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Identification with Game Characters: Theoretical Explanations, Predictors, and Psychological Outcomes

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Abstract

This review investigates theoretical explanations, predictors, and psychological outcomes of identification with game characters. Theoretical explanations depended on Cohen's conceptualization of identification with media characters, wishful identification, similarity identification, embodied presence concepts, self-perception, self-discrepancy, and social identity theories. Predictors included customizability, how the character is perceived (ideal, attractive, similar, real), narrative, immersion, presence, age, time spent playing/playing history, player's psychological characteristics, and perceived performance. Psychological outcomes included enjoyment, flow experience, addiction, problematic gaming, playing motivations, self-efficacy, competence, short-term outcomes (change in aggression, empathy), intention to continue playing, game-related spending, social identification, and in-group bias. The self-discrepancy perspective provides the most prevalent explanation, which proposes that game characters are closer to players' ideal selves, and identification with the game character reduces their self-discrepancies. However, the social identity perspective offers more overarching explanations discussing identification with game-related groups (groups created within the game and game community) and the game character together, thus pointing to a bigger picture where players develop social identities through interaction with game-related groups. Therefore, unlike other explanations discussing game character identification as a temporary experience, the social identity perspective indicates it may be a lasting experience. Regarding predictors, only two were game-related (customizability, narrative), while most were player-related (e.g., age, time spent playing, player's psychological characteristics), which might show that player characteristics deserve more attention than the game itself to understand the identification process. Concerning psychological outcomes, while two were positive (enjoyment, flow experience) and two were negative (addiction, problematic gaming), most had various aftermaths, such as a short-term outcome of an increase in aggression or empathy.
Review
Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar-Current Approaches in Psychiatry 2023; 15(2):203-219
doi: 10.18863/pgy.1104693
Identification with Game Characters: Theoretical
Explanations, Predictors, and Psychological
Outcomes
Oyun Karakteriyle Özdeşleşme: Teorik Açıklamaları, Öncülleri ve
Psikolojik Çıktıları
Özlem İskender1
1
Kastamonu University, Kastamonu
ABSTRACT
This review investigates theoretical explanations, predictors, and psychological outcomes of identification with game
characters. Theoretical explanations depended on Cohen’s conceptualization of identification with media characters,
wishful identification, similarity identification, embodied presence concepts, self-perception, self-discrepancy, and social
identity theories. Predictors included customizability, how the character is perceived (ideal, attractive, similar, real),
narrative, immersion, presence, age, time spent playing/playing history, player’s psychological characteristics, and
perceived performance. Psychological outcomes included enjoyment, flow experience, addiction, problematic gaming,
playing motivations, self-efficacy, competence, short-term outcomes (change in aggression, empathy), intention to
continue playing, game-related spending, social identification, and in-group bias. The self-discrepancy perspective
provides the most prevalent explanation, which proposes that game characters are closer to players’ ideal selves, and
identification with the game character reduces their self-discrepancies. However, the social identity perspective offers
more overarching explanations discussing identification with game-related groups (groups created within the game and
game community) and the game character together, thus pointing to a bigger picture where players develop social
identities through interaction with game-related groups. Therefore, unlike other explanations discussing game character
identification as a temporary experience, the social identity perspective indicates it may be a lasting experience.
Regarding predictors, only two were game-related (customizability, narrative), while most were player-related (e.g., age,
time spent playing, player’s psychological characteristics), which might show that player characteristics deserve more
attention than the game itself to understand the identification process. Concerning psychological outcomes, while two
were positive (enjoyment, flow experience) and two were negative (addiction, problematic gaming), most had various
aftermaths, such as a short-term outcome of an increase in aggression or empathy.
Keywords:
Video games, game character, identification, self-discrepancy, social-identification
ÖZ
Bu derleme çalışması, oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmenin teorik açıklamalarını, öncüllerini ve psikolojik çıktılarını
incelemektedir. Teorik açıklamalar, Cohen’in
medya karakterleriyle özdeşleşme kavramsallaştırmasına, arzulanan
özdeşleşme, benzerlik özdeşleşmesi, somutlaşmış bulunuşluk kavramlarına, kendini algılama, benlik uyuşmazlığı ve
sosyal kimlik teorilerine dayanmıştır. Oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmenin öncülleri şunları içermiştir: Kişiselleşti rilebilirlik,
oyun karakterinin nasıl algılandığı (ideal, çekici, benzer, gerçek), öyküleme, dalma, bulunuşluk, yaş, oynamaya harcanan
süre/oynama geçmişi, oyuncunun psikolojik özellikleri ve algılanan performans. Psikolojik çıktıları ise şunları içermiştir:
Keyif alma, akış deneyimi, bağımlılık, problemli oynama, oynama motivasyonları, öz-yeterlik, yeterlik hissi, kısa süreli
çıktılar (saldırganlık ve empatide değişim), oynamaya devam etme niyeti, oyunla ilgili harcama yapma, sosyal özdeşleşme
ve iç-grup yanlılığı. Oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmenin en geçerli açıklamasını, oyun karakterlerinin, oyuncuların ideal
benliklerine daha yakın olduğunu ve oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmenin benlik uyuşmazlıklarını azaltabileceğini savunan
benlik uyuşmazlığı yaklaşımı sağlamıştır. Ancak, sosyal kimlik perspektifi, oyunla ilgili gruplarla (oyun içinde oluşturulan
gruplar ve oyun topluluğu) ve oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmeyi birlikte ele alarak daha kapsayıcı açıklamalar sunmuş,
oyuncuların, oyunla ilgili gruplarla etkileşimleri vasıtasıyla sosyal kimlikler geliştirdiğini gösteren büyük resmi de tasvir
etmiştir. Böylece, oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmeyi geçici bir deneyim olarak ele alan diğer açıklamaların aksine, uzun süreli
bir deneyim olabileceğini göstermiştir. Öncüllere bakıldığında, yalnızca iki sinin oyunla ilgili olduğu (kişiselleştirilebilirlik,
öyküleme), çoğunun ise oyuncuyla ilgili olduğu (yaş, oynamaya harcanan süre, oyuncuların psikolojik özellikleri gibi)
görülmüştür. Bu, özdeşleşme sürecini anlamada, oyuncu özelliklerinin, oyundan daha önemli olduğunu gösteriyor
olabilir. Psikolojik çıktılara bakıldığında, ikisinin olumlu (keyif alma, akış deneyimi), ikisinin olumsuz (bağımlılık,
problemli oynama) olarak değerlendirilmesi mümkünken, birçoğunun çok çeşitli neticeleri olabildiği görülmüştür,
saldırganlıkta ya da empatide kısa süreli bir değişim gibi.
Anahtar sözcükler: Video oyunları, oyun karakteri, özdeşleşme, benlik uyuşmazlığı, sosyal özdeşleşme
Address for Correspondence: Özlem İskender, Kastamonu University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Psychology,
Kastamonu,rkiye E-mail: iskender.ozlem@gmail.com
Received: 17.04.2022 | Accepted: 16.09.2022
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Introduction
Video games (or digital games) are any games that can be played online or offline, on a computer or other
electronic devices (e.g., video game console, mobile devices, or monitors), and in multiplayer or single-player
mode (Brkljačić et al. 2019). More than 3 billion people are playing video games across the world (DFC
Intelligence 2022). Unsurprisingly, video games have distinctive features that offer their users unique
experiences. First and foremost, video games differ from traditional media (such as TV, newspaper, or novel)
due to their interactivity feature (Klimmt et al. 2009) and are considered the most interactive of the new media
technologies (Vorderer et al. 2003) such as social media platforms, blogging, wikis, and the like. For instance, in
traditional media such as TV, there is a distance between the media user and the media character (Klimmt et al.
2009). Typically, the user follows the character’s actions on the screen (or in a text) and cannot intervene in
anything going on. In a video game, however, the player themselves controls the game character, performs
actions via the character, and gets involved in and actively shapes events and happenings in the video game
environment. Therefore, the distance between the user and the character in traditional media does not exist in
video games (Klimmt et al. 2009). Another distinctive feature of video games is a tremendous amount of detailed
visualization, making it easy to immerse into the game story and a more vivid experience overall (Klimmt et al.
2009). Besides rich visual details, aural details make it easier to be involved in the game (Sherry 2004). Lastly,
there is usually quite a freedom of choice in video games. For instance, players can choose what to do and the
difficulty level of it, owing to easily adjustable settings (Sherry 2004). Also, they can customize their game
characters’ appearance or skills (Turkay and Kinzer 2014) or choose among many possible game characters.
Overall, it can be argued that video games, thanks to their unique features, are tools addressing many users’
needs.
As is the case with popularity among users (i.e., players), video games have attracted enormous attention from
researchers. Early on, negative sides of playing video games, such as addiction (Gentile et al. 2011), were on the
agenda. However, psychological and social benefits of playing video games, such as in cognitive, motivational,
emotional, and social domains (Granic et al. 2014), have also been discussed. Recently, it has been recognized
that adverse and beneficial sides of playing video games exist together (Prot et al. 2014, Groves and Anderson
2015), and evaluating video games as either “good” or “bad” would be an oversimplification (Groves and
Anderson 2015). One thing is for sure, in a digital world where people spend a considerable amount of time on
their electronic devices and initiate and maintain social relations online, it is crucial to understand the meaning
of this popular media type (i.e., video games) to its users (i.e., players). The present study aimed to understand
video game players’ experiences by examining the function of the game character. A game character (also called
an avatar) may be the most important element in a video game. After all, game characters represent players in
the virtual world, as it is the players themselves behind the game character’s actions.
The present study makes an in-depth analysis involving theoretical explanations, predictors, and psychological
outcomes of identification with video game characters. To be more precise, first, theoretical explanations
accounting for identification with the game character were examined. Then, empirical studies demonstrating its
predictors and psychological outcomes were investigated. While conveying theoretical explanations and
describing predictors and psychological outcomes, measurement tools were examined and presented in Table 1
(see Table 1 for measurement tools). The objective of examining measurement tools was to see if they align with
theoretical explanations and allow the reader to scrutinize the terms and methods if required. Lastly, in the
discussion section, the findings were summarized and the implications of theoretical explanations,
measurement tools, predictors, and psychological outcomes of identification with the video game character were
discussed. Finally, several suggestions for future studies were provided. Thus, the present study presents a
comprehensive understanding of the identification process with the game character, including its theoretical
explanations, predictors, and psychological outcomes, as well as directions for future research. This way, the
present study may assist mental health professionals in their assessment, interpretation, and interventions by
giving them an account of game players’ psychological and social needs, acts, and gains in the virtual world of
gameplay. The present study may also guide researchers interested in this subject by pointing out research needs
and encouraging them to contribute to the literature.
Theoretical Frameworks
Some theoretical frameworks relied on while explaining identification with video game characters were initially
designed to explain identification with TV characters, namely Cohen’s conceptualization of identification with
media characters, similarity identification, and wishful identification concepts. However, these frameworks do
not meet the need to explain identification in the video game context (Klimmt et al. 2009, Van Looy et al. 2012)
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since identification with characters in video games and other media is inherently different and should have
different conceptualization and operationalization (Van Looy et al. 2012). Alternative models have been
introduced to serve the need to describe the identification with video game characters. As a result, there is no
single theoretical explanation for it. Theoretical explanations can change from one study to another, as with the
measurement tools (Table 1).
Cohen’s Conceptualization of Identification with Media Characters
According to Cohen (2001), identification with a media character occurs when the media user imagines
themselves as the media character. During identification, their personal identity and audience role are
temporarily replaced with the character’s identity and role. Cohen (2001) adds that if the media user strongly
identifies with the media character, they may even lose their awareness as the audience. He proposes four
dimensions in his identification model: Sharing the character’s feelings (feeling what it feels, such as feeling
happy when it is happy), sharing its perspective (understanding its motivations), sharing its goals (internalizing
as well), and loss of self-awareness during media engagement. Example items from Cohen’s measurement can
be found in Table 1.
Concepts of Similarity Identification, Wishful Identification, Embodied Presence
Similarity identification occurs when a media user perceives that they and the media character have things in
common; they have mutual characteristics (Von Feilitzen and Linné 1975, Hoffner and Buchanan 2005,). Social
psychological evidence that similarity is strongly related to interpersonal attraction may lie behind the similarity
identification explanation (Van Looy et al. 2012). On the other hand, wishful identification occurs when a media
user wishes to be like the character (Von Feilitzen and Linné 1975). It may be a proceeding experience going
beyond the media engagement moment and reflecting a wish to be like the character and even an effort to act
like the character in the future (Konijn et al. 2007). Konijn et al. (2007) stated that wishful identification is
similar to the vicarious learning concept (Bandura 1986), as young players who wishfully identify with game
characters may imitate them. Finally, embodied presence (Van Looy et al. 2012) is a later introduced concept
that is usually handled together with similarity identification and wishful identification concepts. It refers to the
feeling that the player is embodied in the character and therefore presented physically in the game. Example
items measuring these three concepts can be found in Table 1.
Self-Perception Theory
Klimmt et al. (2009) proposed an explanation specifically designed to describe the identification process in video
games. Their explanation relies on self-perception and self-concept research in social psychology. They stated
that from a social psychological standpoint, identification with a media character means a temporary change in
the self-concept of the media user when they adopt the media character's perceived attributes. Due to the
monadic player-game character relationship, instead of perceiving themselves and their game character as
distinct social entities, players perceive their own self and their game character as merged during the video game
engagement. Hence, this merge between the player's self and the game character corresponds to the temporary
change in the player's self-perception (i.e., identification) (Klimmt et al. 2009).
Self-Discrepancy Theory
The self-discrepancy explanation is a follow-up to Klimmt et al.'s (2009) altered self-perception explanation
because an altered self-perception may reduce players' self-discrepancies. Self-Discrepancy Theory (Higgins
1987) asserts that people seeing a difference between who they are (i.e., their actual self) and who they want to
be (i.e., their ideal self) creates a discrepancy, accompanied by unwanted emotions such as sadness,
disappointment, or dissatisfaction. Therefore, they want to reduce and get rid of it if possible. When it comes to
video game context it was shown that game characters are closer to players' ideal selves rather than their actual
selves (McDonald and Kim 2001, Bessiere et al. 2007, Van Looy et al. 2014). In other words, game characters are
superior to players; they are more powerful, beautiful, courageous, and the like. This way, the discrepancy
between players' actual and ideal selves is reduced when they identify with their game character by adopting the
character’s salient features. To illustrate, a player who thinks they are less courageous than they desire (which
means they experience self-discrepancy in terms of courage) could diminish their self-discrepancy by identifying
with a courageous game character and thus feeling more courageous during gameplay (Klimmt et al. 2009). In
summary, identification with a game character close to the player’s ideal self can reduce the self-discrepancy of
the player.
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Social Identity Theory
Some researchers claimed that discussing identification with the game character alone is insufficient to
understand the identification processes in video games where there are opportunities for group formation. They
depended on Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner 1979) to explain identification in video games. Social
identity refers to an individual’s perception and definition of themselves as a member of a group they value, feel
belonging to and are emotionally involved in (Tajfel and Turner 1979). Researchers noted that virtual groups
formed in the context of video games promote social identity (Van Looy et al. 2012, Gabbiadini et al. 2014,
Guegan et al. 2015,). They claimed that social identification with such groups is linked to identification with the
game character and needs to be considered to understand the identification process (Van Looy et al. 2012,
Gabbiadini et al. 2014).
Van Looy et al.’s (2012) “player identification” model is an excellent example of relying on Social Identity Theory
in explaining character identification in video games. Van Looy et al. (2012) highlighted the importance of
paying attention to the social side of digital play and remarked that players identify with their game-related
groups aside from identification with their game character. Game-related groups include in-game groups (groups
created within games to do game activities and complete objectives, such as teams, guilds, or clans in different
games) and the game community compromising all players sharing the mutual interest in playing a game.
Besides in-game, community members can communicate outside the game on game-related internet forums,
websites, platforms, and the like. Van Looy et al. (2012) argued that identification with such groups (i.e., social
identification) should be included in a model aspiring to explain identification in video games. They introduced
a three-dimensional model to explain identification in massively multiplayer online (MMO) games. In these
games, where there is large-scale social interaction, thousands of players can play simultaneously and form
groups or teams. In their model, identification with the game character constitutes only one part of a construct
they called “player identification.” They described character identification as the mental association players have
with their game character and suggested it has three dimensions: Similarity identification, wishful identification,
and embodied presence. “Group identification” is the second dimension in the model. They define it as the
mental association players have with their in-game groups (i.e., with their team, guild, or clan). Finally,
“community/game identification” is the third dimension in the model. It is players’ identification with the game
and the community surrounding it. They stated that both in-game and community groups entail a cognitive
aspect as players categorize themselves as a member of these groups and an emotional aspect since they feel
committed to them (Van Looy et al. 2012).
Predictors of Identification with Video Game Characters
Customizability of the Game Character
There are and can be created many game characters with different appearances and specialties. To be able to
choose the game character’s looks and characteristics is one of the predictors of identification with it. Several
studies have shown that being able to customize a game character (in terms of appearance or specialties)
positively predicts identification with it (Kim et al. 2012, Turkay and Kinzer 2014, Liao et al. 2019, Pimentel and
Kalyanaraman 2020, Green et al. 2021, Teng 2021). Researchers depended on the self-discrepancy perspective
while explaining the findings. Namely, reducing the gap between the player’s actual and ideal selves is possible
when they can create a game character close to their ideal self, which would make it more likely that they will
identify with it (Turkay and Kinzer 2014). Thus, if game characters are assumed to be closer to players’ ideal
selves than their actual selves, being able to customize a game character implies that they can create some
version of their ideal selves. However, perception of similarity is also a predictor of game character identification
(which is discussed under the next heading). Thus, customizing a game character might also mean players can
create a character similar to their actual self.
How the Game Character is Perceived: Ideal, Attractive, Similar, Real
There is evidence that concepts of the ideal self and game characters are similar in children's minds (McDonald
and Kim 2001). Adult players (ages 18 to 27) also create or choose game characters more similar to their ideal
self than their actual self (Bessiere et al. 2007, Van Looy et al. 2014). It was indicated that when their game
character reflects their ideal self, players are inclined to identify with it (Van Looy et al. 2014, Mancini et al.
2019, Ko and Park 2020). Depending on these findings, it could be concluded that game characters indeed
function as versions of players’ ideal selves.
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Finding the game character attractive can also predict identification with it. It was shown that the attractiveness
of the game character in terms of appearance positively predicted identification with it (Kim et al. 2012, Liao et
al. 2019). It can be said that this could also be related to the self-discrepancy explanation since an attractive
game character could correspond to an idealized version of the player in terms of appearance. Wishful
identification could also be relevant since players might want to be like that attractive game character.
Furthermore, finding the game character similar can also predict identification with it. Several studies have
shown that players’ perception of the game character as similar to themselves in terms of personality positively
predicts identification with it (McDonald and Kim 2001, Hefner et al. 2007, Trepte and Reinecke 2010, Soutter
and Hitchens 2016, Mancini and Sibilla 2017). These findings may seem to contradict the idea that game
characters are some version of players’ ideal selves. However, it is in line with the similarity identification
explanation, which states that identification occurs when a media user perceives a media character as having
mutual characteristics with them (Von Feilitzen and Linné 1975, Hoffner and Buchanan 2005). In keeping with
theoretical explanations, players could identify with their game character when they perceive it as close to their
ideal self (which could be linked to self-discrepancy and wishful identification explanations) as well as when they
think they have similar personalities with it (could be linked to similarity identification explanation).
Finally, another factor predicting identification with the game character is perceiving the character as if it acts
like a human being in the real world. In a related study, Konijn et al. (2007) indicated that this realism perception
positively predicted identification with the game character. This finding might be associated with the similarity
identification explanation in that identification occurs when the game character has similar characteristics with
the people in the real world, although not with the player themselves.
Narrative, Immersion, Presence
One of the positive predictors of game character identification is having narrative elements in the game. For
instance, Schneider et al. (2004) compared the identification level of those who played story-based games to
those who played non-story-based games. Results revealed that the former got significantly higher identification
scores than the latter. In another study, Ferchaud et al. (2020) showed that transportation (narrative
engagement) into the game story strongly predicted identification with the game character. Overall, games with
a story can be more interactive and make players feel like they are a part of the game (Schneider et al. 2004).
Being personally involved in the game story may make it easier for them to be involved with the character’s life
(Ferchaud et al. 2020).
The relationship between narrative and game character identification could be linked to self-discrepancy
explanation because when immersed in the game through narrative, players may feel even closer to the version
of their ideal self (i.e., game character). Indeed, immersion (deep involvement in the game to the extent of
completely forgetting the surrounding) is another positive predictor of identification with the game character
(Konijn et al. 2007). Immersive presence (feeling of being involved and absorbed in the virtual world) is also a
positive predictor of it (Bachen et al. 2016). Finally, self-presence (feeling the game character as a moveable part
of one’s body) is another factor that positively predicts identification with game characters (Li et al. 2021). Thus,
promoting or intensifying immersion and presence processes in the game might be another way the narrative
contributes to identification with the game character.
Age
Younger players may identify more with their game characters. Several studies have reported that age was a
negative predictor of game character identification (McDonald and Kim 2001, Smahel et al. 2008, Van
Reijmersdal et al. 2013, Mancini et al. 2019). Also, a negative correlation between dissociation motivation and
players’ age was reported (Fuster et al. 2013). Fuster et al. (2013) included identification with the game character
in a construct named "dissociation,” which included not only identification with the game character but also
gaming motivation of escapism (playing to escape from real-life problems) (Table 1). Self-discrepancy and
wishful identification explanations may underlie age’s negative impact on identification with game characters.
Smahel et al. (2008) commented that virtual worlds offer young players, who might be in the early stages of their
identity development with a weak sense of who they are, a space for identity exploration and opportunities to
work on their selves. Konijn et al. (2007) exemplified that a game character handling dangerous situations very
well and taking action as an independent hero might fit an ideal of a teen boy who values maturity and
independence. Thus, adolescent boys may more readily identify with such characters (Konijn et al. 2007).
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Time Spent Playing/Playing History
Time appears as another positive predictor of game character identification. It is measured as time spent playing,
that is, how many hours players spend playing a game during a specific period (such as a week), or as playing
history, that is, how long they have been playing a game (such as two years). Studies show a positive correlation
between time spent playing and identification with the game character (Lewis et al. 2008, Fuster et al. 2013) as
well as between an indication of both (i.e., time spent playing and playing history) and game character
identification (Van Reijmersdal et al. 2013, Turkay and Kinzer 2014). Turkay and Kinzer (2014) commented that
as a result of getting more familiar with their game character and the game itself, players' immersion in the game
through the game character might become more straightforward. Ultimately, they may feel like their game
character more (Turkay and Kinzer 2014).
Players’ Psychological Characteristics: Personality, Self-Esteem, Social Skills, Depression,
Identity Style
Players' psychological characteristics are also among the predictors of identification with game characters. One
is personality. Soutter and Hitchens (2016) showed that personality dimensions of openness to experience
positively predicted identification with the game character while extraversion negatively predicted it. Low self-
esteem is another predictor. You et al. (2017) showed that self-esteem negatively correlated with identification
with game characters. In another study, Lewis et al. (2008) showed that self-esteem and time spent playing were
negatively correlated for players with high levels of character attachment. Lewis et al. (2008) included
identification with the game character in a construct named "character attachment,” which included four
dimensions: Identification/friendship, suspension of disbelief, control, and responsibility (Table 1). You et al.
(2017) commented that it might comfort players with low self-esteem to know that they can create characters
with their desired physical appearance or personal characteristics in the game environment without revealing
who they are (You et al. 2017). Depression and poor social skills also have a say in identification with the game
character. For example, social skills (interpersonal communication skills) was a negative predictor, and
depression was a positive predictor of it (You et al. 2017). Finally, identity styles can account for identification
with the game character. Li et al. (2013) showed that participants with diffused identity styles (tendency to
procrastinate and avoid handling individual matters) got higher identification scores than those with
information-oriented styles (having established a true sense of self or exploring to establish one) and normative
styles (tendency to conform to close others and authorities). Specifically, compared to others, they found their
game character more important to their identity and reported being absorbed in the game more while playing.
Li et al. (2013) commented that playing for a long time and being absorbed in the game might increase gamer
identity salience. Depending on the Social Identity Approach (i.e., Social Identity Theory and Self-Categorization
Theory), they stated that this salience increase might imply an increase in players’ identification with the gamer
identity. This is, according to them, especially likely when considering players of a long time collaborating with
other players in in-game groups for years to complete game objectives. Thus, they declared that identification
with game characters might be more than a temporary alteration in players’ self-perception. Instead, it might
have long-term influences on players' identity development and self-concept (Li et al. 2013).
Perceived Game Performance
How the player thinks they perform (i.e., how good they think they are at playing the game) might be another
predictor of identification with the game character. Hefner et al. (2007) showed that feeling competent during
play positively correlated with identification with the game character. In another study, Ko and Park (2020)
showed that identification with the game character positively predicted players’ perceived game power, which,
in turn, positively predicted perceived game performance. Thus, the perception of being good at the game may
both be a predictor and an outcome of identification with the game character. Together these findings might
imply a process in which, after being satisfied with their performance, players adopt their game character’s
relevant features (i.e., they identify with the character) that they think brought them success, followed by
continued play and getting better over time. As will be discussed in the next section, the intention to keep playing
is, in fact, among the outcomes of identification with game characters. Several playing motivations are also
among them. Thereby, it is possible that after identification with their game character, players develop several
playing motivations and keep playing, becoming better performers ultimately. Overall, be it a predictor or an
outcome, perceived performance seems to play a role in explaining the game character identification process.
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Psychological Outcomes of Identification with Video Game Characters
Enjoyment, Flow Experience
Enjoyment could be the brightest side of playing video games. Several studies showed that it is also one of the
outcomes of identification with game characters. Positive correlations between the two (Hefner et al. 2007) and
between character attachment and enjoyment (Lewis et al. 2008) have been reported. Other studies present
evidence that identification with the game character is one of the positive predictors of game enjoyment (Trepte
and Reinecke 2010, Bowey et al. 2017). Researchers depended on the self-discrepancy explanation while
accounting for enjoyment as an outcome of identification with game characters. After all, bringing actual and
ideal selves closer and reducing self-discrepancies can be expected to facilitate positive experiences such as
enjoyment (Klimmt et al. 2009).
Identification with the game character also positively predicts flow experience (Soutter and Hitchens 2016).
Flow is a positive subjective experience people feel when involved in an activity to the extent that they forget
about everything else than the activity itself, cease to be self-conscious, and do not realize the passage of time
(Csikszentmihalyi 1975). The self-discrepancy explanation might again be relevant while accounting for flow
experience as an outcome of identification with game characters. More specifically, getting a distance from the
actual self and going towards the ideal self might make it easier to experience flow characteristics, such as loss
of self-consciousness. Flow experience being negatively predicted by perceived similarity to the game character
(in terms of both appearance and personality) and positively by character customization (Soutter and Hitchens
2016) may support the idea that getting closer to the ideal self makes it easier to experience flow.
Playing Motivations
Identification with game characters is also closely related to reasons to play video games. van Reijmersdal et al.
(2013) showed that identification with the game character positively predicted playing motivations of challenge
(interest in fulfilling game objectives to get better skills in the game), interest (being curious about game content
or topic), escapism (playing to take a break from daily life concerns) and social interaction. Van Reijmersdal et
al. (2012) commented that relations between game character identification and these motivations show that
gaming helps players fulfill their psychological and social needs. In another study, Lewis et al. (2008) reported
positive correlations between character attachment and several playing motivations, including fantasy (playing
due to being able to do things in the game not doable in real life, such as flying), arousal (playing due to the game
being exciting), challenge, and competition. Finally, Van Looy et al. (2012) showed that identification with the
game character positively predicted playing motivations of role-playing (interacting with other players based on
a story created for the game character by the player), customization (interest in customizing the game character's
appearance), and escapism (using the game as an escape from real-life problems). It is also linked to
identification with game-related groups (in-game groups and game community), which are linked to other
playing motivations (Van Looy et al. 2012). Van Looy et al. (2012) commented that identification with game
characters being related to escapism motivations supports the idea that identification can be used to avoid
discrepancies between actual and ideal selves. Likewise, the desire to create a story for the game character (role-
playing motivation) or customize its appearance (customization motivation) can be interpreted in terms of its
allowance to reduce the gap between the actual and ideal self (Van Looy et al. 2012).
Self-Efficacy, Competence
Identification with the game character can also increase the player’s self-efficacy concerning what they do in the
game. In general, it was shown that game character identification is one of the positive predictors of players’
self-efficacy concerning in-game activities and objectives (Kim et al. 2012). It was also shown that game character
identification positively predicted perceived in-game power, which, in turn, positively predicted perceived game
performance (Ko and Park 2020). Further, it might increase self-efficacy in a serious game. Serious games are
designed with other intentions than pure entertainment; they present simulations of real-life experiences to
their users and make it possible to learn about and experience different situations (Susi et al. 2007). In Peng’s
(2008) study, players chose what the game character eats and what physical activities it does, followed by
simulated consequences of the choices. Results showed that identification with the game character partially
mediated the positive relationship between game interactivity and self-efficacy for healthy eating habits. Peng
(2008) commented that this might imply that while designing serious games to promote healthy habits, paying
close attention to the game character is a good idea to increase the possibility of identification with it. In another
study, Li et al. (2021) showed that identification with the character in an exergame (video games having the
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machinery for tracing the player’s body movements in which the player controls the game character via their
body movements) positively predicted in-game competence and in-game competence, in turn, positively
predicted intention to exercise in the future. Li et al. (2021) commented that in-game competence being
increased by identification implies that enactive learning can be facilitated by identification with a game
character.
Addiction, Problematic Gaming
Identification with game characters also has unfavorable outcomes, such as addiction. Smahel et al. (2008)
reported that identification with the game character and addiction are positively correlated. In another study,
You et al. (2017) showed that identification with the game character not only directly and positively predicted
game addiction but also was a partial mediator in the negative relationship between social skills and game
addiction. It was also a full mediator in the positive relationship between depression and game addiction. In
some other study, Green et al. (2021) showed that wishful identification negatively predicted self-concept clarity
which, in turn, negatively predicted problematic gaming. Besides its indirect effect, wishful identification also
directly and positively predicted problematic gaming. Green et al. (2021) commented that game characters
functioning as a means to compensate for insufficiencies of the players might be the most noteworthy aspects
of character identification concerning problematic gaming. Additionally, poor self-concept clarity might be a
means through which identification with the character influences problematic gaming (Green et al. 2021). In
line with the notion of the game character as a compensation means, Mancini et al. (2019) showed that
identification with the game character not only directly and positively predicted gaming addiction but also was
a partial mediator in the positive relationship between idealized game character indicator (difference between
the actual self and game character) and gaming addiction.
Several other studies show that identification with the game character has both direct and indirect effects on
adverse outcomes, such as internet gaming disorder (IGT). Sioni et al. (2017) showed that it directly and
positively predicted IGT and was a partial mediator in the positive relationship between social phobia symptoms
and IGT symptoms. In another study, Burleigh et al. (2018) showed that it not only directly and positively
predicted IGT but also moderated the positive relationship between depression and IGT, amplifying depression’s
effect on IGT for players with high levels of character identification. Finally, Ting and Pau (2020) indicated that
it directly and positively predicted IGT and was a partial mediator in the positive relationship between playing
motivations (motivations of achievement, socialization, and immersion) and IGT.
When considering the findings under this heading together, it can be said that, to a large extent, the relation
between character identification and addiction or IGT has underlying social reasons. Indeed, studies discussed
under this heading were mostly conducted with massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs)
players. MMORPGs offer players an alternative world that, besides the possibility of in-game ability
improvement and cooperative play, includes an online community resulting from in-game interactions and
outside communications (Robinson 2012). MMORPGs are continuous digital platforms where actions and
events go on even if the player is not online (not logged in to the game). In this respect, they are full of social
interaction opportunities and a great place to meet social needs that are not possible to meet otherwise. Sioni et
al. (2017) suggested that, especially for players with social phobia, the need to connect to and be approved by
others forms powerful reasons to play. They stated that interacting with other players via the game character
may meet these needs, strengthening the player’s game character identification and providing them a more
positive and stronger sense of self. Consequently, they may be motivated to play and be preoccupied with
gameplay more, which then contributes to IGD (Sioni et al. 2017). Burleigh et al. (2018) also commented that
the social aspect of these games encourages players to emotionally invest in their game character (which
functions as their online identity) and gameplay. Overall, multiple findings support the idea that game addiction
has social roots and game character identification is only a means in an effort for compensation.
Short-Term Outcomes: Change in Aggression, Empathy
Identification with the game character, that is, adopting its characteristics during play, may last after the game,
but only for a limited time. Gabbiadini et al. (2016) showed that identification with game characters in a sexist-
violent video game positively predicted the masculine beliefs of male participants. In turn, masculine beliefs
negatively predicted empathy toward female violence victims. In another study, Konijn et al. (2007) showed that
identification with game characters in violent video games positively predicted the intensity of aggression
afterward. On the other hand, studies testing the effect of violent video game play on aggression indicates that
it lasts only 5-10 minutes (Barlett et al. 2009). Also, longitudinal studies yield no evidence for a long-term effect
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(Kühn et al. 2019, Drummond et al. 2020). Hence, it might be fallacious to consider aggression increase as an
outcome of identification with violent video game characters. The same goes for empathy decrease, as there is
also contrary evidence that such an empathy decrease results from violent gameplay (Gao et al. 2017, Szycik et
al. 2017).
Favorable short-term outcomes of identification with game characters were also reported. For example, serious
games could be used to reduce prejudice towards people living in adverse conditions. To illustrate, Bachen et al.
(2016) showed that identification with a game character that was a simulation of a low-income female
earthquake victim from an emerging country positively correlated with empathy toward it and interest in finding
more about the game topic. In another study, Ferchaud et al. (2020) showed that identification with a game
character that simulated a mentally ill person reduced social distance preference from mentally ill people.
Ferchaud et al. (2020) commented that experiencing a mentally ill person’s life through simulation helped
players manage to integrate the mental illness into their self-concept via the identification process. They noted
that this occurred although the identification level was low. However, as with short-term adverse outcomes,
empathy increase resulting from gameplay is only a slight short-term outcome (Olivier et al. 2019). These studies
present no evidence for long-term effects either. Indeed, researchers called for studies testing the long-term
effects of gameplay on empathy raise (Papoutsi and Drigas, 2016, Sterkenburg et al. 2018, Olivier et al. 2019,
Ferchaud et al. 2020,) and the role of character identification on empathy specifically (Papoutsi and Drigas
2016). All in all, it can be said, at least for now, that changes in empathy or aggression as an outcome of game
character identification are only momentary.
Intention to Continue Playing, Game-Related Spending
Identification with the game character may also predict game-related intentions or doings. For instance, it was
shown that identification with the game character positively predicted intention to buy game-related items (Park
and Lee 2011) and loyalty to games (Teng 2021). Some variables may relate identification with the game
character to future intentions and doings. One may be the attachment and meaning attributed to the game
character. Ko and Park (2020) showed that identification with the game character positively predicted
attachment to it, and attachment, in turn, positively predicted intention to spend money on the game character.
Another may be the attachment and meaning attributed to the game community. To illustrate, Kim et al. (2012)
showed that identification with the game character positively predicted trust in honesty, care, goodwill, and
cooperative intentions of other players in the game community. This trust, in turn, positively predicted the
intention to keep playing in the future. Still another variable may be seeing the game character as ideal. Mancini
et al. (2019) showed that participants who customized a game character that they considered similar to their
ideal self and identified with it reported higher levels of intention to keep playing compared to those who
customized one they considered far away from their ideal self and did not identify with it. Finally, Liao et al.
(2019) showed that identification with the game character positively predicted flow experience, and flow
experience, in turn, positively predicted loyalty in gaming. Overall, it could be concluded that positive
experiences players live, with their game character or game-related groups, contribute to their continuation
intent and encourage them to invest in future positive experiences by spending money on the game.
Social Identification, In-group Bias
As stated before, game-related groups promote social identity. Unsurprisingly, some of the outcomes of
identification with a game character are related to social identification processes in video games. Gabbiadini et
al. (2014) tested whether identification with the game character predicts identification with in-game groups in
an MMORPG. In the study, there were two levels of analyses for in-game groups: one at the “faction” level (there
were two main hostile factions in the whole game; the Horde and the Alliance) and one at the “guild” level (guilds
are smaller subgroups within these two factions). Analyses at the guild level showed that identification with the
game character positively predicted identification with the guild. Identification with the guild, in turn, positively
predicted in-group bias in that players evaluated other players in their guild (the guild they had joined via their
game character) more positively compared to players of a rival guild. Analyses at the faction level showed that
identification with the game character did not predict identification with the faction; however, it positively
predicted in-group bias, that is, favoritism toward their faction, as they evaluated their faction members (i.e.,
other players in their faction) more positively. Thus, it can be said that these findings clearly show the
connections between identification with the game character and virtual group identification as well as virtual
group behavior, such as in-group bias. In another study, Van Looy et al. (2012) showed that identification with
the game character positively predicted both identifications with the guild group in the game and the game
community. Moreover, identification with these groups positively predicted motivations to play. Motivations of
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socializing (interest in socializing with other players such as helping or chatting) and relationship (interest in
forming long-term relationships with other players) were positively predicted by identification with the guild.
Depending on these findings, it can be commented that players value their virtual group memberships and care
about their relationships with other players. Together findings in this heading may show the importance of
considering social identification with virtual groups while discussing identification with the game character.
Unfortunately, studies investigating social identification in relation to identification with the game character
are limited. However, studies showing that game-related groups matter to players are common. Guegan et al.
(2015) interviewed players both inside an MMORPG and outside of it, and players were asked to evaluate in-
game groups (own guild and other guilds) and more inclusive groups of “MMORPG players” and “non-players”.
Results indicated that valence and identification scores for players’ own guild (in-group) were significantly
higher than valence and identification scores for other guilds (out-group). Additionally, there was an effect of
the interview context in that the value of the guild and identification with it were stronger when interviewed
inside the game than face to face setting. When it comes to the more inclusive group of “MMORPG players,”
however, results showed that valence and identification scores for it (which were positive) did not differ
depending on the interview context (Guegan et al. 2015). Based on these findings, it could be concluded that
players value their game-related groups, although in-game groups may mean more to them inside the game.
However, being a member of the more inclusive “players” category is always valued. Guegan et al. (2015)
commented that these results might explain why online video games are so self-involving since being a player (a
member of the "players" category) as well as being a member of an in-game group provide players with social
identities. It might be essential to consider the meaning of these group memberships while giving an account of
identification with game characters.
Table 1. Measurement tools of identification with the game character
What did they ask participants/players?
Methodology
Kim 2001
If they pretend they are their game character (They measured imitation but
used imitation and identification synonymously)
One close-ended
yes/no question
2004
To what extent do they agree that they find their game character
interesting, like it, are interested in its goals, desire to defeat its enemies,
want to meet its goals, etc.
10-point Likert-type
scale (Disagree-
Agree)
2007
To what extent do they agree that they forget themselves during play, feel
that they are the game character, adopt its goals, etc.
5-point Likert-type
scale (I do not agree
at all-I fully agree)
2007
How often do they wish to be their game character, etc. (wishful
identification)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Never-Often)
To what extent do they agree that they know what exactly the character is
going through, want the character to succeed, feel joy when it succeeds; sad
when it fails, etc. (Cohen 2001)
Likert-type scale
(Level of agreement,
no details specified)
2008
To what extent do they agree that the game character and they are the
same, they feel having its skills and abilities, the character compensates for
their skills and abilities, etc.
Likert-type scale
(Level of agreement,
no details specified)
2008
Identification with the game character was included in a construct named
“character attachment,” which had four dimensions:
Identification/friendship (Players were asked to what extent they agree that
they forget their own feelings and adopt the game character’s, pretend it’s a
real person, consider it as a friend, etc.), suspension of disbelief (willingness
to consider its world as “real”), control (the degree to which they can
manipulate its actions), responsibility (feeling responsible for it)
7-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
Reinecke 2010
To what extent do they agree that they identify entirely with their game
character, immerse themselves in the character
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
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2011
Items from Cohen (2001) and Hefner et al. (2007)
Likert-type scale
(Level of agreement,
no details specified)
To what extent do they agree that their game character is similar to their
ideal self, they feel they are the game character, etc.
7-point Likert-type
scale (Level of
agreement, no details
specified)
2012
To what extent do they agree that their game character is similar to them,
they are similar to it, etc. (similarity identification), they see it as an
example, it has characteristics they’d like to have, they want to be like it,
etc. (wishful identification), while playing; they feel they are the game
character, its body becomes their own, etc. (embodied presence)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
Kinzer 2014
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Level of
agreement, no details
specified)
al. 2016
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012)
7-point Likert-type
scale (Completely
disagree-Completely
agree)
Hitchens 2016
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
Sibilla 2017
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
2017
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
2019
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
Disagree-Strongly
agree)
Kalyanaraman
2020
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012) (excluding embodied presence)
7-point Likert-type
scale (Level of
agreement, no details
specified)
2020
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012)
7-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
2021
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
Items from Van Looy et al. (2012) (only similarity identification items)
Likert-type scale
(Level of agreement,
no details specified)
et al. 2013
To what extent do they agree that their game character looks like them,
they feel what's happening to it happens to them, they imagine themselves
to be a part of the game, etc.
7-point Likert-type
scale (Totally
disagree-Totally
agree)
2013
Identification with the game character was included in a construct named
“dissociation,” which included not only identification with it but also
gaming motivation of escapism (playing to escape from real-life problems).
Players were asked to what extent they agree that they put obligations aside
while playing, etc.
7-point Likert-type
scale (Completely
disagree-Completely
agree)
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To what extent do they agree that they feel nervous when their game
character faces danger, happy when it achieves a goal, etc. (feelings during
play), during play; they forget their surroundings, they feel being physically
in the game, etc. (absorption during play), they are proud to play their game
character, etc. (positive attitude toward avatar), their game character
reflects who they are, influences the way they feel about themselves, etc.
(importance to identity)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
Items from Li et al. (2013)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
2020
Items from Li et al. (2013)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
al. 2014
One-item ideographic scale by Aron et al. (1992) was used. Two circles
represented the player and the character; players were asked to indicate the
overlap between themselves and their game character by choosing among
eight different overlap visuals (very far-total overlap)
One-item ideographic
scale to measure the
inclusion of the game
character in the self
2016
To what extent do they agree that they were interested in the character's
life, cared about its experience, were happy when the character had positive
experiences, were sad when the character had negative experiences
6-point Likert-type
scale (Agree strongly-
Disagree strongly)
To what extent do they feel their game character is their other self, they are
the same in many ways, etc
5-point Likert-type
scale (Not at all-
Highly likely)
2018
To what extent do they feel their game character is an extension of their
body, sad when sad things happen to it, its name represents some aspect of
their personal identity, etc. (Self-Presence Questionnaire)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Not at all-
Absolutely)
2020
To what extent do they agree they perceive it as a personal insult when
someone criticizes their game character, etc.
7-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
Items from Moon et al. (2013) (No examples given)
Not specified
Items adapted from Moon et al. (2013) (No examples given)
5-point Likert-type
scale (Strongly
disagree-Strongly
agree)
Discussion
Theoretical explanations for identification with game characters were based on Cohen’s conceptualization of
identification with media characters, wishful identification, similarity identification, embodied presence
concepts, self-perception, self-discrepancy, and social identity theories. It could be concluded that theoretical
explanations of identification with the game character can be distinguished as those considering it as a
temporary experience occurring only during media engagement (i.e., while playing video games) and those
discussing it as a lasting experience. Indeed, all consider it as a temporary experience except for the social identity
explanation. It is possible that Cohen’s approach, as one of the earliest theoretical frameworks of identification
with characters, influenced other researchers in a direction to assume identification with video game characters
as a temporary experience. Cohen stated that identification with media characters is a process in which self-
awareness decreases and is temporarily replaced with emotional and cognitive connections with the media
character. He claimed it is not like identification with a person, a group, or a nation that would be a lasting or
permanent experience (Cohen, 2001). However, studies examined in this review indicated that players identify
with other players, namely with their in-game and community groups (Van Looy et al. 2012). It was shown that
not only their game character is important to their identity (Li et al. 2013) but also being a player is a strong part
of who they are (Guegan et al. 2015). In this respect, identifying with the game character could be a lasting
experience. In addition, considering that social interaction is a leading playing motivation (Griffiths et al. 2004,
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Barr and Copeland-Stewart 2021), it can be said that the role of social identification in accounting for
identification with game characters is overlooked in most studies. Thus, it could be concluded that identification
with game characters as a lasting or more permanent experience needs more attention from researchers.
Equally important, there is a complication regarding how the player and the game character are represented in
explanations and measurements. Klimmt et al. (2009) stated that Cohen’s framework puts the media user and
the media character as distant social entities, which is not the case in video games as it is the players themselves
acting through the game character, whereas in traditional media, media user is just an observer of the media
character’s acts. Li et al. (2013) also asserted that sharing the character’s perspectives and goals dimensions in
Cohen’s model may not apply to the video game context since it is the players themselves acting and experiencing
related emotions when the game character does things such as interacting with others, engaging in, fulfilling or
failing something (Li et al. 2013). As with Cohen’s framework, it can be said that wishful identification and
similarity identification concepts represent player and game character as two distinct social entities. However,
although this can be seen in related work (as reflected in the items measuring these concepts; please refer to
Table 1), researchers have not noted that. What Cohen’s conceptualization, wishful identification, and similarity
identification concepts have in common is that they are originally designed to explain identification with TV
characters. Maybe the problem was created when they were used without being adapted to the video game
context in a way to represent the player and game character in a monadic relationship. Thus, although some
researchers (Klimmt et al. 2009, Li et al. 2013) attracted notice to the problem of representing player and game
character as if they are in a dyadic relationship, most researchers continued the tradition of representing the
two as distinct entities in their work. There may be a need for a unified approach for a clearer understanding of
the game character identification process.
Predictors of identification with game characters included customizability of the game character, how the
character is perceived (ideal, attractive, similar, or real), narrative, immersion, presence, age, time spent
playing/playing history, the player’s psychological characteristics (namely personality, self-esteem, social skills,
depression, identity style) and perceived game performance. It can be said that only two of those are game-
related factors: customizability of the game character and narrative. Some seem related to both the game and
the player, such as how the character is perceived, immersion, and presence. The rest are entirely player-related:
age, time spent playing/playing history, the player’s psychological characteristics, and perceived performance.
Most of the predictors being entirely player-related or related to both the player and the game may imply that
what players are like, what they need, seek, or like is more important in determining identification with game
character than what the game is like. For instance, whether they perceive a game character as close to their ideal
self, similar to themselves, or attractive depends on their subjective interpretation. If game-related predictors
and those related to both the game and the player are excluded, the answer to the question of who is more likely
to identify with a game character would be younger players, those spending more time playing, those with lower
self-esteem and lower social skills and higher levels of depression. Relatedly, studies mostly supported the self-
discrepancy explanation (Klimmt et al. 2009), the idea that game characters are closer to players’ ideal self, and
they can reach this version of their ideal self by adopting relevant features of their game characters, i.e., by
identification with it. Thus, it could be concluded that the game character functions as a compensation means
for some players, for instance, players with lower self-esteem, lower social skills, and higher levels of depression.
Psychological outcomes of identification with game characters included enjoyment, flow experience, playing
motivations, self-efficacy, competence, addiction, problematic gaming, short-term outcomes (change in
aggression, empathy), intention to continue playing, game-related spending, social identification, and in-group
bias. Psychological outcomes of identification with the game character could be judged as positive or negative.
Although some of the outcomes could directly be called positive such as enjoyment and flow experience, or
negative such as addiction and problematic gaming, most would depend on the aftermath. Playing motivations
of escapism (using the game as an escape from real-life problems) was reported to be a strong positive predictor
of problematic gaming (Yee 2005) as well as addictive use patterns (Zanetta Dauriat et al. 2011). However,
playing motivations is also positively related to positive experiences such as flow experience (Dindar 2018). As
another example, whether self-efficacy and competence are positive outcomes would depend. If it is a self-
efficacy increase regarding in-game objectives and activities designed only for fun, it would bring nothing more
than increased game enjoyment. However, if identification with the game character in a serious game helps to
develop a self-efficacy increase regarding healthy eating habits (Peng, 2008) or identification with the game
character in an exergame helps to build in-game competence, which, in turn, positively predicts intention to
exercise in the future (Li et al. 2021) it would clearly be called a positive outcome. With regard to short-term
outcomes, an increase in aggression (Konijn et al. 2007) would be negative, while empathy growth (Ferchaud et
al. 2020) would be positive. When it comes to the intention to continue playing and game-related spending,
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although, at first glance, they would sound like adverse outcomes (if it is thought concerning addiction or
financial loss), findings demonstrate that they can also bring benefits. Some players intend to continue playing
to keep their online social networks, namely their connection with the members of their gaming community
(Kim et al. 2012) or due to positive experiences such as flow experience (Liao et al. 2019). Finally, social
identification and in-group bias as outcomes of identification with game characters show that game-related
groups matter to players. Their experience in virtual gaming environments is “real” with all its social
identification processes and virtual group behavior.
Conclusion
In conclusion, no agreed explanation exists for identification with video game characters. Although the self-
discrepancy explanation was the most prevalent in general, the social identity perspective presented more far-
reaching explanations for identification in multiplayer games. Further, although all other explanations approach
the game character identification process as a temporary experience, the social identity perspective
demonstrates it may be a lasting or permanent experience. When it comes to measurement tools, although the
player and the game character were announced to be in a monadic relationship (Klimmt et al. 2009, Li et al.
2013), most measurement tools portray them in a dyadic relationship. Regarding predictors, most seem player-
related, which might show that to understand identification processes in video games better, paying more
attention to the player would be reasonable. Finally, psychological outcomes of identification with video game
characters showed that video games are neither “good” nor “bad”, as Groves and Anderson (2015) put it.
This review has specific suggestions for future studies. First, studies focusing on identification with game
characters as a lasting experience are needed to give a clearer understanding of the identification processes in
video games. In this sense, discussing identification with game characters and social identification with game-
related groups together could be useful. Second, how the player and the game character are represented demands
more awareness for a more precise conceptualization, measurement, and understanding of the game character
identification process. Finally, how gameplay may be beneficial, such as for empathy growth or to increase self-
efficacy or intention regarding health-related behaviors, need more attention.
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Authors Contributions: The author(s) have declared that she has made a significant scientific contribution to the study and has assisted in the
preparation or revision of the manuscript
Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed.
Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest was declared.
Financial Disclosure: No financial support was declared for this study.
Acknowledgement: The part of this study on the theoretical explanations of identification with game characters was presented at The 16th European
Congress of Psychology (July 2-5, 2019, Moscow, Russia) as an oral presentation.
... Quests [26] Avatar Identification [27] Replayability [28] Resource Management [9] Score System [19] Coordinate Actions Storyline [29] Atmosphere [30] Gacha [31] Randomness [9] Feedback Messages [19] Gifting And Charity [23] Mystery [32] Style [33] Detailed Simulation [34] Base-Building [6] Health Bars [5] Player-Created Content [9] Player Choice/ Decision-Making [35] Immersion [36] Point-And-Click [37] Punishments [38] Worldbuilding [39] Turn-Based [40] Collectibles [41] Rewind [42] Player Inventory [43] 4 ...
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