Water Losses from Irrigation Canals and their Modern Sustainable Solutions -A Review

Abstract

Water is lost from irrigation canals due to seepage, evaporation, and vegetation growth. Such losses are considered a great waste, especially with the current water stress around the world. Agricultural water consumes almost 70% of the total freshwater used worldwide. Even if the current shortage in irrigation water is being fulfilled by non-conventional water resources, it is still important to save every water drop and ensure a sufficient sustainable water supply. This paper reviews the negative effects of water losses from canals, their reasons, the methods used to quantify them, and the solutions for this problem. The paper also highlights some modern solutions that can be adopted to save irrigation canals water and meet the sustainable development goals. Such solutions include canal lining using geosynthetics to reduce seepage and covering canals with solar panels to minimize evaporation and produce clean energy. Some research gaps for future studies are also identified.

Full text

Proceedings of the International Conference
on
Smart Cities
-Vision for the Future-
From 27th February to 1st March, Cairo, Egypt
I
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Water Losses from Irrigation Canals and their Modern Sustainable
Solutions – A Review
Amr S. Samira, Hanaa M. El-Shiekh b , Mustafa R. El-Dawyc, Yahia A. El-Zayatd,
Doaa A. El-Mollae*
a Student, Water Engineering and Hydraulic Structures Program, Irrigation and Hydraulics Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Ain
-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, Email:amr.sameh238@gmail.com.
b Student, Water Engineering and Hydraulic Structures Program, Irrigation and Hydraulics Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Ain
-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, Email:hanaaelshiekh198@gmail.com.
c Student, Water Engineering and Hydraulic Structures Program, Irrigation and Hydraulics Department,
Faculty of Engineering,
Ain-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, Email:mustafaeldawy2000@gmail.com.
d Student, Water Engineering and Hydraulic Structures Program, Irrigation and Hydraulics Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Ain
-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, Email: yahiaamr74@yahoo.com.
e* Associate Professor, Irrigation and Hydraulics Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ain-
Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt.
Email:doaa_anas@eng.asu.edu.eg.
Abstract: Water is lost from irrigation canals due to seepage, evaporation, and vegetation growth. Such
losses are considered a great waste, especially with the current water stress around the world.
Agricultural water consumes almost 70% of the total freshwater used worldwide. Even if the current
shortage in irrigation water is being fulfilled by non-conventional water resources, it is still important
to save every water drop and ensure a sufficient sustainable water supply. This paper reviews the
negative effects of water losses from canals, their reasons, the methods used to quantify them, and the
solutions for this problem. The paper also highlights some modern solutions that can be adopted to save
irrigation canals water and meet the sustainable development goals. Such solutions include canal lining
using geosynthetics to reduce seepage and covering canals with solar panels to minimize evaporation
and produce clean energy. Some research gaps for future studies are also identified.
Keywords: irrigation canals; canal lining; modern solutions; sustainable water supply; water losses.
1. Introduction
With the current problem of water scarcity, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, and
the increasing average temperatures due to global warming, the water demand is increasing,
making it crucial to preserve every drop [1]. The demand for this vital commodity, i.e. water,
continues to rise, while its sources of supply are still limited or even depleting [2]. Agricultural
water consumes almost 70% of the total freshwater used worldwide, and this percentage can
be higher in developing countries [3]. The rising population increases the water and food
demands, leading to further water stress. Although the agricultural water shortage may be
fulfilled by non-conventional water resources such as importing virtual water, drainage water

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reuse, and desalination, it is still important to save water and ensure a sufficient sustainable
water supply for irrigation [4], [5]. Hence, it is necessary to tackle the problem of water losses
in irrigation canals and search for modern sustainable solutions [1]. Water loss is considered
one of the most important problems of water infrastructures. A huge amount of water is lost
from earth canals during transportation and distribution. About 40% to 45% of the water
passing through earth canals is lost before reaching their end leading to significant economic
losses [6]–[8]. Water losses occur over the canal’s length due to seepage, evaporation, and
vegetation (Figure 1) [9].
Figure 1. Causes of water losses in earth irrigation canals.
Seepage is the most serious cause of water losses and reducing canals conveyance
efficiency [6], [7]. It is important to control seepage in order to improve the efficiency of canal
networks [10]. Seepage affects the quantities of surface water and groundwater, causes
waterlogging, and increases the soil salinity. It may also lead to soil degradation, and
consequently reduce the yields of crops [11], [12]. Evaporation losses should also be
considered, especially in countries having high temperatures. Earth canals are also vulnerable
to the growth of vegetation on their bed and sides causing further water losses due to their
consumption and transpiration [9].
This paper aims to review the causes of water losses in irrigation canals, the factors
affecting each of them, and the methods used for quantifying their amount. The study also
discusses the possible solutions that can be used to reduce water losses from canals. Modern
smart solutions for such losses are highlighted and some research gaps are identified for future
studies.
2. Seepage losses
2.1. Negative effects of seepage losses
Seepage losses reduce the quantity of irrigation water, extend the irrigation time, and
reduce the irrigation efficiency. Seepage also causes the depletion of freshwater resources,
waterlogging of the soil, groundwater pollution, and high concentration of salts and alkalis in
the soil. This leads to soil deterioration, nutrient leaching, and low agricultural productivity.
Seepage is considered the main cause of canal water losses and leads to a huge economic waste
[6], [13].
2.2. Factors affecting the amount of seepage loss from irrigation canals
Various factors influence the amount of seepage from earth canals. These factors include
the permeability of the soil which the canal passes through [6], [14], [15]. The presence of an
impervious layer under the canal’s bed or adjacent to its side slopes also reduce the seepage

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losses (Figure 2). A closer impervious layer to the bed was found to cause less seepage losses
as reported by [16]. The canal’s geometry is also important, as Swamee et al. [6] and Salmasi
and Abraham [17] recommended. Using the optimal trapezoidal section leads to the least
seepage losses [6]. Ghazaw [15] developed charts that help to design trapezoidal, triangular,
and rectangular canals with minimum water losses. Also, El-Molla and El-Molla [16]
concluded that flatter side slopes lead to more seepage. Reducing the wetted perimeter
minimizes the contact area from which the water seeps leading to less seepage [8]. Elkamhawy
et al. [18] and Uchdadiya and Patel [19] pointed out that higher velocities of the flowing water
lead to less seepage. The age of the canal is another important factor, old irrigation canals with
low or no maintenance have higher seepage [19]. Also, Kahlown and Kemper [20] concluded
that old deteriorated canal banks have more seepage losses than rehabilitated canals with
compacted banks. Han et al. [21] discussed the negative effect of long service time, deteriorated
canal conditions, and cracking on the seepage losses. Table 1 presents the factors affecting
canal seepage as reported in the previous studies.
Table 1. The factors affecting seepage losses as reported in previous studies.
Reference
Studied factors
Conclusions
[6]
Canal Geometry
Seepage from triangular canals is minimum for a side
slope of 1.
244.
Seepage from a rectangular channel is minimum when
the ratio of the bed width to the water depth is 2.513
The optimal trapezoidal section (side slopes = 0.598
and bed width to normal water depth ratio = 1.646)
has the least seepage of all the studied geometries.
[20]
Condition and composition
of canal banks.
In old canals, 80% of the canal water losses
happ
ened at the top 8 cm of the banks.
In rehabilitated canals with compacted banks, the
water losses dropped to less than 2% of the flowing
water in a 100 m reach.
Using compacted soil cores in the banks reduced
water losses to less than 25% of their value before
compaction.
[15]
Canal geometry and optimal
dimensions
Developed design charts that facilitate the design of
canals with minimum water losses.
The optimum section of rectangular and trapezoidal
canals was less sensitive to increasing the bed width.
[19]
Canal condition and velocity
When the canal was lined and the velocity of water
increased less seepage losses occurred.
[21]
Service time, canal
condition, and development
of cracks
The conveyance efficiency of a canal is negatively
affected by its condition and service time.
[17]
Hydraulic and geometric
parameters
Wide canals with mild side slopes have more
seepage losses than narrow canals with steep side
slopes.
[16]
Impervious layer under the
bed and canal geometry
The presence of an impervious layer under the bed
reduce the amount of seepage discharge.

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A closer impervious layer to the bed leads to less
seepage from the canal.
Flatter side slopes lead to greater amounts of seepage
discharge.
[18]
The canal condition
Even if
the canal was lined, it will have high seepage
losses if its condition gets deteriorated and cracks
occur.
Figure 2. Seepage losses when the canal passes through permeable soil against when impervious layers exist.
2.3. Methods used to quantify seepage losses
A variety of methods can be used to quantify seepage. These methods are either field,
theoretical (analytical), empirical, or numerical. Field methods include point measurements,
the ponding water-balance method, and the flowing water-balance (inflow–outflow) method
[22]. Point measurements are performed using seepage meters at various locations along the
canal [22]. They can be performed without stopping the flow but need many measurements to
have acceptable results, so they are considered costly. Also, they cannot be used when the flow
velocity exceeds 0.6 m/sec [23], [24]. Another drawback of point measurements is the need of
skilled labor to avoid disturbing the canal’s material [22].
In the ponding water–balance method, the flow is cut with the water level set to the
canal’s operating level and measurements are taken for the rate of water level decline.
Precipitation and evaporation are estimated at the site, and the canal seepage is considered as
the unknown in the water balance equation (Figure 3a ) [22]. This method is accurate,
inexpensive, and doesn’t require measuring the canal’s flow rate. On the other side, it requires
completely cutting the canal’s flow by installing earth dams, which can’t be easily done in large
vital canals. Also, when the flow is cut, the hydrodynamic forces, flow velocity, shear stresses,
and sediment erosion and deposition vanish. This causes the suspended sediments to settle on
the canal’s perimeter, reducing the measured seepage rates [22].
Seepage can be estimated during the canal’s operation by the inflow–outflow method.
In this method, the inflow and outflow rates are measured at the upstream and downstream
sections of the studied canal’s reach, respectively (Figure 3b). The evaporation from the water
surface as well as the precipitation falling over the tested reach should be estimated. Any
change in the canal’s water storage should also be considered. This test should be performed
when all the diversions from the canal are shut off. However, if this is not possible, the diverted
flow rates must be included in the water-balance equation. The total seepage along the reach is
considered as the unknown in the water-balance equation [22]. This method is preferred

Figure 4. Sample of the numerical models used to estimate seepage from a canal’s section.
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whenever it is difficult to cut the flow due to strict water allocation rules. Also, it allows
measuring seepage under the normal flow, shear stresses, and sedimentation conditions. The
biggest drawback of this method is the errors that occur in measuring the flow rates, especially
in short canal reaches. Such errors reduce the accuracy and reliability of the estimated seepage
rates [25].
Figure 3. a) The ponding water–balance method b) The inflow–outflow method.
For theoretical methods, many equations define seepage from a canal's section. In
theoretical methods, several assumptions are made, which makes them more suitable for simple
problems that are rarely met in the field [12]. Empirical equations are derived using previous
field measurements and observations. Some equations are established for very specific
conditions, while others are more general. Empirical equations may require the knowledge of
the canal’s discharge, velocity of flow, hydraulic properties of soil, depth to groundwater, and
canal’s cross section. [24].
And finally comes the numerical analysis methods, which are recently becoming very
popular due to the advances in computers and software engineering. GIS, MIKE11, HEC-RAS,
MODFLOW, Geostudio-SEEP/W, and GMS-SEEP2D models can be used to estimate seepage
from an earth canal’s cross section. Such models have many capabilities and are accurate and
less time consuming compared to other methods. Numerical models also solve different
scenarios regardless of their complexity [16], [26]. A sample of the numerical models used to
estimate seepage from a canal’s section is presented in Figure 4.

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Table 2. Summary of the seepage estimation methods showing their advantages and limitations
Seepage Estimation
Method
Advantages
Drawbacks/Limitations
Point Measurements
Performed without stopping the flow
Need many measurements
to have acceptable results
Cannot be used when the
flow velocity exceeds 0.6
m/sec
Needs skilled labor
Costly
The ponding water-
balance
Accurate, inexpensive, and no need
to measure the flow rate.
Require completely cutting the
flow
Flowing water balance
(Inflow – outflow)
Cutting the flow is not required
Errors may occur in measuring the
flow rates, especially in short
reaches.
Theoretical (Analytical)
Several equations exist for each case
Contain assumptions.
Suitable for simple problems that
are rarely met in the field.
Empirical Equations
Easy to use
Some of them are established for
very specific conditions
May req
uire the knowledge of
unavailable data.
Numerical models Accurate
Less time consuming
Can solve a variety of complex
problems
Need training and high skills
May have some assumptions that
facilitate their programming
2.4. Solutions to control seepage in irrigation canals
Seepage control is essential to enhance conveyance efficiency, especially if the canal
passes through a high permeability soil. This can be performed by reducing the canal’s wetted
perimeter, increasing the flow velocity, and using canal lining [16], [27]. Using automatic
control systems (ACS) in canals’ operation also proved to be an efficient method to reduce
seepage [28].
2.4.1. Canal lining
Canal lining is covering the canal’s inner surface with an impervious or a low
permeability material (Figure 5). It is one of the most common solutions that reduce seepage
losses and prevent waterlogging [29], [30]. Canal lining also reduces evaporation from the
canal’s surface due to smaller sections and prevents weed growth, enhancing the canal’s total
conveyance efficiency. In addition, lined canals have a larger capacity due to their smoother
surfaces which lead to higher water velocities. When lining existing earth canals, it must be
considered that the saved canal water can affect the groundwater recharge values which may

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be used at other adjacent areas [31], [32]. Canal lining can be applied to the canal’s whole
perimeter or some parts of it like the bed or sides only [17], [33]. Numerous different materials
have been used in canal lining (concrete, brick, compacted earth, membranes… etc.) (Figure 6
) [32], [34].
Figure 5. Canal Lining
Figure 6. Some types of canal lining materials [18], [35]–[38]
The cost of canal lining is high, but in return it drastically reduces seepage losses,
improves the canal’s conveyance efficiency, and increases the agricultural productivity [7]. In
addition, lining reduces the maintenance cost of removing silt and weeds and restoring the
canal’s designed section [6]. The good design of canal’s section, careful selection of lining
material, and continuous maintenance are essential to ensure that the lining properly serves its
purpose [18].
Canal linings gradually lose their efficiency with service time. Significant seepage
losses start to occur from a lined canal after deterioration, especially with poor maintenance
and cracks development [6]. Elkamhawy et al. [18] used SEEP/W numerical model to evaluate
the effect of cracks in different lining materials on their seepage control efficiency. The cracks
in all the lining materials were found to reduce their efficiency to around 25% only. Hence,

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they recommended taking the necessary precautions to prevent cracks in all lining materials.
Using water-stop seals at the connections between the canal’s bed and sides was recommended,
especially for rigid lining materials. Han et al. [39] proposed a three dimensional numerical
modeling approach that simulates the effects of concrete and geomembrane damage on seepage
from canals. They used experimental data to validate their modeling methodology. The model
was found to accurately simulate the water losses from canals with concrete and geomembrane
linings for various scenarios of cracks and holes. The results showed that concrete and
geomembrane liners control seepage efficiently if they have no or little damage. However, with
the increasing holes or cracks, the seepage losses increase gradually. Han et al. [21] developed
three empirical equations to calculate the reduction factor of concrete lining, geomembrane
lining and combined lining in the case of damage and cracks using a three-dimensional
numerical model.
Many materials are used to line canals and control seepage. Canal lining have progressed
significantly with time, starting from using a low permeability soil on the canal’s perimeter,
till reaching new technologies and modern geosynthetic liners as presented in figure 7. The
advancement in canal lining types and their characteristics can be summarized as follows:
Figure 7. The progress in canal lining materials.
x Puddle clay lining
Puddle clay is one of the first used materials in canal lining. It is eco-friendly and simple
to apply. It only requires adding the clay layer to the canal’s inner surface and compacting it.
It makes the canal watertight and forms a strong layer over its inner surface. It is a low-cost
solution whenever puddle clay is available at the site. Its main disadvantage is the need to keep
the canal always full to avoid drying out and cracking of clay. This type is thicker than the
other types, requires more excavation, time consuming, and doesn’t stop weeds [40].
x Compacted earth lining
Compacted earth lining is another low-cost solution. In-situ or imported soil can be
compacted on the canal’s perimeter It is also durable and can stay efficient for up to 30 years
[41]–[43]. El-Molla and El-Molla [33] concluded that compacted earth lining can reduce up to
99.8% of the canal water losses if highly compacted soil is used on the bed and sides. The
compacted lining can bear high water pressures and hydraulic forces. However, with the
continuous flow of water, it could get scoured at high velocities [44].
x Rubble masonry lining
Canals can also be lined using rubble masonry covered with a layer of cement or plain
concrete to fill the voids between them. This method is also cheap and economic but the lining
layer is thick compared to the other types [45].
x Brick lining

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It consists of bricks or concrete tiles laid on the canal’s sides and bed with no strict quality
control measures. It can be installed on curved sections without special procedures, the
damaged parts can be easily fixed or replaced, and the bricks can be plastered to reduce seepage
and increase the canal’s capacity and lifetime [46]. It has a wide range of permissible velocities.
It also controls weeds, resists damages, and has low maintenance requirements. It is an
economic solution whenever concrete lining is not available [44].
x Fly ash bricks lining
Fly ash results from the combustion in thermal power plants. It can be mixed with suitable
soils to create fly ash bricks, which can be used as a low price lining material [47]. One of the
drawbacks of fly ash bricks is the presence of some radioactive elements in them. However,
previous studies showed that the concentrations of dissolved uranium and radium in natural
water courses at fly ash disposal sites were below the limits that cause health hazards [47].
x Soil cement lining
It consists of sandy soil, cement, and water mixtures, which harden to form a concrete-like
material. The cement content should be from 2-8% of the soil by volume. Two methods can be
used in the construction; the plastic mix method and the dry-mix method [48], [49]. Coarse soil
can be used to cover the soil-cement layer to protect it against erosion and provide additional
strength [50].
x Concrete lining
It is impermeable, tough, durable, and hydraulically efficient. It is also very common and
can be used for all canal sizes, bear high flow velocities, and fulfill every purpose of lining.
The canal can be lined using un-reinforced concrete, reinforced concrete, or pre-cast slabs. In
situ concrete lining is one of the most used types of lining. The main drawback of concrete
lining is the occurrence of cracks whenever it is not properly designed or maintained. When
unexpected water pressures occur, un-reinforced lining crack more easily and relieve the
pressure, reducing the area of damage. Using joints provided with water-stops at suitable
spacing reduces cracking and enhances the performance of concrete lining [50].
x Asphaltic concrete lining
Asphaltic concrete is a mixture of asphalt and graded stone aggregate mixed and placed
under high temperature. It provides a cheap lining option, especially if the asphalt is readily
available in the site. It is very flexible and easily conforms to the underlying soil. Its
disadvantage is that it does not prevent weed growth. It also does not reduce the canal’s
roughness coefficient [46].
x Concrete canvas lining
Concrete canvas are flexible concrete cloth like sheets which harden when hydrated to form
a thin, strong, water resistant, durable concrete layer on the inner surface of the canal. This
layer is usually formed within 24 hours from hydrating the sheets. The interest in this new
technology is rising as it helps to avoid the faults of concrete. Concrete canvas are considered
perfect for canal lining due to their semi rigid, fire resistant, and water proof characteristics
[51].
x Geosynthetics lining
Geosynthetics are polymeric (synthetic or natural) sheets that have very low hydraulic
conductivity. They are efficient in many civil-engineering applications including canal lining
[52], [53]. Geosynthetic liners can be uses buried, exposed, or concrete covered. They are

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manufactured of many different materials and have various forms including geomembranes,
bituminous membranes, polyethylene, geocells [53]. The upcoming section discusses the
types of geosynthetic canal liners in detail.
2.4.2. Geosynthetic canal liners
1. Geomembrane
A geomembrane sheet can be protected with a 5-7.5 cm shotcrete barrier. Some problems
may be observed in geomembrane lining like improper anchoring of the liner, structural
problems of the canal sides, buckles caused by heavy machinery, uplift of the shotcrete
layer, and water seeping behind the liner. A wire mesh can be used under the shotcrete layer
to improve its performance. The shotcrete layer’s thickness was found to be ineffective. The
main advantage of this type is that it requires little maintenance [54].
2. Bituminous geomembrane
Bituminous geomembranes are one of the most used geosynthetic materials in canal lining.
They can be manufactured in situ or prefabricated. They consist of polymer combined with
bitumen and reinforced polyester geotextile sheets. Those flexible sheets can be rolled
manually or using machines to cover the canal’s inner surface. They have high efficiency in
different climatic conditions. Their most important characteristics are the weight, flexibility,
thermal stability, impermeability, tensile strength, structural stability, tear resistance, puncture
resistance, and chemical resistance. They also should have no negative environmental impacts
[55].
3. Multilayer Polyethylene
Multilayer polyethylene is a promising solution for high traffic areas. As, it is very resistant to
tearing and very easy to overlap and seal during installation [54].
4. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
HDPE is a durable chemical resistant material. HDPE liners maintain their Manning roughness
coefficient values with time. Its main drawback is the very high stiffness which makes it harder
to adapt to some canal shapes. The high stiffness also makes HDPE more brittle when subjected
to frost action, and hence, reduces its durability in cold areas. HDPE liners have high chemical
resistance and most types are free from chemicals that affect the water’s quality. Installation of
HDPE is usually slow and requires high skill due to its large weight and stiffness. HDPE is
also subjected to detachment more than other lining materials [56], [57].
5. Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
LDPE has lots in common with HDPE but it is more flexible and is a better option in canals
with bumps or curves. Its weight is also heavy and can have tears if installed over rough soils.
LDPE can be deformed if incorrectly stretched during installation or folded without caution
during storage or shipping. Both LDPE and HDPE are UV resistant. The seepage loss from
LDPE lining was calculated as 2%. Hence, it is a cheap lining material that saves a large amount
of water. LDPE lining must be changed every two years, however, if properly laid and
maintained it can last longer. LDPE lining can be recycled after use, but recycling may cause
quality loss [2].
6. Polyurethane
Polyurethane is produced and installed on the site. It is considered thinner and lighter in weight
than other types of geomembrane liners. Its performance is affected by the improper handling
and mixing of its chemical components. Polyurethane lining should be installed with caution

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over an existing concrete lining to avoid any damages due to the sharp edges in anchor areas
[54].
7. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC geomembranes conserve their properties over various temperatures, which helps them
adapt to the soil. They also have high resistance to abrasion, puncture, and tearing, which
minimizes the damages during their installation. PVC has been used and tested in canal lining
for more than thirty years by the Bureau of Reclamation [44], [53]. Tears and cuts may occur
to PVC due to its shrinkage. Also, installations in high-traffic areas make it easily damaged.
Signs of degradation to PVC membranes could occur after about 15 years [54].
8. Polypropylene
Polypropylene performs very well in rural areas with low traffic. However, it is vulnerable to
damage in high-traffic areas. When polypropylene lining is installed over cracked concrete
lining, unstable canal sides, or sharp edges, precautions should be taken to prevent any damages
in it [54].
9. EPDM rubber
EPDM rubber is a very durable liner. A project that used EPDM rubber still performed well
after 10 years, while canals lined with other materials became in poor conditions. Improper
installation can cause tears in EPDM as it is soft and requires continuous maintenance. [54].
Reinforced rubber is another durable material that has been tested and monitored and was
excellent with very limited damage and little shrinkage after 5 years [54].
10. Geocells
The geocell is a 3-dimensional net made of HDPE with high-strength welding. Geocell strips
are stretched manually over the canal’s inner surface and connected to form a flexible 3-
dimensional layer. After that, rubble, soil, or concrete are added inside the geocell to form the
lining layer [58]. The service life of geocell is about 40 years under sunshine [58]. The geocell
prevents the displacement of the in-filled material and redistributes its stresses on the
underlying soil [59]. Geocells increase soil strength, reduce lateral movement, and act as a rigid
mattress [60]. They also prevent washing out of the filling material and improve erosion
resistance [58]. Geocell lining is a modern promising solution, but it is still not commonly used
like other conventional methods due to the lack of its design and installation skills in many
countries [61].
11. Geotextile mattresses
A geotextile mattress is a flexible double layered liner installed on the canal’s inner surface
and filled with concrete to prevent seepage and erosion. The two layers of geotextile are inter-
connected by a group of restraining ties to provide internal reinforcement and fix the thickness
of the mattress. The length of restraining ties can be adjusted to achieve the required lining
thickness. After filling the geotextile mattress with concrete it forms a smooth, watertight lining
layer of uniform thickness. This type is cost-efficient and conforms to the underlying soil due
to its flexibility. Geotextile mattresses also resist high flow velocities and don’t need steel
reinforcement. Installing them doesn’t require the dewatering of the canal and they have a low
transportation cost and very limited environmental impacts. Precautions should be taken during
the concrete filling to ensure a uniform mattress thickness [35].
Table 3 summarizes the properties (strengths and weaknesses) of different geosynthetic
canal liners.

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Table 3. Properties of different geosynthetic canal liners
Geosynthetic canal liner
Strengths
Weaknesses
Geomembrane
Requires little maintenance
Improper anchoring leads to:
o Structural problems
o
Buckles due to heavy
machinery
o
Uplift of shotcrete layer
o
Water seeping behind the
liner
Bituminous geomembrane
Can be manufactured in situ or
prefabricated
Flexible
Have high efficiency
No negative environmental impacts
Multilayer Polyethylene
Resistant to tearing
Easy to overlap and seal
High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE)
Chemical resistant
Free fr
om chemicals
Does not affect water quality
Very high stiffness
Brittle in cold areas
Needs skilled labor
Subjected to detachment
Low Density Polyethylene
(LDPE)
Flexible
Low cost
High effeciency
Heavy weight
Can have tears
Low durability
Polyurethane
Thing and light in weight
Negative effect of improper
handling.
Damages due to the sharp edges.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Conserve properties at different
temperatures
Adapt to underlying soil.
High resistance to abrasion and tearing.
Tears and cuts due to shrinkage.
Damage in high traffic areas
Polypropylene
Efficient in low traffic areas
Damage in high-traffic areas and
if a sharp underlying materials
exists
EPDM rubber
High durability
Soft and can develop tears.
Requires continuous
maintenance.
Geocells
Prevent displacement of the in-filled
material
Redistribute stresses on the underlying
soil
Increase soil strength
Reduce lateral movement
Flexible but act as a rigid mattress
Design and installation skills are
still missing in many countries
Geotextile mattresses
Flexible
Have uniform thickness
Forms a smooth, watertight layer
Cost
-efficient
Resist high velocities
No need for steel reinforcement.
No dewatering required to install it.
Low transportation cost
Limited environmental impacts
Needs precautions during the
concrete filling to ensure a
uniform thickness

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2.4.3. Automatic control systems (ACS)
Controlling the quality and quantity of a water system is performed by monitoring
devices, water gates, pump stations, and other operational devices. Many different methods can
be used to control the water system. However, the use of automatic control systems has proved
lately to be more efficient compared to the other methods. Automatic control provides
accuracy, reliability, time saving, effort saving, and water saving. In an ACS, motorized water
gates are used and operated through a computerized real-time control system. Using such
automatic control systems can reduce the seepage losses and improve the operational
performance of canals [62], [63].
Barkhordari et al. (2020) integrated the seepage model SEEP/W with an operational
simulation model. The seepage model simulated the seepage throughout a main irrigation canal
for different operational conditions generated by the operational model. Three different
scenarios of ACS were studied and evaluated. The results showed that ACS are effective in
reducing the operational losses compared to the traditional operating systems (like manual
operation by an operator). ACS also reduced the seepage losses, and proved to be a possible
alternative to canal lining [28].
3. Evaporation losses
3.1. Factors affecting evaporation losses and their negative impacts
For a long time, evaporation losses have been considered minimal compared to seepage
and neglected when calculating a canal’s conveyance efficiency [34]. The amount of
evaporation depends on the canal’s top width, site temperature, wind speed, and humidity. As
the canal’s top width increases, a larger area become exposed to atmosphere, leading to more
evaporation. Temperature is the most effective parameter that controls evaporation. Due to
global warming, the temperature is predicted to rise by 1.7 °C and 2.6 °C and the precipitation
is estimated to increase by 9 % and 12 % in the global warming scenarios of 1.5 °C and 2.0 °C,
respectively [1]. With such rising temperatures, evaporation losses are rising and should not be
further neglected. Economic losses may occur if evaporation losses were not considered in the
canal’s initial water duty [64].
3.2. Methods used to estimate evaporation losses
The amount of evaporation from canals can be estimated using various methods as
follows [65]:
3.2.1. Field measurements
Evaporation can be measured using evaporimeters, which are pans containing water exposed
to the atmosphere. The most common type is the Class A pan, which is a standard pan of 1210
mm diameter and 255 mm depth. The depth of water in the pan is initially between 18 and 20
cm. The decline in the water depth due to evaporation is measured at regular intervals. When
there is no rainfall, the evaporation equals the amount of water lost from the pan. While, if
there is rainfall, its quantity should be considered to avoid underestimation of evaporation. If
there is heavy rainfall, the water may overflow out of the pan, hence, evaporation cannot be
recorded during this time period. A pan coefficient is used to correct the measured evaporation
and eliminate the shallow water and metal surface effects which make the evaporation rate
more than its normal value [66].

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3.2.2. Empirical Evaporation Equations
A lot of empirical equations are available to estimate the evaporation in canals using
commonly available metrological data, most of them depend on Dalton-type equation:
ࡱ૚ൌࡷࢌሺ࢛ሻ
ሺࢋ࢙െࢋ
ࢊሻ (1)
Where, ܧଵis the evaporation in mm/day, es is the saturated vapour pressure at water-surface
temperature, ed is the actual vapour pressure of the overlying air at a specified height, f(u) is
the wind speed correction function, and K is the mass transfer coefficient for the entire lake
[65].
3.2.3. Analytical methods of evaporation estimation
Analytical methods for the determination of lake and waterways evaporation can be
broadly classified into three categories [65]:
x The Water-Budget Method:
Evaporation is determined by the difference between measurements of inflow, outflow,
and changes in the storage.
x The Energy Balance Method:
This method is based on the assessment of all the sources of incoming and outgoing
thermal energy plus changes in energy storage, with the difference being the energy utilized in
evaporation.
x Combination of the energy balance method and the Dalton formula:
The methods using a combination of the energy balance method and Dalton formula are
very common to estimate evaporation for water surface. They use the laws of energy and
conservation of mass along with the characteristics of the water surface.
3.2.4. Modified analytical evaporation equations
A lot of modifications have been made to the Penman equation which was developed by
Howard Penman in 1948 to describe evaporation (E) from an open water surface. The constants
in the equation have been calibrated so that the results match much better with the measured
values for meteorological and environmental conditions of the different climatic zones [65].
3.3. Solutions to protect canals water from evaporation
Many attempts have been made to control evaporation losses. The proposed solutions
included canal covering, floating sheets, and adding different physical or chemical additives to
the water. The following solutions can be adopted to reduce evaporation losses from irrigation
canals:
3.3.1. Covering or enclosing canals
The canal’s surface can be covered with concrete slabs to control evaporation or the
whole canal’s section can be enclosed in a concrete conduit to prevent evaporation, vegetation,
and seepage altogether (Figure 8). However, enclosing or covering some canals can be
challenging especially those with low depths and widths. Also, covering or enclosing canals
using concrete prevents the precipitation falling over the canal from reaching its water [31].

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Figure 8. Canals covering and enclosure
3.3.2. Floating continuous covers
They are impermeable barriers floating on the water surface to reduce evaporation
(Figure 9). Polystyrene, wax, and foam are examples for materials that can be used as floating
continuous covers [67].
Figure 9. Floating continuous cover.
3.3.3. Floating modular covers
They are individual units that can float freely but don’t completely cover the surface of
the water; therefore, they allow the transfer of dissolved oxygen through the gaps between them
(Figure 10). This can be beneficial for the water quality and aquatic life, which makes them
more environmentally friendly compared to continuous covers. Aqua caps and shade balls are
examples of floating modular covers [67].

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Figure 10. a) Floating modular covers b) Aqua caps [67] c) Shade balls [67].
3.3.4. Shade-cloth
It is a suspended structure installed over the surface of the water and supported with
rods and steel cables (Figure 11). It helps to reduce the wind effect and the solar radiation,
which leads to reduce the rate of evaporation [67].
Figure 11. Shade-cloth covering a canal
3.3.5. Solar photovoltaic (PV) covers
Covering the water surface with a solar photovoltaic system has been recently gaining
much attention. The solar PV cover can be installed on a truss over the canal (Figure 12) or
floating over the canal’s water (Figure 13). Solar PV covers reduce the evaporation rate and
produce renewable clean energy at the same time [67]. Using floating solar PV systems over
water has two main advantages over the land-based PV systems. The first is that the traditional
PV systems need a large area of land, and in countries with limited land space, the floating
panels offers a better land saving alternative. The second advantage is that the cooling effect
of the water body gives the floating solar PV systems a higher generation efficiency compared
to the land-based systems [68]. However, such solar PV covers were found to have some
adverse environmental impacts like raising the water’s temperature and reducing the water’s
quality [68]. Also, the initial installation and operation costs of PV cells are high and a
sufficient water depth is needed to ensure that the floating system works properly [31].

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Figure 12. a) Solar photovoltaic panels over a canal b) Construction of solar photovoltaic covers [69].
Figure 13. a) Floating solar photovoltaic panels b) Floating solar photovoltaic cells of Sheikh Zayed canal [70].
3.3.6. Physical method (the bubble plume method)
This method reduces evaporation by injecting air bubbles into the water (Figure 14). In
summer the surface layer of water is heated and becomes less dense. Under this layer, which
is 3 to 4 meters deep, the water is still colder and denser. These layers are separated by a
thermocline barrier that prevents mixing of the deeper water with surface water. This
phenomenon is called stratification. By injecting a bubble plume into the cold deep water
artificial de-stratification occurs. This leads to reducing the evaporation rate by making the
temperature uniform over the water depth. To achieve this, diffusers are placed at a specific
height above the canal’s bottom and used to inject air bubble plumes [67].
Figure 14. The bubble plume method

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3.3.7. Chemical methods
Chemical monolayers are single molecular layers (~2 millionths of a mm thick) of
insoluble or sparingly soluble compounds. When applied to water they form an invisible film
that covers the water surface and block evaporation. This film has pores smaller than those of
water. It acts as a physical barrier over the water surface that shields it from air movements and
prevents the escape of water molecules. Using chemical monolayers to reduce evaporation has
been investigated in research since the 1920s. Hexadecanol and octadecanoyl combinations
were found to form the most effective barrier for preventing water molecules from evaporating
[67].
3.3.8. Biological covers
Using floating aquatic plants like water lily and duckweed can reduce the evaporation
by cutting the connection between the air and water surface. Previous studies showed that
duckweed can reduce evaporation by up to 10%. However, not all aquatic plants effectively
reduce evaporation losses. For example, water lotus have wide extended leaves that increase
the area subjected to transpiration and cause high water losses. Furthermore, some aquatic
plants can affect the water quality, therefore, the efficiency and environmental impacts of using
aquatic plants should be carefully investigated before using them in controlling evaporation
[67].
3.3.9. Windbreakers
Wind is one of the most important factors that affect the rate of evaporation from water
surfaces. Planting trees normal to the direction of the wind is an effective method for reducing
evaporation losses (Figure 15) [67].
Figure 15. The concept of windbreakers
4. Losses due to vegetation
4.1. Negative effects of weeds and vegetation
The presence of vegetation in water canals has detrimental effects on their performance.
Vegetation reduces the flow velocities and increases the amounts of entrapped sediments,
leading to the reduction of the canal’s capacity and deterioration of the water quality. Also, the
reduction in the velocity of flow assists in the spreading of diseases and serves as a habitat for
parasites [71]. In addition, some of the canal’s water can be lost through the process of
transpiration, which is losing water vapor through the plant’s stomata during photosynthesis
[9], [72].

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4.2. Factors affecting the amount of water losses due to vegetation
Aquatic plants are highly adaptable and can grow in different conditions without being
affected. However, the type of growing plants differs based on numerous factors including the
temperature, concentration of organic material, frequency and methods of canal maintenance,
aquatic weed control measures, water flow regulations, and boat traffic [73], [74].
4.3. Methods used to quantify the water losses due to vegetation
The degree of vegetation infestation is determined by the percentage of the canal bed
surface area covered in vegetation [74]. And the only method used to assess the degree of
vegetation infestation is through visual inspection. Figure 16 shows the cycle of vegetation
growth and the different levels of vegetation infestation.
Figure 16. The cycle of vegetation growth in an open earth channel
Many different ways can be used to perform the visual inspection and obtain the
vegetation infestation data, such as personnel investigation, drone surveying, and satellite
imagery. Personnel investigation is the cheapest method but also the most laborious and time-
consuming. Personnel visually sample the canal every specified distance and evaluate the
percentage of vegetation infestation. The personnel could drive alongside the canal or use a
boat to navigate through it and take samples. This method is the least accurate method [74].
Drone surveying involves flying a drone with a camera along the canal’s length and
taking a video that can be analyzed later to create an estimation of the vegetation infestation
degree. Very high-quality images can be obtained using this method, and consequently it is
considered more accurate than personnel investigation and sometimes it’s even more accurate
than satellite imagery. It also doesn’t require direct access over the length of the canal, which
makes it a better option for canals passing through hard-to-reach areas. It is much cheaper than
satellite imagery but more expensive than personnel investigation [75].
Satellite imagery involves using remote sensing satellites to capture images over the
length of the canal. Satellite images can be analyzed to estimate the degree of vegetation
infestation. This method can be very expensive as high-quality images are required to ensure
the accurate assessment of the vegetation infestation degree. Thus, relying on free low
resolution satellite images shouldn’t be considered due to the very low accuracy of their results
[75].
The losses due to the transpiration canal weeds are very small compared to the canal’s
total losses. Hence, most researchers consider transpiration losses collectively with
evaporation. Currently, there are no direct methods to measure the transpiration losses resulting
from vegetation in canals. However, a rough estimation of transpiration losses is possible

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through the approach proposed by El-Enany et al. (2020). The proposed approach uses the
following equation:
ࢃ࡯ ൌ ሺࡱࢀࡻࡷࢇ࡭
૚૙૙૙ ሻൈ ૝૛૙૙
ૡ૟૝૙૙ (2)
Where, ܹܥ is the water consumption needed for the area served by a distributary canal
during a month (m3/sec.), ܧܶ݋ is the monthly average evapotranspiration for the area served
by a distributary canal (mm/day), ܭܽ is monthly average crop coefficient, and ܣ is the
cultivated area (feddan) [76]. Using this approach showed that the estimated losses due to
transpiration were less than 1% of the total water losses from canals [9].
4.4. Vegetation management methods
Although the amount of water lost from canals due to vegetation is very small, it is still
considered as water lost. And with the currently inflating problem of water scarcity and the
increasing water demands due to climate change and growing population, it is essential to
preserve every water drop. Thus, water losses due to vegetation should not be ignored, and
proper management of vegetation is required. Five main ways of weed management can be
used [71], [77], [78]:
4.4.1. Manual control
Manual techniques like pulling, cutting, and raking of the vegetation can be used to
control weed growth. This method is commonly used in countries with available inexpensive
labor.
4.4.2. Mechanical control
In this method, machines are used to cut, shred, crush, suck, or roll the weeds that grew
in the canal. There are many kinds of machines that can be used to manage the canal weeds.
Some machines are water based and can be mounted on boats to deal with the floating weeds.
Others can move along the canal’s berm and clear the weeds.
4.4.3. Chemical control
It is the use of chemicals that are toxic to the weeds. The chemicals can cause damage
to the weeds’ tissues and prevent them from continuing to grow.
4.4.4. Biological control
It is the process of deliberately introducing a new specie to the canal environment to
prevent or restrict the growth of weeds. For example, trees on the banks of the canal which
shade and reduce the weed’s growth or disease agents that target the existing weeds such as
fungi species.
4.4.5. Ecological control
It is manipulating the canal’s environment to control the growth of vegetation such as:
1. Changing the water levels to make the canal unsuitable for growing certain vegetation
types.
2. Minimizing the movement and deposition of sediments to avoid having a suitable growth
environment for vegetation.
3. Lining the canals using impervious materials such as geotextiles or concrete to prevent the
vegetation from taking root in the canal.
4. Shading the canal’s surface to prevent the process of photosynthesis, and consequently
reduce the vegetation growth rate due to insufficient nutrition.

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5. Conclusions
To sum up, this paper reviewed the causes of water losses in irrigation earth canals, factors
affecting them, methods of their estimation, and control measures. Water losses occur due to
three reasons; seepage, evaporation, and vegetation. Seepage is the most detrimental cause of
water losses in earth canals. On the other side, losses due to evaporation and vegetation were
considered minimal and neglected in many previous studies. However, due to the increased
population and global warming, researchers started to consider losses due to evaporation and
vegetation.
Controlling seepage saves irrigation water, avoids waterlogging, preserves water quality,
and enhances the canal’s conveyance efficiency. It can be performed by designing the canal to
have a minimum wetted perimeter, increasing the flow velocity, properly maintaining the canal,
using canal lining, and using automatic control systems. The most widely used method to
control seepage is canal lining. Lining materials have greatly progressed with time, starting
from low permeability soils, passing through concrete lining, and reaching new technologies
like concrete canvas, geomembranes, geocells, and geotextile matresses. Using such modern
canal liners controls seepage more efficiently and sustainably and reduces evaporation and
vegetation losses as well.
Many solutions have been proposed to reduce evaporation losses. The most common
solutions are covering or enclosing the canal, using floating covers, using a shade cloth over
the canal, adding physical or chemical additives to the water, and planting windbreaker trees.
Recently, covering the water surface with solar PV systems has gained much attention. Solar
PV covers reduce the evaporation while producing renewable clean energy. They also save
land and have a high power generation efficiency due to the cooling effect of underlying water.
Yet, solar PV covers can have adverse environmental impacts that should be considered.
Vegetation is controlled by cutting out manually or mechanically, adding chemicals or
biological agents to stop its growing, manipulating the canal’s environment to limit its growth,
and lining the canal.
The literature review showed that very few studies have been performed about the role of
using automatic control systems and internet of things (IOT) to control canal water losses. Also,
the effect of each type of protection on the hydrologic cycle needs to be further studied (eg. the
effect of canal covering on the precipitation patterns and the effect of canal lining on the
groundwater recharge). In addition, the amount of papers discussing losses due to evaporation
and vegetation and their solutions are significantly less than those discussing seepage. Looking
into an accurate method that estimates evaporation in running canals is highly recommended,
as most of the currently used methods are either more optimized for still water bodies such as
lakes (eg. the evaporation pan method) or don’t separate the effect of evaporation from the
other minor water losses such as vegetation (eg. the water budget method). There is also a need
to develop accurate methods that directly estimate the amount of water lost due to vegetation
in a canal and considers the level of infestation. Furthermore, more advanced control measures
for evaporation and vegetation should be developed. Hence, it is recommended to study those
topics in future studies.
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