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Young children's use of blue spaces and the impact on their health, development and environmental awareness: A qualitative study from parents' perspectives
Abstract
Issue addressed:
This study examined how families with young children access and use different types of blue spaces and the health and development benefits, and potential negative effects.
Methods:
Parents(n = 25) of young children across four coastal communities in Western Australia were recruited via purposive sampling to participate in interviews. A generic qualitative study design grounded in the pragmatism paradigm was utilised.
Results:
Beaches were the most frequently used blue space for families all year around, however families did not necessarily attend their closest beach. This appears due to certain beach features making them more or less attractive for use regardless of the distance from home. Parents perceived blue spaces as health promoting due to the increased physical activity children did in and around these spaces. They also reported blue spaces could be positive for child development, contributing to the development of identity. Blue spaces were also perceived to promote children's environmental awareness and environmentally friendly behaviours. However, blue spaces could also be potentially risky environments for families with young children. CONC LUSIONS: The findings highlight blue spaces are an important setting for supporting children's health, development and environmental consciousness. SO WHAT?: It is important to protect natural outdoor environments such as blue spaces for future generations. The findings can be used by governments and policy makers to improve the quality (features and amenities) of blue spaces and positively impact how often families (including those with dogs) use blue spaces and the benefits they experience. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... For instance, adding birdsongs, wind sounds and rustling of leaves to a high coverage of vegetation in a BGI can improve the perceptions of amenity and benefit the landscape's restorative effect compared to purely visual landscape (Corney and Neave, 2019; Yang et al., 2023;Zhao et al., 2018). About biodiversity level, in general, BGIs with high density of birds and plants tend to imply stronger aesthetic and restoration effects (Bell et al., 2018;Du et al., 2021;George et al., 2024;Grace et al., 2024;Lengen, 2015;Li et al., 2024), although it may not be universally preferred in highly urbanized areas . About color coordination in BGIs, reasonable color matching and coherent color connections around water bodies is essential for enhancing physical and mental happiness, which in specific should be a preferable color combo of one or two colors (especially bright colors) (Wan et al., 2020). ...
... Factors related to the peripheral settings of BGIs can significantly impact human visiting patterns, willingness to stay, and overall perceptions of the landscape. Weather, with warmer conditions, encourages more physical interactions with BGIs, promoting longer visits and better aesthetics (George et al., 2024;Grace et al., 2024). Interestingly, visit frequency to different types of BGI can vary by season, with coastal spaces being more dependent on summer, autumn, and winter, while inland BGIs are primarily dependent on spring and winter (White et al., Still water brings tranquility, while dynamic water evokes dynamism, interaction, and awe. ...
... • Coherent color schemes around water bodies, ideally using one or two bright colors, are essential for enhancing both physical and mental well being. (Bell et al., 2018;Du et al., 2021;George et al., 2024;Grace et al., 2024;Lengen, 2015;Qi et al., 2021;Wan et al., 2020) Affiliated facilities and infrastructure ...
Discourses concerning the potential health benefits of blue-green infrastructure (BGI) have gained momentum, highlighting its positive influence on human health and wellbeing. While studies have explored the concept of “Nature pyramid” and the role of exposure to natural environments in promoting health, the role of water elements remains underexplored. Rooted in this concept, this study proposed a notion of “blue-green diet" as a framework to understand the intricate mechanisms and determinants of optimal blue-green exposure. Understanding the relationship between these determinants and their health-related impacts can facilitate the enhancement of BGI design, leading to greater effectiveness in promoting health and wellbeing and supporting sustainable urban development strategies.
To enhance the comprehension of the “blue-green diet", this study conducted a systematic literature review to grasp the underlying mechanisms behind its beneficial effects, focusing on two key determinants of “blue-green diet", which are also derived from the concept of the “Nature Pyramid”: (1) the type of BGI and (2) the mode of interaction with and within BGIs. Under the search of BGI's overall health impacts, the study selected 54 journal publications concerning BGI's type and interaction mode from Web of Science and Scopus since 2010. The review revealed significant disparities in the health benefits provided by different types of BGI (in terms of artificial extent and scale) and between active and passive interaction modes. It examines how to balance natural and artificial elements for enhancing the benefits of BGI and discusses the attributes of BGI that encourage diverse and meaningful interaction patterns. These efforts collectively aim to optimize BGI design and planning, and to increase its capacity to promote health and extend its benefits to a wider range of individuals. Future research should encompass a broader spectrum of determinants, such as diverse BGI settings, visit frequency and duration, and user's social-cultural backgrounds.
... Of more direct relevance here are studies suggesting that: a) exposure to and connectedness with blue spaces in adulthood can also promote and encourage PEBs, especially those PEBs that have a direct impact on these locations such as beach cleans (Wyles, Pahl, Holland, & Thompson, 2017) and reducing single use plastics (Nuojua, Pahl, & Thompson, 2022); and that b) greater awareness of blue spaces and linked threats (e.g. marine litter) in childhood is also associated with PEBs at this age (George, Murray, & Christian, 2023;Hartley, Thompson, & Pahl, 2015, Hartley et al., 2018. What remains lacking is clear evidence linking blue space exposure in childhood to adult pro-environmentalism. ...
... What remains lacking is clear evidence linking blue space exposure in childhood to adult pro-environmentalism. Moreover, most studies linking blue space exposure to PEB, in both adults (Nuojua et al., 2022;Wyles et al., 2017) and children (George et al., 2023;Hartley et al., 2015, Hartley et al., 2018 focused on coastal settings and little is known about inland blue space settings such as rivers and lakes. ...
... The current study broadens the behavioral outcome variables of PBSE. Most previous studies have focused on the positive effects of blue exposure on prosocial behavior [6,72,73], less attention has been given to the potential relationship between blue exposure and impulsivity. This study presents preliminary evidence that exposure to blue space could reduce impulsive behavior, which is consistent with previous research. ...
Background
Emotion-related impulsivity (ERI) is a significant predisposing factor for various mental health issues and is influenced by individuals’ immediate environment. Previous research has largely focused on mitigating ERI through individual-level interventions without extensively considering the role of the external environment. This study explores the impact of passive blue space exposure (PBSE) on ERI, considering both subjective and objective measures of PBSE and investigating the mediating role of perceived crowdedness.
Methods
Two studies were conducted using online platforms to collect data from Chinese residents. Study 1 (n = 369) examined the predictive effect of objective PBSE, as assessed by the normalized difference water index (NDWI), on ERI. Study 2 (n = 374) focused on subjective PBSE and the mediating effect of perceived crowdedness on ERI. Descriptive statistics, correlational analyses, and path analyses were employed to evaluate the relationships between PBSE, perceived crowdedness, and ERI.
Results
Study 1 demonstrated a negative correlation between objective PBSE and ERI, with marginal significance in predictive analysis after controlling for covariates. Study 2 revealed that subjective PBSE was significantly negatively associated with ERI, and perceived crowdedness significantly mediated this relationship. Subjective PBSE reduced perceived crowdedness, which in turn decreased ERI, accounting for 20% of the total effect. The findings suggest that PBSE, both objective and subjective, may serve as a protective factor against ERI.
Conclusions
This research highlights the negative association between PBSE and ERI, extending the understanding of environmental influences on impulsive behavior. It emphasizes the potential of utilizing blue spaces in urban planning and individual exposure to alleviate impulsivity. The study also sheds light on the importance of considering both subjective and objective environmental factors in psychological research and interventions. Future studies should consider a comprehensive approach to measuring PBSE and explore causal relationships through experimental designs.
... Green spaces primarily enhance health through visual and physical activity pathways by providing abundant vegetation and open spaces, while blue spaces have a more integrated impact on physiological and psychological health through waterscapes and multisensory experiences [86]- [88]. Studies suggest that blue spaces, with their dynamic water features, can provide more diverse sensory stimuli, thereby excelling in reducing psychological stress and enhancing psychological health [67], [89]. However, there is still a lack of comparative research on blue and non-blue spaces. ...
The application of digital twin (DT) technology in studying public environmental perception and associated health benefits is emerging, yet most research has focused on static green spaces, providing limited insights into dynamic waterscapes. This study aims to systematically evaluate the effects of waterfront and non-waterfront environments on public physiological and psychological responses using a DT platform. A high-precision 3D virtual replica of a suburban park was constructed using UAV oblique photogrammetry and handheld lidar scanning technologies. Real-time environmental data were integrated into the DT using IoT devices, establishing a dynamic link between the digital environment and physical worlds. Participants underwent field tests in both environments, measuring physiological indicators (e.g., heart rate and blood oxygen saturation) and psychological indicators (e.g., pleasure and relaxation). We found that waterfront environments outperformed non-waterfront environments in terms of relaxation and vitality, while no significant differences were observed between the two environments regarding physiological indicators. Additionally, ANCOVA and random forest analyses identified temperature and sunlight intensity as key environmental factors influencing heart rate and psychological well-being. The study reveals specific mechanisms through which different environmental characteristics impact public well-being and demonstrates the DT platform's capabilities in real-time environmental data collection and landscape quantification. These findings provide valuable insights for urban planners and public health policymakers in designing landscapes that enhance urban residents' health and well-being.
... Our previous work 18,19 has also shown that blue spaces are an important setting for supporting children's health, development, and environmental consciousness. Parents perceived the beach as promoting children's physical activity, both in and around the water. ...
... Next to maintaining biodiversity, these ponds also have an educational function referring to the city's natural environment (e.g., displaying boards informing about plant and animal habitats). This is corroborated by the results of studies [42] stipulating that blue spaces are an important environment for supporting the health, development and environmental awareness of children. Man-made reservoirs forming linear and non-linear elements of the city's blue space also have a recreational and leisure function for the local communities [18,43]. ...
The management of post-mining reservoirs as part of urban blue infrastructure is linked to the implementation of pro-environmental policies at different levels (from local–municipal to European). Local communities, as beneficiaries of measures taken by city authorities, recognise the need for active participation in decision-making processes. They engage in making decisions on blue spaces in urban areas. These include public and natural watercourses and their surroundings, but also water-filled basins of various origins, including post-mining pits. This paper strives to answer how local communities are involved in activities for developing and managing post-mine areas filled with water within city limits. The methods used (including field observation, spatial analyses, and desk research) allowed us to classify post-mining pits according to their functions and the degree of social participation in their development process. The analysed post-mining pits were divided into three groups. The first group consisted of pit reservoirs transformed with the participation of local inhabitants into recreational grounds. The second comprised reservoirs transformed under local zoning plans (with residents consulted) expected to ultimately prop up the city’s green infrastructure. In turn, the third group consists of quasi-natural reservoirs deemed natural enclaves by city residents. The environmental analysis showed that pits were naturalised. One of them was subject to legal protection on account of biodiversity. Post-mine areas in Bydgoszcz play an important environmental role, and some are integral recreational sites, e.g., the Balaton reservoir. They materially affect the inhabitants’ daily contact with nature, which improves life quality.
... This is consistent with several quantitative studies associating young children who own dogs with higher levels of physical activity and play (Wenden et al., 2021). Several recent Australian qualitative studies have also identified proximity to dog friendly beaches are motivators for families with young children to participate in physical activity and play together (Coci et al., 2022;George et al., 2023). However, distance to the closest beach and patrolled beach were not associated with any young children's movement behaviours. ...
Natural outdoor environments provide important settings for children to engage in physical activity. It is unclear if these relationships also exist in preschool aged children.
We examined associations between amount and type of neighbourhood vegetation and blue space, proximity to the beach and preschooler's device‐measured movement behaviours.
Accelerometer data from 1081 preschool children were processed into physical activity and sedentary behaviours using a machine learned random forest physical activity classification model specifically developed for children under five. High‐resolution aerial imagery data and Geographic Information Systems were used to identify total percentage of neighbourhood vegetation and vegetation components (grass, shrubs and trees) and presence and total percentage of blue space (ocean, riverways and lakes and swamps) for 500, 1600 and 5000 m service areas around children's residences. Distance to the closest beach, patrolled beach, and dog beach were also calculated.
Amount of neighbourhood vegetation was inversely associated with boys sedentary time in the 500 m (β = −0.91 min/day, p = 0.006, 95% CI [−1.55, −0.33]) and 1600 m (β = −1.30 min/day, p = 0.001, 95% CI [−2.08, −0.53]) service area, and positively associated with walking time in the 1600 m (β = 0.12 min/day, p = 0.045, 95% CI [0.02, 0.22]) service area. The presence of local riverways was positively associated with girls walking time in the 1600 m (β = 2.34 min/day, p = 0.009, 95% CI [0.59, 4.09]), and 5000 m (β = 1.67 min/day, p = 0.019, 95% CI [0.27, 3.06]) buffer.
Distance to dog beach was positively associated with boys sedentary behaviours. Presence of lake and swamps were negatively associated with boys walking, and presence of riverways was negatively associated with girls moderate‐to‐vigorous activities and games and boys running in the 5000 m service area.
These findings suggest higher amounts of neighbourhood vegetation and certain types of blue space such as riverways and dog beaches could facilitate positive movement behaviours in young children. Our findings that natural outdoor environments are associated with preschool children's movement behaviours add to evidence which could contribute to policy implications for urban planning and the provision and protection of natural environments within cities.
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... As people age, their relationship with blue spaces can alter, leading to different age groups attributing different benefits to visiting blue space areas [23]. Some studies have identified that for children and young adults, an association exists between coastal and inland blue space exposure and mental health and wellbeing [113][114][115][116]. Research involving older generations has also highlighted the fundamental importance of being close to blue spaces for maintaining quality of life and wellbeing [7,8,80,117]. ...
With healthcare systems facing growing pressure from ageing populations and associated complex care needs, attention is increasingly being focused on sustainable strategies to improve health outcomes across populations. Encouraging access to natural environments is one form of preventative public health strategy that has been shown to lead to improved physical and mental health outcomes at the population level. A significant body of research has documented the health benefits of accessing a wide range of natural environments, including green space and coastal areas. However, freshwater resources, or inland blue spaces, have received less attention in the field of human–environment interactions. This critical review highlights current research opportunities for developing rich and nuanced insight into inland blue space experiences. Future research must take steps to account for the dynamic and unique nature of inland blue spaces through the application of a wide range of flexible and sensitive research methodologies alongside the application of broader mixed methods research approaches. To effectively utilise inland blue spaces as public health resources, it is vital that research captures the influence of temporal changes on blue space interactions and considers the overarching impact of context-specific factors. Addressing current research gaps in combination with advancing research methodologies offers the potential to consolidate inland blue space findings and create a robust evidence base for the implementation of effective public health policies.
The environmental crisis, fuelled by rapid urbanization, technology, and changing lifestyles, threatens humanity. Children's disconnection from nature negatively impacts their physical, mental, and environmental well-being, increasing their risk of psychological distress, including elevated stress levels, impaired emotional stability and cognitive function, diminished social interactions, and increased susceptibility to anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, and reduced overall life satisfaction. Consequently, environmental risks have impact on the health and development of the children from early childhood to adolescence and then to adult life. The research article aims at diminished nature connection in children and the emergence of psychological distress. This interdisciplinary research, blending ecology and psychology, uses ecocritical lenses—biophilia (love for nature and living things), topophilia (love for particular place or environment), and ecophilia (love for nature itself) —to explore how diminished nature connection impacts children's well-being. The findings emphasize the importance of reconnecting children with nature and fostering ecospirituality for their well-being and a sustainable future. This research concludes that fostering ecophilia enhances children's cognitive function, environmental awareness, and stewardship, while also promoting ecospirituality.•Human-nature interactions are key learnings for children.
•This research aims to integrate ecology and psychology fostering interdisciplinary approach.
Background: The parent's occupation factor is important because it can influence the quality of parenting, economic conditions, and family environment, all of which contribute to child development.Objective: This study aims to identify and analyze the relationship between parental economic status, namely parental employment, and child growth and development.Method: The research uses survey methods with a quantitative approach. Data was collected from respondents of mothers with children aged 0-5 years. Data analysis was carried out using the Chi-Square test to determine the significance of the relationship between parental employment and children's growth and development.Results: The study's results show a significant relationship between fathers' work and child growth, where children of fathers who work as laborers have the most normal growth. Meanwhile, maternal employment has a significant relationship with child development, with the highest normal development in children of mothers who do not work. However, maternal employment did not show an important relationship with child growth.Conclusion: This study concludes that the father's work has more influence on children's physical growth, while the mother's work has more influence on child development. These results show that parental employment characteristics have important implications for child development
Background
Emotion-related impulsivity (ERI) is a significant predisposing factor for various mental health issues and is influenced by individuals' immediate environment. Previous research has largely focused on mitigating ERI through individual-level interventions without extensively considering the role of the external environment. This study explores the impact of passive blue space exposure (PBSE) on ERI, considering both subjective and objective measures of PBSE and investigating the mediating role of perceived crowdedness.
Methods
Two studies were conducted using online platforms to collect data from Chinese residents. Study 1 (n = 369) examined the predictive effect of objective PBSE, as assessed by the normalized difference water index (NDWI), on ERI. Study 2 (n = 374) focused on subjective PBSE and the mediating effect of perceived crowdedness on ERI. Descriptive statistics, correlational analyses, and path analyses were employed to evaluate the relationships between PBSE, perceived crowdedness, and ERI.
Results
Study 1 demonstrated a negative correlation between objective PBSE and ERI, with marginal significance in predictive analysis after controlling for covariates. Study 2 revealed that subjective PBSE was significantly negatively associated with ERI, and perceived crowdedness significantly mediated this relationship. Subjective PBSE reduced perceived crowdedness, which in turn decreased ERI, accounting for 20% of the total effect. The findings suggest that PBSE, both objective and subjective, may serve as a protective factor against ERI.
Conclusions
This research highlights the negative association between PBSE and ERI, extending the understanding of environmental influences on impulsive behavior. It emphasizes the potential of utilizing blue spaces in urban planning and individual exposure to alleviate impulsivity. The study also sheds light on the importance of considering both subjective and objective environmental factors in psychological research and interventions. Future studies should consider a comprehensive approach to measuring PBSE and explore causal relationships through experimental designs.
Eco-anxiety is the distress caused by climate change where people are becoming anxious about their future. The present scoping reveiw critically evaluated and synthesized the scholarly literature on eco-anxiety and reported it using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) [1]. The study aims were twofold: (i) to understand how eco-anxiety was operationalized in the existing literature, and (ii) the key characteristics of eco-anxiety. Our review found that further research is needed to provide conceptual clarity of the term eco-anxiety. We found that most of the evidence comes from the Western countries, and future research is needed in the non-Western countries. Indigenous peoples, children and young people, and those connected to the natural world are most impacted by eco-anxiety and are identified as vulnerable. We recommend employing diverse methodologies to better understand their lived experiences of eco-anxiety.
This paper examines the relevance of the ocean in children's urban experiences, putting into dialogue the premises of blue urbanism and child-friendly cities. The focus is on discussing how children's lives are entangled with coastal cities, urging the field of children's geographies to unpack how spatial conditions in coastal cities serve as a lens to make sense of children's narratives in urban spaces. The most significant themes that emerged from this interest include the narratives of children in coastal public spaces, child-specific risks, diversity of childhood(s) in coastal cities, and children's agency toward disaster resilience. Such discussions suggest that both the principles of blue urbanism and child-friendly cities are instructive to shift the fixity of our thinking about children's urban spaces, urging children's geographies to extend its mantle to cover the emergent logics of children's narratives in the coastal cities. Overall, this work is an invitation for children's geographers to further explore the ocean-child interconnectedness as a way of rethinking urbanity. Child-friendly blue urbanism is still uncharted but the opportunities thereof are immense. It is then the task of children's geographers to build on this potential and traverse other disciplines toward further navigating children's lives in coastal cities.
Research into the potential health and well-being benefits from exposure to green spaces such as parks and woodlands has led to the development of several frameworks linking the different strands of evidence. The current paper builds on these to provide a model of how exposure to aquatic environments, or blue spaces such as rivers, lakes and the coast, in particular, may benefit health and well-being. Although green and blue spaces share many commonalities, there are also important differences. Given the breadth of the research, spanning multiple disciplines and research methodologies, a narrative review approach was adopted which aimed to highlight key issues and processes rather than provide a definitive balance of evidence summary. Novel aspects of our framework included the inclusion of outcomes that are only indirectly good for health through being good for the environment, the addition of nature connectedness as both a trait and state, and feedback loops where actions/interventions to increase exposure are implemented. Limitations of the review and areas for future work, including the need to integrate potential benefits with potential risks, are discussed.
There is increasing interest in the potential use of outdoor water environments, or blue space, in the promotion of human health and wellbeing. However, therapeutic nature-based practices are currently outpacing policy and the evidence base for health or wellbeing benefits of therapeutic interventions within blue space has not been systematically assessed. This systematic review aims to address the gap in understanding the impacts of blue space within existing interventions for targeted individuals. A systematic review was carried out, searching Google Scholar, SCOPUS, PubMed, etc. through to August 2017. Only blue space interventions were included that were specifically designed and structured with a therapeutic purpose for individuals with a defined need and did not include nature-based promotion projects or casual recreation in the outdoors. Thirty-three studies met the inclusion criteria and were assessed. Overall, the studies suggest that blue care can have direct benefit for health, especially mental health and psycho-social wellbeing. The majority of papers found a positive or weak association between blue care and health and wellbeing indicators. There was also some evidence for greater social connectedness during and after interventions, but results were inconsistent and mixed across studies with very few findings for physical health. This is the first systematic review of the literature on blue care. In summary, it has been shown that mental health, especially psycho-social wellbeing, can be improved with investment in blue spaces. Key areas for future research include improving understanding of the mechanisms through which blue care can improve public health promotion.
Progress on changing human behaviour to meet the challenges of regional and global sustainability has been slow. Building on theory as well as small-scale survey and experimental evidence that exposure to nature may be associated with greater pro-environmentalism, the aim of the current study was to quantify relationships between exposure to nature (operationalised as neighbourhood greenspace, coastal proximity, and recreational nature visits) as well as appreciation of the natural world, and self-reported pro-environmental behaviour for the adult population of England. Using data from a nationally representative sample (N = 24,204), and controlling for potential confounders, a structural equation model was used to estimate relationships. Indirect effects of neighbourhood exposures via nature visits and nature appreciation were accounted for. We found positive relationships between both recreational nature visits and nature appreciation and pro-environmental behaviour across both the whole sample and key socio-demographic groups. The more individuals visited nature for recreation and the more they appreciated the natural world, the more pro-environmental behaviour they reported. Although rural and coastal dwellers tended to also be more pro-environmental on average, patterns were complex, potentially reflecting situational constraints and opportunities. Importantly, positive associations between pro-environmental behaviours and high neighbourhood greenspace and coastal proximity were present for both high and low socio-economic status households. Improving access to, and contact with, nature, e.g., through better urban planning, may be one approach for meeting sustainability targets.
Background:
Oil spill chemicals (OSCs) result not only from the crude oil components but also from dispersants used in the clean-up activities, where some may result in adverse health effects under certain exposure and dosage conditions. One of the main populations of concern for exposure to OSCs are children, who are frequent beach users. Activities such as ingestion of and digging in sand can increase dermal and ingestion exposure. Longer times spent at the beach can also increase exposures for all routes.
Objectives:
The Beach Exposure and Child Health Study (BEaCHeS) was initiated to evaluate the risk of exposure to children from oil contaminants. Reported here are results for surveys collected, as a part of the project, to address exposure-related behavior patterns and risk perception for parents or guardians who visit the beach.
Methods:
Over 400 parental surveys were collected at four beaches, two in Miami and two in Texas, to evaluate children's exposure related activities. Surveys consisted of three general sections: demographics, exposure, and risk perception. Surveys were analyzed in REDcap and Stata to evaluate demographic and regional differences on activities related to beach behavior and potential exposures to oil contaminants (e.g., how much time spent on beach, cleaning habits following beach activities). The statistical analysis included the mean and standard errors, along with regressions to evaluate associations between parameters.
Results:
Overall, the data showed high variability in how children play on the beach, influenced more by age and less by gender. Variations were also seen in certain variables by beach region (e.g., hygiene practices). By race, variations were seen in income, distance of travel to beach, and preferred method of communication for beach warning. Other important findings are reflected in the article.
Discussion:
The data presented here may prove useful for those evaluating children exposures to a variety of contaminants, chemical, or bacterial in origin. In addition, coastal managers may find the risk perception and general behaviors useful for planning and maintenance of beach areas.
Little is known about the knowledge and perceptions that inform children’s safety in the aquatic environment. This paper reports on 8–9 year old children’s critical thinking of water safety and safety strategies at the beach. One-to-one interview data with Year 4 students from across New Zealand, collected as part of the National Monitoring Study of Student Achievement, revealed insights that will contribute to water safety education. Data was obtained from video analysis of the interviews of children who chose the beach as the aquatic environment to talk about (N = 195). Most students (80%) could identify two things they do to keep themselves safe at the beach. In addition, almost half (48%) were able to identify two beach hazards and explain why each was dangerous. Some variation in understanding was evident when data was analysed by ethnicity and decile [New Zealand school deciles are a measure of the socio-economic position of a school’s student community relative to other schools throughout the country. Deciles range from 1 (low) to 10 (high)] rating of the school attended. Unlike findings of other studies on high school and adult populations, no consistent gender differences were evident in children’s perception of beach water safety. Implications for future beach water safety education in schools and the community at large are discussed and recommendations for curriculum change are made.
Background:
Childhood is a critical period for sun protection, when the skin is particularly susceptible to the carcinogenic effects of ultraviolet radiation. Children are dependent upon parents to implement sun protective measures. Existing qualitative research exploring parents' attitudes and beliefs underpinning children's sun protection is from Australia, which has the highest melanoma incidence rates globally, and thus benefits from widespread sun protection awareness campaigns. Parents' sun protective behaviour may, therefore, differ between Australia and the UK. This study investigates the topic in a UK context, using qualitative methodology to gain detailed insights into a relatively under-researched area. The aim of the study was to explore parents' knowledge and understanding of sun protection in children, and factors that motivate and challenge them in this area. Finally, it aimed to determine if and how ethnicity and skin type influence these attitudes and beliefs.
Methods:
Twenty-two semi-structured individual interviews were carried out with parents of children aged 5 years or younger, recruited from local nurseries. Transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis.
Results:
Four overarching themes emerged, each incorporating two to three sub-themes. 'Attitudes towards children's sun protection' refers to the fact that parents considered sun protection to be important for children, a finding which was consistent between different skin types. 'Sun protection practices' brings together several protective behaviours adopted in children and, to a lesser degree, in parents, and their associated disadvantages. 'Sun safety knowledge' refers to parents' awareness of the risks of sun exposure and the need for protection, and illustrates where gaps in knowledge exist, such as regarding the need for vitamin D, and the importance of vigilant sun protection even in the UK. Finally, 'motivating and facilitating factors' highlights motivations for sun protection in children, and factors that facilitate it in practice.
Conclusion:
This study found parents to be motivated and concerned about children's sun protection, irrespective of children's ethnicity, and aware of appropriate protective behaviours. It indicates key challenges which could be targeted in future campaigns in order to improve sun protection in children and reduce uncertainty and anxiety regarding sun safety amongst parents.
Background:
In 2017, the Australian Government funded the update of the National Physical Activity Recommendations for Children 0-5 years, with the intention that they be an integration of movement behaviours across the 24-h period. The benefit for Australia was that it could leverage research in Canada in the development of their 24-h guidelines for the early years. Concurrently, the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) working group published a model to produce guidelines based on adoption, adaption and/or de novo development using the GRADE evidence-to-decision framework. Referred to as the GRADE-ADOLOPMENT approach, it allows guideline developers to follow a structured and transparent process in a more efficient manner, potentially avoiding the need to unnecessarily repeat costly tasks such as conducting systematic reviews. The purpose of this paper is to outline the process and outcomes for adapting the Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years to develop the Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years guided by the GRADE-ADOLOPMENT framework.
Methods:
The development process was guided by the GRADE-ADOLOPMENT approach. A Leadership Group and Consensus Panel were formed and existing credible guidelines identified. The draft Canadian 24-h integrated movement guidelines for the early years best met the criteria established by the Panel. These were evaluated based on the evidence in the GRADE tables, summaries of findings tables and draft recommendations from the Canadian Draft Guidelines. Updates to each of the Canadian systematic reviews were conducted and the Consensus Panel reviewed the evidence for each behaviour separately and made a decision to adopt or adapt the Canadian recommendations for each behaviour or create de novo recommendations. An online survey was then conducted (n = 302) along with five focus groups (n = 30) and five key informant interviews (n = 5) to obtain feedback from stakeholders on the draft guidelines.
Results:
Based on the evidence from the Canadian systematic reviews and the updated systematic reviews in Australia, the Consensus Panel agreed to adopt the Canadian recommendations and, apart from some minor changes to the wording of good practice statements, keep the wording of the guidelines, preamble and title of the Canadian Guidelines. The Australian Guidelines provide evidence-informed recommendations for a healthy day (24-h), integrating physical activity, sedentary behaviour (including limits to screen time), and sleep for infants (<1 year), toddlers (1-2 years) and preschoolers (3-5 years).
Conclusions:
To our knowledge, this is only the second time the GRADE-ADOLOPMENT approach has been used. Following this approach, the judgments of the Australian Consensus Panel did not differ sufficiently to change the directions and strength of the recommendations and as such, the Canadian recommendations were adopted with very minor alterations. This allowed the Guidelines to be developed much faster and at lower cost. As such, we would recommend the GRADE-ADOLOPMENT approach, especially if a credible set of guidelines, with all supporting materials and developed using a transparent process, is available. Other countries may consider using this approach when developing and/or revising national movement guidelines.
Background
We examined the relationship between dog walking and physical activity within and between four US cities and Australia and investigated if dog walking is associated with higher perceived safety in US and Australian cities. Methods
Dog owners (n = 1113) in the Pet Connections Study completed a cross-sectional survey. Data were collected across four study sites; three in the US (San Diego, Nashville, Portland) and a fourth in Australia (Perth). Physical activity, local walking, dog walking, and individual and community perceptions of safety were analysed for dog walkers and non-dog walkers for each study site. Between-city comparisons were examined for dog walkers. ResultsAcross all study sites, dog walkers walked with their dog 5–6 times/week for a total of 93–109 min/week and achieved ≥30mins of physical activity on more days/week and walked in their neighbourhood more often/week, compared with non-dog walkers (all p ≤ 0.01). Compared with Perth, significantly fewer dog walkers walked in their local park in the three US study sites. San Diego dog walkers walked more often in their neighborhood/week compared with Perth dog walkers (all p ≤ 0.05).In Portland, dog walkers perceived significantly more neighborhood problems and in Nashville dog walkers perceived a significantly higher level of neighborhood natural surveillance (i.e., ‘eyes on the street’), compared with non-dog walkers (both p ≤ 0.05). Among dog walkers, females were more likely than males to feel safer walking with their dog in their neighborhood (OR = 2.49; 95 % CI = 1.76, 3.53). Compared with dog walkers in Perth, dog walkers from each of the US study sites felt safer in their neighborhood and perceived there was more neighborhood surveillance (all p ≤ 0.001). Conclusion
This multi-site international study provides further support for the potential for dog walking to increase levels of daily physical activity. Walking with a dog may be a mechanism for increasing perceptions of neighborhood safety and getting to know the neighborhood, however significant between-country differences exist. Further international research is required to understand the drivers for these between-country differences. Community based programs and policies aimed at improving safety and social connectedness should consider the wider community benefits of dog walking and include strategies for supporting more dog walking.
We have observed a growth in the number of qualitative studies that have no guiding set of philosophic assumptions in the form of one of the established qualitative methodologies. This lack of allegiance to an established qualitative approach presents many challenges for "generic qualitative" studies, one of which is that the literature lacks debate about how to do a generic study well. We encourage such debate and offer four basic requirements as a point of departure: noting the researchers' position, distinguishing method and methodology, making explicit the approach to rigor, and identifying the researchers' analytic lens.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
The purpose was to: 1) perform a systematic review of studies examining the relation between physical activity, fitness, and health in school-aged children and youth, and 2) make recommendations based on the findings.
The systematic review was limited to 7 health indicators: high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, the metabolic syndrome, obesity, low bone density, depression, and injuries. Literature searches were conducted using predefined keywords in 6 key databases. A total of 11,088 potential papers were identified. The abstracts and full-text articles of potentially relevant papers were screened to determine eligibility. Data was abstracted for 113 outcomes from the 86 eligible papers. The evidence was graded for each health outcome using established criteria based on the quantity and quality of studies and strength of effect. The volume, intensity, and type of physical activity were considered.
Physical activity was associated with numerous health benefits. The dose-response relations observed in observational studies indicate that the more physical activity, the greater the health benefit. Results from experimental studies indicate that even modest amounts of physical activity can have health benefits in high-risk youngsters (e.g., obese). To achieve substantive health benefits, the physical activity should be of at least a moderate intensity. Vigorous intensity activities may provide even greater benefit. Aerobic-based activities had the greatest health benefit, other than for bone health, in which case high-impact weight bearing activities were required.
The following recommendations were made: 1) Children and youth 5-17 years of age should accumulate an average of at least 60 minutes per day and up to several hours of at least moderate intensity physical activity. Some of the health benefits can be achieved through an average of 30 minutes per day. [Level 2, Grade A]. 2) More vigorous intensity activities should be incorporated or added when possible, including activities that strengthen muscle and bone [Level 3, Grade B]. 3) Aerobic activities should make up the majority of the physical activity. Muscle and bone strengthening activities should be incorporated on at least 3 days of the week [Level 2, Grade A].
Public Health: Local and Global Perspectives presents a comprehensive introduction to public health issues and concepts in the Australian and international contexts. It provides students with fundamental knowledge of the public health field, including frameworks, theories, key organisations and contemporary issues. The third edition features a new chapter on the public health workforce and the importance of advocacy in the profession and a thorough update that includes current research and case studies. Discussion of the COVID-19 pandemic and other contemporary public health issues offers students the opportunity to apply theory to familiar examples. Each chapter contextualises key concepts with spotlights and vignettes, reflective questions, tutorial exercises and suggestions for further reading. Written by an expert team of public health professionals, Public Health is an essential resource for public health students.
Anthropogenic litter is found in all environments, but perceptions of people about this problem depend on the context. We examined the cognition and perception of litter in the environment by schoolchildren from the Pacific Coast of Latin America. Two studies were conducted, (1) in a daily urban context, and (2) on a natural beach; schoolchildren prepared hand-drawn representations of the environment that were evaluated for the presence and perception of litter. Litter cognition was low in urban (<6% of hand-drawn maps with litter) but high in natural environments (>32% of beach drawings with litter). Perception of litter was highly negative in both environments, but information from previous studies suggests that the reasons differ between urban (litter as an indicator of neglect) and natural environments (impact on personal and animal well-being). Our findings indicate the phenomenon of “litter blindness” in urban contexts, which might be an obstacle to effective litter prevention.
Children are experiencing an increase in so‐called ‘eco‐anxiety’. Along with others, we argue that children need more concrete, meaningful opportunities to feel they can make a difference in climate. In this article, we contend that bringing back the bicycle, and the opportunities for independent and active mobility that it affords children, is an important form of climate action for young people. We assert that as well as providing sustainability and wellbeing co‐benefits for children, cycling can help bolster the neighbourhood resilience and social cohesion that will be key resources for communities adapting to new climate risks.
In order to understand how blue spaces may influence health-promoting behaviours, a reliable and effective assessment tool is needed. The Blue Health Environment Assessment Tool (BEAT) was developed to meet this need. A two-stage approach to testing the reliability of the tool is presented here. At Stage-1, one common and several different expert assessors rated 16 sites independently and their results compared. In Stage-2, two assessors rated 21 sites independently and their results were compared. The Inter-class correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated to assess inter-rater reliability to both stages. Stage-2 results showed greater reliability after enhanced training of the assessors. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the tool at revealing differences between sites and for identifying health promoting affordances we carried out intra and inter-site comparisons of a subset of six sites for the Stage-1 and 18 sites for Stage-2. The results showed that overall the tool performs consistently and compares well to the reliability shown by other similar tools. The tool is also highly effective in identifying site-specific differences across the test sample of blue spaces. The results demonstrate that the tool can be used reliably (with training and guidance) and that it provides meaningful data to help planners and designers assess different sites.
Aim: To explore temporal trends in fatal child drowning and benchmark progress across three high income countries to provide prevention and future investment recommendations.
Methods: A total population analysis of unintentional fatal drownings among 0‐19 year‐olds in Australia, Canada and New Zealand from 2005‐2014 was undertaken. Univariate and chi square analyses were conducted, age and sex‐specific crude rates calculated and linear trends explored.
Results: 1,454 children drowned. Rates ranged from 0.92 (Canada) to 1.35 (New Zealand) per 100,000. Linear trends of crude drowning rates show both Australia (y=‐0.041) and Canada (y=‐0.048) reduced, with New Zealand (y=0.005) reporting a slight rise, driven by increased drowning among females aged 15‐19 years (+200.4%). Reductions of 48.8% in Australia, 51.1% in Canada and 30.4% in New Zealand were seen in drowning rates of 0‐4 year‐olds. First Nations children drowned in significantly higher proportions in New Zealand (X2=31.7; p<0.001).
Conclusion: Continual investment in drowning prevention, particularly among 0‐4 year‐olds, is contributing to a reduction in drowning deaths, however greater attention is needed on adolescents (particularly females) and First Nation’s children. Lessons can be learned from each country’s approach, however further investment and evolution of prevention strategies will be needed to fully eradicate child drowning deaths.
Controversy surrounds domestic dog Canis familiaris access to beaches in much of the developed world, where achieving a balance between dog walking and nature conservation, and establishing reasonable compliance with regulations, appear to be highly challenging. We surveyed 434 people who take dogs onto beaches (in coastal central Victoria, Australia), to characterise their use of beaches and attitudes to regulatory controls. Four factors characterised attitudinal dimensions: (1) compliance and support for rules and regulations, (2) perceived dog behaviour and control, (3) rights of dogs and (4) value of dogs compared with wildlife. We hypothesised that residents and non-residents may differ in their attitudes toward dog walking on beaches, and this may also be influenced by their age and sex. Attitudes were broadly similar although slight differences were apparent: residents aged 35–49 years were less supportive of rules and regulations, those aged 18–24 years agreed more strongly that leashing effectively controlled dogs. Males, regardless of their age or residency status, expressed stronger beliefs that dogs were more important than wildlife. This study reveals complex demographic correlates with attitudes to dog walking on beaches, which reveals key stakeholder groups for awareness and education activities.
The concept of data saturation, defined as ‘information redundancy’ or the point at which no new themes or codes ‘emerge’ from data, is widely referenced in thematic analysis (TA) research in sport and exercise, and beyond. Several researchers have sought to ‘operationalise’ data saturation and provide concrete guidance on how many interviews, or focus groups, are enough to achieve some degree of data saturation in TA research. Our disagreement with such attempts to ‘capture’ data saturation for TA led us to this commentary. Here, we contribute to critical discussions of the saturation concept in qualitative research by interrogating the assumptions around the practice and procedures of TA that inform these data saturation ‘experiments’, and the conceptualisation of saturation as information redundancy. We argue that although the concepts of data-, thematic- or code-saturation, and even meaning-saturation, are coherent with the neo-positivist, discovery-oriented, meaning excavation project of coding reliability types of TA, they are not consistent with the values and assumptions of reflexive TA. We encourage sport and exercise and other researchers using reflexive TA to dwell with uncertainty and recognise that meaning is generated through interpretation of, not excavated from, data, and therefore judgements about ‘how many’ data items, and when to stop data collection, are inescapably situated and subjective, and cannot be determined (wholly) in advance of analysis.
Green space is considered a critical environmental factor for sleep quality and quantity. However, no systematic review exploring this relationship exists. The purpose of this systematic review was to 1) explore research related to green space and sleep, and 2) examine the impact of green space exposure on sleep quality and quantity. Papers from eight electronic databases were eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: well-designed, any analysis exploring green space and sleep, provided sleep and green space measurement, published in peer-reviewed journals, and written in English. Thirteen eligible studies related to green space and sleep were selected after peer-review procedures. Cross-sectional studies (n = 7) used either a questionnaire or the combination of Geographic Information Systems and remote sensing images for green space measurement, while questionnaires were primarily used to measure both sleep quality and quantity. Intervention studies (n = 5) were categorized into three types: walking program, gardening, and working in a forest. Eleven out of thirteen studies concluded that green space exposure was associated with improvement in both sleep quality and quantity. The findings support the evidence of a positive association between green space exposures and sleep quality and quantity, and also suggest green exercise and therapeutic gardening as possible intervention methods to improve sleep outcomes.
In this paper we focus on coastal blue spaces and the ways in which they have been advocated as beneficial for health and wellbeing in the context of leisure practices. We offer a reassessment of some of the claims made in this growing body of literature, highlighting the diverse cultural practices at the coast across different geographical contexts, particularly for those communities that have experienced exclusion due to ethnicity, culture, and income. We then discuss conceptions of coastal blue space and wellbeing within the context of Aotearoa New Zealand, a bi-cultural nation in which indigenous knowledges connected to both wellbeing and leisure in the outdoor world are impacting dominant (white, colonial) discourses, policies and practices. We illustrate that a Māori world view embraces different practices and assumptions about what water means and how relationships with water are made including through leisure practices. Aotearoa New Zealand provides a revealing cultural context for re-assessing and indeed challenging Eurocentric assumptions about blue spaces as sites of wellbeing. More widely we suggest that it is timely to anchor blue space and wellbeing research to different ‘worlds’; that looking in to reach out and expanding research agendas is a useful and important enterprise.
Fostering nature connection may promote psychological well-being and enhance proenvironmental attitudes. However, there is limited understanding of what factors influence a person’s nature connection. Using survey responses from 1,000 residents of a large Australian city, we describe the relationship between nature connection and nature experiences at different stages in life, that is, past nature experiences that occurred during childhood, and current, everyday nature experiences. Both past childhood nature experiences and duration of current nature experiences significantly predicted nature connection. The positive relationship between duration of current nature experiences and nature connection was not significantly moderated by past childhood nature experiences. Hence, current nature experiences are associated with high levels of nature connection, even among those lacking childhood nature experiences. This research empirically demonstrates the positive relationship between nature connection and nature experiences, and suggests that it may be equally important to promote nature experiences at any life stage if increasing nature connection is the goal.
Background:
A growing number of quantitative studies have investigated the potential benefits of outdoor blue spaces (lakes, rivers, sea, etc) and human health, but there is not yet a systematic review synthesizing this evidence.
Objectives:
To systematically review the current quantitative evidence on human health and well-being benefits of outdoor blue spaces.
Methods:
Following PRISMA guidelines for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analysis, observational and experimental quantitative studies focusing on both residential and non-residential outdoor blue space exposure were searched using specific keywords.
Results:
In total 35 studies were included in the current systematic review, most of them being classified as of "good quality" (N=22). The balance of evidence suggested a positive association between greater exposure to outdoor blue spaces and both benefits to mental health and well-being (N=12 studies) and levels of physical activity (N=13 studies). The evidence of an association between outdoor blue space exposure and general health (N=6 studies), obesity (N=8 studies) and cardiovascular (N=4 studies) and related outcomes was less consistent.
Conclusions:
Although encouraging, there remains relatively few studies and a large degree of heterogeneity in terms of study design, exposure metrics and outcome measures, making synthesis difficult. Further research is needed using longitudinal research and natural experiments, preferably across a broader range of countries, to better understand the causal associations between blue spaces, health and wellbeing.
Outdoor activities can be an important complement to classroom learning, especially for children/young people excluded, or at risk of exclusion, from mainstream schooling. The current research explored the impact of a 12-week surfing programme among such a group in the UK. Pre-post data on physiological health (heart rate (HR)/blood pressure), self-reported well-being (life and domain satisfaction), connectedness (e.g. to nature, school), environmental awareness (e.g. role of sand dunes) and teacher evaluations (e.g. behaviour) were collected. Results found significant drops in HR (suggesting improved fitness), increased satisfaction with appearance, more positive attitudes towards school and friendships, greater environmental awareness and more positive teacher evaluations, post-intervention. A lack of findings in other domains suggests these results were not due to participants simply conforming to demand characteristics. Overall, the results suggest that surfing interventions could have important benefits for vulnerable young people who struggle with mainstream schooling. The need for future research using control groups and longer term follow-up is discussed.
A broad and growing evidence base suggests the potential for time spent in natural environments to promote human health and well-being. Whilst evidence of such benefits is rapidly accumulating, we still know relatively little about the role of wildlife encounters in shaping the well-being potential of people’s routine green/blue space interactions, particularly amongst non-specialists. This article addresses this conceptual gap, drawing on the findings of a three-stage, qualitative, interpretive study which sought to understand and situate people’s natural environment well-being experiences within their everyday lives. Wildlife encounters were emphasised by study participants in the context of four types of well-being experience: social, immersive, symbolic and achievement oriented. These are explored within this paper, before discussing the influence of past experiences and current life circumstances on participants’ wildlife relationships. Consideration is also given to how environmental managers might focus activity and investment to balance opportunities for such wildlife experiences with the ongoing priorities of delivering socially inclusive, ecologically rich and climate change-resilient green spaces.
b>Issue addressed: Health promotion practitioners have important roles in applying ecosystem approaches to health and actively promoting environmental sustainability within community-level practice. The present study identified the nature and scope of health promotion activities across Australia that tackle environmental sustainability.
Methods : A mixed-method approach was used, with 82 participants undertaking a quantitative survey and 11 undertaking a qualitative interview. Purposeful sampling strategies were used to recruit practitioners who were delivering community-level health promotion and sustainability programs in Australia. The data were analysed thematically and interpretation was guided by the principles of triangulation.
Results: Study participants were at various stages of linking health promotion and environmental sustainability. Initiatives focused on healthy and sustainable food, active transport, energy efficiency, contact with nature and capacity building.
Conclusion: Capacity building approaches were perceived as essential to strengthening this field of practice. Healthy and sustainable food and active transport were suitable platforms for simultaneously promoting community health and sustainability. There was potential for expansion of programs that emphasise contact with nature and energy issues, as well as interventions that emphasise systems thinking and interdisciplinary approaches.
So what? It was promising that Australian health promotion programs have started to address complexity rather than single issues, as evidenced by explicit engagement with environmental sustainability. However, more effort is required to enable a shift towards ecosystem approaches to health.
This paper explores swimming as a healthy body-water engagement in blue space at selected outdoor Irish swimming spots. Associated theoretical underpinnings draw from non-representational theories (NRT). Taking as a starting point the idea of immersion, the paper argues for a deeper application of NRT to blue space settings. In addition, the paper reflects recent therapeutic geographies research on differential experiences of health and wellbeing linked to such immersions. Methodologically, the paper uses observer participation and swimmer's own voices to draw affective and embodied accounts from on and within water. The act of swimming as an emplaced and performed therapeutic encounter is highlighted along with a more critical discussion of contested narratives associated with risk and respect. Theoretical learning suggests the need for greater attention to the production of affect from across the life-course and a fuller articulation of the in-betweenness of theory and empirical testimonies. Swimming emerges from the study as a potentially valuable health and wellbeing resource that can be more fully harnessed to inform wider public health policy.
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
It is often assumed that spending time by the coast leads to better health and wellbeing, but there is strikingly little evidence regarding specific effects or mechanisms to support such a view. We analysed small-area census data for the population of England, which indicate that good health is more prevalent the closer one lives to the coast. We also found that, consistent with similar analyses of greenspace accessibility, the positive effects of coastal proximity may be greater amongst more socio-economically deprived communities. We hypothesise that these effects may be due to opportunities for stress reduction and increased physical activity.
To ascertain general population perceptions of the importance of indicators comprising the Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage (IRSD).
Data for this study came from a face-to-face Health Omnibus survey of 3,001 residents in metropolitan and country South Australia, conducted in 2003. Results: Overall, respondents viewed the IRSD indicators as important. Of the 14 indicators, seven were seen as important by more than two-thirds of respondents (ranging from 90% perceiving the number of families with children and a low income important to 68% perceiving the number of one-parent families with dependent children as important). Younger respondents and those of lower educational attainment were more likely to perceive the indicators as unimportant, compared with older people. For example, 14% of people aged 15-24 vs. 5% of people aged 55-64 (p < or = 0.001) viewed the indicator 'number of one-parent families and dependent children' as unimportant.
While the general population generally recognises the IRSD indicators as important measures of area-based disadvantage, there were systematic age differences in the degree to which individual indicators were deemed important. There was a general lack of support for several indicators (such as proportion of people separated/divorced, houses with no cars). Implications: This research raises the question of which factors are important in representing area-based disadvantage for young people and equally the use of this index when examining variations in the health of young Australians.
South Australian dog beaches
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Coastal regions-population statistics. Luxembourg: Eurostat
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Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science
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Ojala M, Lakew Y. Young people and climate change communication.
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Port Beach shark attck: fears of Perth's first fatal shark attck in five years. Perth: Perthnow
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