enseignant.e.s est un problème mondial qui nécessite des politiques publiques efficaces afin de favoriser le recrutement d’enseignant.e.s compétent.e.s et motivé.e.s. Le choix de la carrière enseignante est devenu une thématique importante dans la recherche internationale en éducation, car elle est liée à plusieurs enjeux tels que l’attractivité, la formation, l’insertion professionnelle et la rétention dans la profession. En nous basant sur le concept de « carrière » d’Everett Hughes, nous examinons le choix de carrière d’enseignant.e.s du secondaire au Québec et en Suisse. Inspirées par l’étude de Crispin Girinshuti, nous dégageons trois trajectoires vers l’enseignement : les trajectoires linéaires/directes; les trajectoires indirectes; et l’enseignement comme seconde carrière. Nous explorons plus spécifiquement les enjeux liés aux parcours professionnels des enseignant.e.s de seconde carrière, qui deviendront sans doute de plus en plus présent.e.s dans les écoles du Québec et de la Suisse.
... Sous l'effet de plusieurs facteurs interreliés, la pénurie de personnel enseignant qualifié s'est généralisée depuis quelques années au Québec (Harnois et Sirois, 2022). Le ministère de l'Éducation a récemment proposé différentes mesures pour y faire face, dont certaines ciblant plus spécifiquement les « candidats formés à l'étranger » (Ministère de l'Éducation, 2022). ...
Alors que prévaut une situation de pénurie de personnel enseignant au Québec, les personnes enseignantes qualifiées à l'extérieur du Canada rencontrent de nombreux obstacles dans leur parcours de requalification, obstacles susceptibles de les empêcher d'obtenir un emploi à la hauteur de leurs compétences. À partir d'une ethnographie institutionnelle menée depuis le point de vue de personnes enseignantes en début de carrière, notre recherche a permis de documenter les inégalités structurelles d'accès à la profession enseignante au Québec. Une analyse critique des documents légaux et ministériels encadrant les voies pour accéder à cette profession révèle l'aspect préjudiciable de la voie unique imposée aux personnes enseignantes qualifiées à l'extérieur du Canada, en comparaison avec celles offertes aux personnes formées dans les universités québécoises. Les conditions systématiquement imposées aux personnes en processus de requalification, quelles que soient leurs formations, compétences et expériences, ainsi que les conditions dans lesquelles elles sont évaluées pour accéder au brevet lors du stage probatoire, permettent de voir dans ce processus une sorte de tuyau percé. Cette situation, et sa persistance au fil du temps, soulève des questions d'équité et appelle un changement substantiel du processus de requalification. 2 Inequalities in access to teaching in Quebec: a critical analysis of the qualification pathway for teachers trained outside of Canada ABSTRACT Despite the shortage of educators in Quebec, teachers trained outside of Canada face many obstacles along the road to requalification, obstacles that could prevent them from getting a job in line with their competencies. Using an institutional ethnography approach from the point of view of early-career teachers, our study documents structural inequalities related to entering the teaching profession in Quebec. A critical analysis of legal and ministerial documents governing pathways into this profession reveals the prejudicial aspect of the only possible route for teachers trained outside Canada, compared to those available to teachers trained at Quebec universities. The conditions systematically imposed on those in the process of requalification, regardless of their training, skills and experience, as well as the conditions under which they are evaluated for the teaching certificate during the probationary period, reveal somewhat of a leaky pipeline. This situation, and its persistence over time, raises questions of fairness, and calls for substantial changes to the requalification process.
... Par exemple, en Suisse, l'étude de Girinshuti, (2020) s'intéresse surtout à leur insertion professionnelle. Au Québec, il existe des recherches qui portent sur la formation des enseignant.e.s travaillant dans le domaine de l'enseignement professionnel (Deschenaux et Roussel, 2010) ou sur les politiques et pratiques structurant l'emploi des enseignant.e.s non-légalement qualifié.e.s (Harnois et Sirois, 2022). En conclusion, la formation universitaire offerte aux enseignant.e.s de seconde carrière et son adéquation aux motivations et aux profils spécifiques de ces professionnel. ...
La pénurie d’enseignant.e.s est un problème mondial qui nécessite des politiques publiques efficaces afin de favoriser le recrutement d’enseignant.e.s compétent.e.s et motivé.e.s. Le choix de la carrière enseignante est devenu une thématique importante dans la recherche internationale en éducation, car elle est liée à plusieurs enjeux tels que l’attractivité, la formation, l’insertion professionnelle et la rétention dans la profession. En nous basant sur le concept de « carrière » d’Everett Hughes, nous examinons le choix de carrière d’enseignant.e.s du secondaire au Québec et en Suisse. Inspirées par l’étude de Crispin Girinshuti, nous dégageons trois trajectoires vers l’enseignement : les trajectoires linéaires/directes; les trajectoires indirectes; et l’enseignement comme seconde carrière. Nous explorons plus spécifiquement les enjeux liés aux parcours professionnels des enseignant.e.s de seconde carrière, qui deviendront sans doute de plus en plus présent.e.s dans les écoles du Québec et de la Suisse.
Alors que prévaut une situation de pénurie de personnel enseignant au Québec, les personnes enseignantes qualifiées à l’extérieur du Canada rencontrent de nombreux obstacles dans leur parcours de requalification, obstacles susceptibles de les empêcher d’obtenir un emploi à la hauteur de leurs compétences. À partir d’une ethnographie institutionnelle menée depuis le point de vue de personnes enseignantes en début de carrière, notre recherche a permis de documenter les inégalités structurelles d’accès à la profession enseignante au Québec. Une analyse critique des documents légaux et ministériels encadrant les voies pour accéder à cette profession révèle l’aspect préjudiciable de la voie unique imposée aux personnes enseignantes qualifiées à l’extérieur du Canada, en comparaison avec celles offertes aux personnes formées dans les universités québécoises. Les conditions systématiquement imposées aux personnes en processus de requalification, quelles que soient leurs formations, compétences et expériences, ainsi que les conditions dans lesquelles elles sont évaluées pour accéder au brevet lors du stage probatoire, permettent de voir dans ce processus une sorte de tuyau percé. Cette situation, et sa persistance au fil du temps, soulève des questions d’équité et appelle un changement substantiel du processus de requalification.
The use of emergency certification to fill teaching vacancies has increased in many school districts across the United States. Prior research suggests that teachers’ underlying motivations for entering the profession are associated with student outcomes, but very little is known about the motivations of emergency certified teachers who enter the profession in a less systematic fashion than traditionally certified teachers. To understand emergency certified teachers’ rationales for entering teaching, we interviewed 30 emergency certified teachers in Oklahoma where emergency certification has risen sharply. Findings indicate that emergency certified teachers articulate intrinsic motivations for entering the profession that are similar to those commonly identified by traditionally certified teachers. However, emergency certified teachers also report motivations that seemed to be markedly different, such as using teaching as a contingency employment option or wanting to test out the profession before committing to it. This study raises important policy questions about the use of emergency certification as a strategy for filling teaching vacancies.
The teacher is a professional teaching profession with the main responsibility of educating, teaching, guiding, directing, training, assessing, and understanding students. Teachers are the main pillars in ensuring the quality of education in each country. Therefore teachers are required to be professional by fulfilling certain competencies and getting recognition as educators through teacher certification. Educator certificates given to teachers who have fullfill professional teacher standards, referred to through teacher certification, can be understood teacher eligibility in relation to learning agents who can realize the goals of national education. Knowing the importance of creating a professional teacher, so the writer will explain about the competencies and certification systems of special education teachers that developed in Indonesia, Germany, Norway, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Through this consideration, it can be seen differences of opinion and differences in systems that can be used to be considered in improving the quality of national education. The research method used is descriptive qualitative method by describing the conditions relating to the competence and certification systems of special education teachers in several countries. Data collection techniques using document review.
U.S. schools are facing chronic shortages of qualified teachers, resulting in the hiring of unqualified teachers who are disproportionately assigned to disadvantaged students. Further, changing demographics are resulting in racial/ethnic and cultural mismatch between teachers and students they serve, causing additional educational problems. This solution to the shortage and mismatch lies in attracting more students to teacher preparation programs, especially culturally and racially/ethnically diverse students. This study describes collaboration between a university and school districts to offer dual enrollment courses and a summer camp for high school students considering teaching careers. The researchers examined the effect of camp participation on perceived readiness to enroll in college and teach a class in a public school, as well as participants' likelihood of entering a teacher preparation program. Study results suggest early exposure to teaching experiences positively influence high school students' perceptions of teaching as a career. Impact on participants and implications for teacher recruitment are discussed.
Researchers agree that teachers are one of the most important school-based resources in determining students’ future academic success and lifetime outcomes, yet have simultaneously had difficulties in defining what teacher characteristics make for an effective teacher. This chapter reviews the large body of literature on measures of teacher effectiveness, underscoring the diversity of methods by which the general construct of “teacher quality” has been explored, including experience, professional knowledge, and opportunity to learn. Each of these concepts comprises a number of different dimensions and methods of operationalizing. Single-country research (and particularly research from the United States) is distinguished from genuinely comparative work. Despite a voluminous research literature on the question of teacher quality, evidence for the impact of teacher characteristics (experience and professional knowledge) on student outcomes remains quite limited. There is a smaller, but more robust set of findings for the effect of teacher support on opportunity to learn. Five measures may be associated with higher student achievement: teacher experience (measured by years of teaching), teacher professional knowledge (measured by education and self-reported preparation to teach mathematics), and teacher provision of opportunity to learn (measured by time on mathematics and content coverage). These factors provide the basis for a comparative cross-country model.
The dominant discourse of teacher education is framed as the “construction of the problem of teacher education” (Cochran-Smith et al., 2013). From this neoliberal discourse came the push for more accountability, contributing to the promotion of a nationally scored standardized teacher performance assessment (edTPA). This article examines the impact of the assessment on those taking the elementary education edTPA in New York City, teacher educators and the teacher education curriculum. Based on survey and interview data from teacher candidates and faculty, there is a strong concern about the impact of the cost of the edTPA on economically disadvantaged teacher candidates and under-resourced schools of education. In many cases, teacher candidates were not encouraged to fight the neoliberal discourse but rather to “play the game” to pass a test. Because teacher educators felt it was their job to help their teacher candidates get certified, little resistance was found even among those who were not in support of the edTPA. In resistance to the standardization, teacher candidates were encouraged to be strategic, within the Pearson guidelines, in terms of their class size and composition as well as with the lessons that they taught. There were also accommodations made in teacher candidates placements to avoid testing grades or schools with a standardized curriculum; however, this potentially created new consequences with the avoidance of high-needs schools. Additionally, due to the intersection of the specific requirements of the edTPA and the mandated curricula, teacher candidates went outside the guidelines to pass the test. Furthermore, some teacher candidates decided not to take the edTPA and to get certified in another state or not to go into public education.
Historically, the government has sought to improve the quality of the teacher workforce by requiring certification. Teachers are among the most licensed public personnel employees in the United States. Traditionally, an education degree with a student teaching experience and passage of licensure exams were necessary for licensure. In the 1980s, alternative paths to certification developed. In this article, we evaluated the impact of licensure screens and licensure routes on student achievement. Our findings from an analysis of Arkansas data suggest that there is little difference in terms of quality between traditionally and alternatively certified teachers. However, licensure exams do have some predictive power.
The academic achievements of students taught by under-certified primary school teachers were compared to the academic achievements of students taught by regularly certified primary school teachers. This sample of under-certified teachers included three types of under-qualified personnel: emergency, temporary and provisionally certified teachers. One subset of these under-certified teachers was from the national program "Teach For America (TFA)." Recent college graduates are placed by TFA where other under-qualified under-certified teachers are often called upon to work, namely, low-income urban and rural school districts. Certified teachers in this study were from accredited universities and all met state requirements for receiving the regular initial certificate to teach. Recently hired under-certified and certified teachers (N=293) from five low-income school districts were matched on a number of variables, resulting in 109 pairs of teachers whose students all took the mandated state achievement test. Results indicate 1) that students of TFA teachers did not perform significantly different from students of other under-certified teachers, and 2) that students of certified teachers out-performed students of teachers who were under-certified. This was true on all three subtests of the SAT9—reading, mathematics and language arts. Effect sizes favoring the students of certified teachers were substantial. In reading, mathematics,and language, the students of certified teachers outperformed students of under-certified teachers, including the students of the TFA teachers, by about 2 months on a grade equivalent scale. Students of under-certified teachers make about 20% less academic growth per year than do students of teachers with regular certification. Traditional programs of teacher preparation apparently result in positive effects on the academic achievement of low-income primary school children. Present policies allowing under-certified teachers, including those from the TFA program, to work with our most difficult to teach children appear harmful. Such policies increase differences in achievement between the performance of poor children, often immigrant and minority children, and those children who are more advantaged.
This report analyzes teacher education and development policies in countries that participated in the Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study at the Eighth Grade and scored as well as or higher than the United States, also providing information on the systems of Australia, England, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, and Singapore. A teacher education and development model guided data collection and analysis. Based on this model, the report is structured around: control and governance; standards for entrance into and exit from teacher education programs; characteristics of education programs for eighth grade mathematics and science teachers; certification requirements; availability of advanced certification; alternative teacher certification programs; hiring and compensation; and inservice and professional development requirements. The report examines output of these systems in terms of teacher qualifications and teachers' confidence to teach mathematics and science. Results suggest that the United States faces great challenges in meeting the No Child Left Behind Act's requirements. Countries vary with respect to where along the teacher training pipeline they impose pressure points. There is a strong relationship between the number of pressure points with stakes attached and the number of high stakes filters used. Although some principles are successful in other countries, they are not necessarily transferable to the United States. Two appendixes present country demographic profiles and classification rubrics. (SM)
A large body of studies exists that examines the relationship between student achievement gains and the characteristics of teachers. To help policymakers and researchers use and build on this body of studies, this article reviews the studies systematically and synthesizes their results with deliberate consideration of each study’s qualities. Determinate relationships are described for four categories of teacher characteristics: college ratings, test scores, degrees and coursework, and certification status. The review details the implications of these relationships in light of study limitations and proposes directions for future research.
Education researchers and policy makers agree that teachers differ in terms of quality and that quality matters for student achievement. Despite prodigious amounts of research, however, debate still persists about the causal relationship between specific teacher credentials and student achievement. In this paper, we use a rich administrative data set from North Carolina to explore a range of questions related to the relationship between teacher characteristics and credentials on the one hand and student achievement on the other. Though the basic questions underlying this research are not new - and, indeed, have been explored in many papers over the years within the rubric of the "education production function" - the availability of data on all teachers and students in North Carolina over a ten-year period allows us to explore them in more detail and with far more confidence than has been possible in previous studies. We conclude that a teacher's experience, test scores and regular licensure all have positive effects on student achievement, with larger effects for math than for reading. Taken together the various teacher credentials exhibit quite large effects on math achievement, whether compared to the effects of changes in class size or to the socio-economics characteristics of students, as measured, for example, by the education level of their parents.
We begin this chapter by discussing key areas where the misalignment of demand and supply results in an inequitable distribution of teachers. These areas include the use or lack of salary and incentives, seniority-based transfers, and improper or corrupt practices. We then offer examples from our research of promising efforts to align the demand and supply sides to ensure greater access by marginalized children to qualified teachers. We discuss the importance of ensuring equity in teacher assignments and transfers, recognizing and acting on teacher preferences, carefully designing incentives, giving voice to marginalized children and their communities, investing in local infrastructure and human capital, and involving civil society to act as an intermediary between the demand and supply sides. Using these examples as a foundation for future action, we offer a set of recommendations to work toward more equitable access of marginalized children to qualified teachers. Finally, we discuss the study’s limitations and offer areas for future research.
The study measures the quantitative and qualitative teacher shortage in Israel by examining the size of the turnover phenomena, and by investigating the actions taken by school principals when coping with teacher shortage. The study is based on a national survey involving the school principals of all elementary and secondary schools in Israel. Participation rates were 80% of the total number of school principals (N = 2224). Results show a large turnover, mostly of teachers moving between schools, an insufficient supply of certified teachers of core subjects and a widespread practice of out-of-field teaching. The findings redirect the problem of quantitative teacher shortage toward the problem of a hidden shortage that bears directly on the quality of the teaching force.
This paper seeks to analyze Teach for America (TFA) in terms of Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of symbolic violence in an attempt to expose the ways in which this organization perpetuates structures of inequality in the existing social order. The paper begins with a general description of TFA, followed by an overview of several studies in support of and opposition to the program. Next, Bourdieu’s theory of symbolic violence is outlined, after which the program is analyzed in terms of the ways in which it has perpetrated symbolic violence against both corps members and TFA-taught students. This analysis suggests that TFA cannot “create the systemic changes that will help end educational inequity” because it fails to take seriously its own embeddedness within and reproduction of these inequitable structures (Teach for America 2011a, p. 1). In effect, the ways in which TFA aims to accomplish its mission reveal the hidden, violent acts against both corps members and the students whom it purports to help.
Faced with teacher shortage, and limited budgets several developing countries have accepted lower certification and education requirements, eliminated teacher tenure, and curtailed teacher salary to fill vacant teaching positions. Teachers hired in this manner are often known as ‘contract teachers’. A survey of the literature reveals that these practices have created a parallel cadre of undertrained, underpaid, often younger, inexperienced teachers hired locally on contract basis. These practices are viewed favorably from access, cost-savings and local-accountability perspectives. Yet scholars raise concerns that this form of teacher hiring may not be sustainable, may negatively impact educational equity from the perspective of teacher distribution, teacher morale and the professional status of teaching.
Does teacher education influence what teachers feel prepared to do when they enter the classroom? Are there differences in teachers' experiences of classroom teaching when they enter through differ- ent programs and pathways? This study examines data from a 1998 survey of nearly 3000 begin- ning teachers in New York City regarding their views of their preparation for teaching, their beliefs and practice, and their plans to remain in teaching. The findings indicate that teachers who were prepared in teacher education programs felt significantly better prepared across most dimensions of teaching than those who entered teaching through alternative programs or without preparation. Teachers' views of their preparation varied across individual programs, with some programs gradu- ating teachers who felt markedly better prepared. Finally, the extent to which teachers felt well pre- pared when they entered teaching was significantly correlated with their sense of teaching efficacy, their sense of responsibility for student learning, and their plans to remain in teaching.
Fewer than 20 states require middle grades certification; in most states, credentials overlap so that both elementary and secondary certified teachers may teach in the middle grades. Moreover, in many urban districts, getting teachers for the middle grades is a challenge. Despite this crazy-quilt of certifications and a growing body of work on teacher qualifications, there have been few studies that examine the teachers’ impact on learning in the middle grades. This paper uses a data set from an urban district to estimate the impact of different certifications (and lack of certification) on middle-grades students’ learning gains in mathematics and science. In mathematics, we find that students with elementary- and secondary-certified teachers outscore those with uncertified teachers and those who are certified in special education. Especially strong effects are seen in science, where students with secondary science-certified teachers substantially outscore those with any other kind of teacher.
We empirically test how 12th-grade students of teachers with probationary certification, emergency certification, private school certification, or no certification in their subject area compare relative to students of teachers who have standard certification in their subject area. We also determine whether specific state-by-state differences in teacher licensure requirements systematically affect student achievement. In mathematics, we find teachers who have a standard certification have a statistically significant positive impact on student test scores relative to teachers who either hold private school certification or are not certified in their subject area. Contrary to conventional wisdom, mathematics and science students who have teachers with emergency credentials do no worse than students whose teachers have standard teaching credentials.
This article critically reviews the recent empirical literature on teacher recruitment and retention published in the United States. It examines the characteristics of individuals who enter and remain in the teaching profession, the characteristics of schools and districts that successfully recruit and retain teachers, and the types of policies that show evidence of efficacy in recruiting and retaining teachers. The goal of the article is to provide researchers and policymakers with a review that is comprehensive, evaluative, and up to date. The review of the empirical studies selected for discussion is intended to serve not only as a compendium of available recent research on teacher recruitment and retention but also as a guide to the merit and importance of these studies.
We review the comparative literature on the impact of national-level educational institutions on inequality in student achievement. We focus on two types of institutions that characterize the educational system of a country: the system of school-type differentiation (between-school tracking) and the level of standardization (e.g., with regard to central examinations and school autonomy). Two types of inequality are examined: inequality in terms of dispersion of student test scores and inequality of opportunity by social background and race/ethnicity. We conclude from this literature, which mostly uses PISA, TIMSS, and/or PIRLS data, that inequalities are magnified by national-level tracking institutions and that standardization decreases inequality. Methodological issues are discussed, and possible avenues for further research are suggested.
Teacher quality is a key element of student academic success, but few specific teacher characteristics influence classroom outcomes. This research examines whether teacher licensure test scores and other teacher attributes affect elementary student achievement. The results are based on longitudinal student-level data from Los Angeles. California requires three types of teacher licensure tests as part of the teacher certification process; a general knowledge test, a subject area test (single subject for secondary teachers and multiple subject for elementary teachers), and a reading pedagogy test for elementary school teachers. The student achievement analysis uses a value-added approach that adjusts for both student and teacher fixed effects. The results show large differences in teacher quality across the school district, but measured teacher characteristics explain little of the difference. Teacher licensure test scores are unrelated to teacher success in the classroom. Similarly, student achievement is unaffected by whether classroom teachers have advanced degrees. Student achievement increases with teacher experience, but the linkage is weak and largely reflects poor outcomes for teachers during their first year or two in the classroom.
This paper provides an extensive review of the most relevant issues involved in the management of teacher demand and supply at the pre-tertiary level. First, it proposes a conceptual framework for distinguishing among, defining and relating the different relevant factors. Second, it identifies trends and policy concerns regarding the quality of the teaching workforce across the OECD area. Third, it provides an account of current empirical evidence on numerous aspects (e.g. class size, reward structure, working conditions, teacher education, certification procedures, organisation of schools, evaluation systems, structure of labour market, teaching and learning practices) impacting on the teaching profession. Some concerns about maintaining an adequate supply of good quality teachers emerge. It is the case that in a great number of countries the age profile of teachers is skewed towards the older end of the age-range and signs point to a recent worsening of the situation. In addition, the relative attractiveness of the profession, as far as the salary dimension is concerned, has declined substantially in the most recent years. Other evidence indicates that, at least in some countries, a substantial share of the teaching workforce does not hold a regular teaching license and the proportion of "out-of-field" teaching assignments is strikingly high in many subject key areas. It is also emphasised that a teacher shortage is difficult to measure and raises quality as well as quantity concerns. Given that teacher quality is a critical factor in determining student learning, it is entirely appropriate that the educational authorities in the countries with the greatest difficulties develop strategies to guarantee a sufficient supply of quality teachers. This report identifies a broad set of policies that should be given serious consideration to achieve that objective. Finally, this paper also sheds light on the current availability of data on teachers at OECD and relevant data needs for a future quantitative analysis.
What is it that keeps some people in teaching and chases others out? What can be done to increase the power of the teaching profession to recruit and retain effective teachers and to create a stable, expert teaching force in all kinds of districts? This issue of the Journal of Curriculum and Instruction explores these questions from a number of different angles, illuminating a range of strategies that can be used to address them. In this article, I examine the central factors affecting teacher recruitment and retention in high-need schools and the strategies that have been found to be effective in getting and keeping high-quality teachers in the neediest communities.
We use six years of panel data on students and teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of recently hired teachers in the New York City public schools. On average, the initial certification status of a teacher has small impacts on student test performance. However, among those with the same experience and certification status, there are large and persistent differences in teacher effectiveness. Such evidence suggests that classroom performance during the first two years is a more reliable indicator of a teacher's future effectiveness. We also evaluate turnover among teachers by initial certification status, and the implied impact on student achievement of hiring teachers with predictably high turnover. Given modest estimates of the payoff to experience, even high turnover groups (such as Teach for America participants) would have to be only slightly more effective in each year to offset the negative effects of their high exit rates (I2, J24).
Helen Ladd takes a comparative look at policies that the world's industrialized countries are using to assure a supply of high-quality teachers. Her survey puts U.S. educational policies and practices into international perspective.
Ladd begins by examining teacher salaries—an obvious, but costly, policy tool. She finds, perhaps surprisingly, that students in countries with high teacher salaries do not in general perform better on international tests than those in countries with lower salaries. Ladd does find, however, that the share of underqualified teachers in a country is closely related to salary. In high-salary countries like Germany, Japan, and Korea, for example, only 4 percent of teachers are underqualified, as against more than 10 percent in the United States, where teacher salaries, Ladd notes, are low relative to those in other industrialized countries.
Teacher shortages also appear to stem from policies that make salaries uniform across academic subject areas and across geographic regions. Shortages are especially common in math and science, in large cities, and in rural areas. Among the policy strategies proposed to deal with such shortages is to pay teachers different salaries according to their subject area. Many countries are also experimenting with financial incentive packages, including bonuses and loans, for teachers in specific subjects or geographic areas.
Ladd notes that many developed countries are trying to attract teachers by providing alternative routes into teaching, often through special programs in traditional teacher training institutions and through adult education or distance learning programs. To reduce attrition among new teachers, many developed countries have also been using formal induction or mentoring programs as a way to improve new teachers' chances of success.
Ladd highlights the need to look beyond a single policy, such as higher salaries, in favor of broad packages that address teacher preparation and certification, working conditions, the challenges facing new teachers, and the distribution of teachers across geographic areas.
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