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HOMOSPORTICUS vol.24/ issue 2, December 2022 31
Lejla Šebić1, Adriana Ljubojević2, Damira Vranešić-Hadžimehmedović1 and Nikolina Gerdijan2
THE EFFECT OF PILATES ON
PHYSICAL FITNESS PARAMETERS
IN GIRLS: A NON-RANDOMIZED
CONTROLLED STUDY
1 University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education
2 University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education
Original research:
Abstract
Improvement of parameters of physical fitness in children by application of different programs of exercising is important kinesiology
task. The aim of this study was to establish potential transformational efficiency of Pilates program in 16-week period on parameter of
physical fitness in female high school students (2nd and 3rd grade of female boarding school) Total of 110 school girls were divided in
two groups: control group (CG) and experimental group (EG), (n= 55 subjects in each group). Both groups attended physical
education lesson (PE) according to plan and program for high school students (90 minutes; 1x week). Experimental group in in warm-
up section of the PE class did Pilates exercises in 40-minute time, while controlled group performed conventional approach to PE
warm-up exercises (40 minutes). Parameters of physical fitness were evaluated by 9 tests, which covered latent area of repetitive
strength: push-ups (MSKL) raising torso from lying position (MPTL) and deep squad 30 s (MCUC; flexibility; rotation with a bat (MISK);
leaning forward multi-legged (MPRR), leaning forward on the bench; and evaluation of balance of standing on the bench longitudinally
on both legs (MU2N), longitudinally on one leg (MU1N), diagonally on both legs (MP2N). After the Pilates exercise program, the
experimental group showed a significant improvement in the balance (Sig = 0.00) and in repetitive strength (Sig = 0.00). There were
no significant differences in tests of flexibility due to the fact that development of flexibility is achieved by the volume of Pilates training
(weekly). This study showed that Pilates exercises can be useful additional method in physical education class in school, because
significant quantity changes in physical fitness of balance and repetitive strength were obtained.
Key words: Pilates, physical fitness, women, exercise
Introduction
Regular physical activity is an important factor in
establishing and maintaining health. Is it is practiced in
early age it remains as a habit in function of health for
the rest the life. Physical activity has positive effects on
children and adolescents in various aspects, such as
preventing obesity, increasing the quality of life, and
improving physical and mental health (Andermo et al.,
2020). According to certain studies (Badrić and
Prskalo, 2011) boys in puberty are more physically
active than girls, therefore it is necessary to examine
methods of exercising which are efficient and
continuative. Promotion of fitness exercise that has a
positive effect on women's overall health is an
important strategy of health policy (Ljubojevic, et. al.,
2022). Reduced activity of women in puberty and
partially post-puberty period can be caused by intense
physiological changes and it is very important that
physical exercising is adjusted to development abilities
of an exerciser.
Explosive tempo of growth and development of young
female body due to development of secondary gender
features is commonly followed by stagnation in
development of motor skills and it is very useful to find
programs of body exercising suitable for young female
body, in this sensitive period, which stimulate psycho-
motor skills. Promotion of physical activity in this
sensitive period of growing up is very important. Motor
development includes continuous changes of motor
behavior in a certain time period, cause by interaction
between demands of motor task, biology of an
individual and conditions of environment (Hernandez,
et. al., 2020). In its original form, Pilates method, as a
concept of gradient and therapy impact on musculature
was developed by German trainer Joseph H. Pilates in
20ties of the last century, who joined exercises,
movement, philosophy, gymnastics, martial arts, yoga
and dance using this type of activity as a healthy way
of living. It is considered that this system of exercising
HOMOSPORTICUS vol.24/ issue 2, December 2022 32
strengths and shapes muscles, corrects posture,
improves flexibility and balance, unites body and mind
and improves body shape, as a whole. Concept of
exercising of all muscles, simultaneously, with
constant movement shifting is the most efficient way
to increase muscle endurance. Exercises are specific
by number of repetitions, series of exercises and their
name. Program includes 34 basic and more than 500
other exercises. Rhythm of breathing is precisely
defined for each exercise. All exercises are performed
in a simple way, without sudden moves with constant
support of a mat. Physiological loading during Pilates
lesson can be compared with medical yoga or aerobic
of low intensity (Jago et al. 2006). Results of some
studies (Hernandez et al 2020) show that application
of Pilates method at children age have positive effect
on motor development, where significant
improvements in quotient of general motor skills, are
identified. Pilates methods at child’s age showed
positive effects on motor development, where
significant improvements in overall motor skills,
balance, body and space organization of movement
and quotient of general motor skills, were identified,
after 28 sessions of Pilates trainings (Montanez and
Lara, 2015). This exercise program includes
techniques of conscious control of all muscle body
movement where the concept of exercising is based on
six fundamental principles: center (main bridge of
method and “powerhouse”) concentration ( important
for performance of exercises, “mental guidance for the
body”), control (awareness of all movements during
exercising), breathing (achieved in all movements, with
rhythm), fluidity (coordination, flow of movements in
time frame), integrated isolation (inclusion of muscles
into movement). The essence of Pilates is development
of spirit and body, team work and healthier lifestyle
(Brignell, 2004). Pilates includes great spectrum of
exercises, which are suitable, regardless the level of
physical shape, for completely unprepared individuals,
children and top-level athletes, as well. Pilates method
showed significant improvements in the area of
strength, flexibility, posture control and reduce of pain
in children with muscular pathology (Hornsby &
Johnston, 2019). Pilates is also very important
component in training preparation of girls in esthetic
sports (Ljubojevic et. al., 2008). Although increase of
number of publications, which include Pilates method
in different contexts and populations, is evident,
(Bergamin, 2015), its approach to healthy school kids
is limited. At the same time, school curriculum of P.E.
doesn’t follow the trends of exercising, which from day
to day show scientifically based evidence on benefits
of such approach. Therefore, the aim of this study is
to examine effects of Pilates exercises on improvement
of certain motor skills in female high school students
as potentially new methods of exercising, which will
provide bigger participation of female population in
programs of organized physical activities.
Methods
Study design
A non-randomized controlled trial with 2x2 statistical
designs was provide in this study. It included one
experimental group (Pilates intervention) and one
controlled group (regular PE activities) and two
moments of evaluation: (1) at baseline and (2) after 16
weeks of post intervention period. The strength,
flexibility and balance in each group were recorded. All
participant volunteered in this study and provided
informed consent prior to participation. This study was
conducted according to the guidelines laid down in the
Declaration of Helsinki for research of human subjects.
Participants
The survey was conducted on a sample subject of 110
female high school students of second and third grade
of boarding school Gazi Husref begov madrasah in
Sarajevo. The study was conducted within P.E.
lessons, where 4 classes participated (only female
students). Inclusion criteria states that the participants
must be female, physically inactive (less than 120 min
of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per week),
inexperienced at Pilates, healthy and musculoskeletal
injury free. The Pilates program was done during the
months of September and December. The test
subjects were divided into 2 groups: The control group
(CG) members had no addition physical activities
(usual PE activities) during the duration of the
experimental program. Women who attended 95
percent of the training sessions during the 16-week
duration of the Pilates program made up the
experimental group. 60 girls began the Pilates
program, and of those, 55 met the requirements to be
counted in the final measurement because they
attended regularly. The participants in the experimental
group did not engage in any other forms of physical
activity during experimental program out of school
facility. The test was carried out at the school gym by
professors from the Faculty of Physical Education and
Sports before and after the Pilates program. The
temperature of the room was around 20°C. All
participants volunteered in this study and provided
informed consent prior to participation. This study was
conducted according to the guidelines laid down in the
Declaration of Helsinki for research of human subjects.
Procedures
Physical fitness
3 variables in the field of flexibility, repetitive strength
and balance, were selected for evaluation of motor
HOMOSPORTICUS vol.24/ issue 2, December 2022 33
skills (physical fitness). Each variable was defined by
3 tests. Variable of repetitive strength includes tests:
push-ups (MSKL), raising torso from lying position
(MPTL) and deep squad 30 s (MCUC); flexibility;
rotation with a bat (MISK); leaning forward multi-
legged (MPRR), leaning forward on the bench (MPNK);
and evaluation of balance of standing on the bench
longitudinally on both legs (MU2N), longitudinally on
one leg (MU1O), diagonally on both legs (MP2N).
Applied tests are standardized and satisfy necessary
metric features (Metikoš et. al 1989).
Table 1. Description of applied Pilates program
N0
name of the exercise
Rep.
N0
name of the exercise
Rep.
1
Hundred
100x
18
Nek pull
6-8x
2
The roll-up
5-6x
19
The scissors
10-12x
3
The rollover
6-8x
20
The bicycle
10-12x
4
Leg circles
8-10x
21
Shoulder bridge
8-10x
5
Rolling like a ball
6-8x
22
Spine twist
10-12x
6
Single leg stretch
8-10 x
23
The jack knife
6-8x
7
Double leg stretch
8-10x
24
Side kicks
12-15x
8
Leg stretch
8-10x
25
Teasers
5-8x
9
Legs stretch
6-8x
26
Hip circles
5-8x
10
Crisscross
6-8x
27
Swimming
12-16x
11
Spine stretches forward
5-6x
28
The leg pulls down
6-8x
12
Open - leg rocker
6-8x
29
Leg pulls up
6-8x
13
The corkscrew
6-8x
30
Kneeling side kicks
8-10x
14
The saw
10-12x
31
Mermaid side bends
5-6 x
15
Swan dive
8-10x
32
The boomerang
8-10x
16
Single leg kicks
10-12x
33
The seal
8-10x
17
Double leg kicks
8-10x
34
Push-ups
3-6x
Pilates exercise intervention
Pilates program lasted for 4 months, one session of
Pilates a week, for 40 minutes (16 sessions, in total).
In introductory-preparation part of the lesson classical
set of exercises was conducted, in controlled group
and program of Pilates exercises was conducted in
experimental group. Pilates is defined as unique and
specific system of combined exercises of stretching,
strength and balance (Siler, 2005). Program was
conducted by teacher of P.E. and licensed Pilates
instructor and it was conducted according to series of
exercises from the book “The Pilates® Body” (Siler,
2005). 34 Pilates exercises (table 1), which were
performed in a precisely defined order and number of
repetitions, where quality is the most important than
quantity, are used in each session. Breathing is
precisely defined in each exercise and the whole body
is treated (there were no isolated exercises of
strength). At the same time, in each exercise’s muscles
were built and stretched. All exercises were performed
in ground position on the mat i.e., mat Pilates
technique. In the first 8 sessions all exercises were
performed in simpler beginner’s version, and the
following 8 sessions included the same exercises but
in more advanced version of performance. It Is insisted
on concentrations (kinesthetic consciousness) in
performance of each exercise. Between each exercise
there was enough time (15-20 sec) and explanation of
the following exercise and the constant correction and
insisting on proper, conscious and slower
performance of the exercise. Table 1 displays Pilates
program.
Statistical analysis
The obtained results were analyzed with the statistical
package SPSS 20.0 (IBM, Armonk, NY). The basic
descriptive parameters of the initial and final
measurements (arithmetic mean-M and standard
deviation-SD) were calculated for three variables that
tested physical fitness: repetitive strength, flexibility
and balance. Descriptive parameters were calculated
for the complete sample, then individually for the
experimental (EG) and control group (CG). The
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (K-S) was used to determine
whether the analyzed results of the initial and final
measurements had a normal distribution, and the
results were found to be normal (p>0.05). An
independent t-test at the level of p<0.05 was used to
establish significant differences in repetitive strength,
flexibility and balance between the experimental and
control groups at the initial measurement. The
dependent t-test at the level of p<0.05 was used to
determine a significant difference between the groups'
final measurement for the parameters of physical
fitness. All results are presented in tables and graphs.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 displays results of tests of repetitive strength,
balance and flexibility of girls in initial measurement in
both control and experimental group. Based on means
of p-value it is noticed that there is no statistically
significant difference between control and experimental
group in initial measurement, which indicates that
groups of subjects are homogeny, before the beginning
of experimental program and it is assumed that positive
effects of experimental program will be shown due to
absence of differences in initial measurement. In order
to determine partial differences between of results of
measured motor quality between experimental and
control group of examinees in the final state, T-test for
independent of samples (Table 2) was applied. Means
of T-test were significant on the level (Sig = or < .05).
It is noticed that in all variables for evaluation of
balance there are statistically significant differences on
the level (Sig. 0.00). There are no statistically
significant differences in variables for evaluation of
flexibility. Statistically significant differences appear in
variables for evaluation of repetitive strength; push-ups
(Sig.<0.01).
HOMOSPORTICUS vol.24/ issue 2, December 2022 34
Table 2. The difference between the experimental and control
groups at the initial measurement
Total sample
(n=110)
CG
(n=55)
EG
(n=55)
Variable
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
p-Value
Repetitive strength
MSKL
5.59
4.36
4.56
4.41
6.62
4.318
.08
MPTL
19.81
9.11
20.58
8.827
19.05
9.390
.39
MČUČ
24.45
10.86
26.85
9.995
22.05
11.726
.07
Flexibility
MISK
116.57
17.24
118.87
20.309
114.27
14.170
.17
MPRR
54.68
8.31
54.25
8.959
55.11
7.969
.59
MPRK
35.54
4.81
35.64
4.893
35.45
4.733
.84
Balance
MU20
17.31
13.94
23.67
18.702
10.95
9.187
.08
MU10
21.52
15.35
31.89
20.639
11.15
10.062
.09
MP20
11.36
10.17
16.45
16.394
6.27
3.956
.56
Legend: EG-experimental group; CG – control group; push-ups (MSKL),
raising torso from lying position (MPTL) and deep squad 30 s (MCUC);
flexibility; rotation with a bat (MISK);
leaning forward multi-legged (MPRR)
leaning forward on the bench (MPNK);
and evaluation of balance of standing on the bench longitudinally on
both legs (MU2N), longitudinally on one leg (MU1O),
diagonally on both legs (MP2N);
M-arithmetic mean, SD-standard deviation.
After conducted experimental program, results of the
study showed that there are statistically significant
differences between control and experimental group in
all variables for evaluation of balance, where better
results had examinees that did Pilates. In order to
achieve posture control, harmonic interaction between
nervous system through vestibular, visual, kinesthetic
and muscular bone system, which includes bio-
mechanic and neuro-functional relations (Shumway-
Cook, 2003). Building muscles, which make center of
the body through principle of centering, Pilates
exercises activate sensor motor systems, responsible
for balance and dynamic posture control. Integration
i.e. inclusion of all muscles in movement, Pilates
exercises help with better location of center of gravity
of body, stabilize torso and pelvis during movement,
maintain suitable leveling spinal column against impact
of gravitation, giving important support base of
movement of the whole body. Considering relation
between center of gravity, posture and balance it is
assumed that Pilates improves posture compliance
and motor coordination which conditioned effect of
improvement of maintenance of balance position of
examinees of experimental group. It is possible that
these effects are connected to specific exercises, that
are used in this study protocol, such as: spine
stretching “ vertebrae- one by one”, “rolling like a ball”,
“rolling with open legs”, “corkscrew”, because these
exercises improve body awareness and therefore
students become aware of mobilization of each
segment of every vertebrae, including cervical part of
the spine (vestibular position) and integration of all
information which come from the environment (visual
system) , as well. Results of previous studies (Thalia
2019) show that Pilates is efficient in: improving
posture balance in children, increase of integration and
use of visual and vestibular system. Pilates improves
strength of core and flexibility (Kloubec, 2010), posture
and balance (Alves de Araújo et.al, 2012).
Table 3. The differences between the experimental and control
groups at the final measurement
Variable
N
Group
M
SD
t SIG.
ES
REPETITIVE STRENGTH
MSKL
55
E
8.07
4.59
2.52
.01
0.47
MSKL
55
K
5.95
4.24
MPTL
55
E
21.42
9.36
-0.34
.73
0.06
MPTL
55
K
22.02
8.88
MCUC
55
E
24.65
11.44
-1.80
.07
0.34
MCUC
55
K
28.36
10.01
FLEXIBILTY
MISK
55
E
113.58
14.07
-1.40
.16
0.26
MISK
55
K
118.24
20.164
MPRR
55
E
54.45
8.11
0.40
.68
0.07
MPRR
55
K
53.80
8.88
MPRK
55
E
36.09
4.65
-0.13
.89
0.02
MPRK
55
K
36.22
4.94
BALANCE
MU2O
55
E
12.24
8.73
-4.39
.00
0.83
MU2O
55
K
24.31
18.38
MU1O
55
E
12.96
9.59
-6.46
.00
1.23
MU1O
55
K
32.45
20.18
MP2O
55
E
8.47
3.73
-4.14
.00
0.79
MP2O
55
K
17.67
16.03
Legend: EG-experimental group; CG – control group; push-ups (MSKL),
raising torso from lying position (MPTL) and deep squad 30 s (MCUC);
flexibility; rotation with a bat (MISK); leaning forward multi-legged (MPRR),
leaning forward on the bench (MPNK);
and evaluation of balance of standing on the bench longitudinally on
both legs (MU2N), longitudinally on one leg (MU1O),
diagonally on both legs (MP2N);
M-arithmetic mean, SD-standard deviation;
SIG. – statistical significance; ES-effect size
Pilates method integrates principles that demand that
all exercises are performed with maximal
concentration, coordinated breathing and bigger
fluidity and precision, which is very important in
achieving better perceptive sense of one’s own body in
space and therefore maintaining better balance. The
principle, which is applied in performance of all
exercises demands maximal focus on proper
performance of movement and awareness of body
position in space, which is additional advantage of
application of this program in female high school
students, that are in intense phase of growth and
development and can be psychological instable, which
has negative effect on maintenance of balanced
position. Also, in Pilates exercises the emphasize is on
continuous control of “longed body position” and spine
stretch upwards, which significantly contributes to
improvement of body posture, where position of head
dictates position of the whole body and influences on
better maintenance of balance position. Proper use of
muscles and dynamic balance, respectively, between
HOMOSPORTICUS vol.24/ issue 2, December 2022 35
the ones that bend and the ones that straighten out the
body, we keep straight position and balanced position.
Statistically significant differences in test of flexibility
between control and experimental group were not
measured. The question arises why there were no
significant differences in the area of tests of flexibility.
Increase of flexibility hasn’t occurred because the
volume of training once a week is not sufficient for
improvement of this motor skill. In order to maintain the
level of achieved flexibility of exercise of stretching, it
is necessary to perform it at least three times a week,
and in order to achieve flexibility of the exercise, it
needs to be done every day. Group of authors
(Cibinello, de Jesus Neves, Carvalho, Valenciano, &
Fujisawa, 2020) came to similar data. They observed
effects of Pilates on flexibility of the back kinetic chain
and mobility of torso in school children aged from 8 to
12, two times a week, in 4-month period. Their results
showed that there were no differences in flexibility of
the last chain and mobility of the torso between school
children, that were subjected to Pilates exercises and
the control group. However, children that participated
in Pilates program had improvements in flexibility
results. Pilates treats the whole body (there are no
isolated exercises of strength) and exercises in this
study caused strengthening pectoral girdle and torso,
which is an important factor of improvement of
repetitive strength at this age of female students. This
is especially important because it is known that school
children spend a lot of time in front of the screen
/computers, tablets and mobile phones) therefore head
position to the front is very common and it is defined
as anterior position of cervical spine, which is
connected to bad posture, tiredness, muscle
misbalance and neck pain. Practice shows that the
most common exercise for strengthening muscles of
upper part of the body that are performed by female
students in P.E. lessons are push-ups, that most of
female population perform less in relation to men.
Prskalo (2016) states that gender becomes a factor
which needs to be respected, in terms of dozing and
loading and selection of the content. It is not
recommended to prescribe a recipe of male training to
women, which is featured by gracile built and specific
body structure, which limits possibilities. Differences
are increased with the puberty, because muscles of
girls are less developed than in boys, bones are gentler
and body fat is more massive and differently distributed
(Prskalo, Sporiš 2016). With its integral approach
Pilates gives opportunities in selection of the contents
and dosage of loading especially in the contexts of
development of repetitive strength of upper part of the
body of girls in relation to classical shape exercises.
Comparing Pilates with classical shape exercises, that
are used in preparation part of the lesson of P.E., we
can conclude that Pilates can be excellent substitute or
complement to classical program of shape exercises.
The advantage reflects in exercises that treat the whole
body and strengthen and stretch musculature with
maximal consciousness of correct performance of
movements and increase concentration and therefore
establishes better balance position. This type of
exercising is desirable in period of growth and
development of women population because it enables
development of balance and strength of muscles. It
would also be good to examine effects of the group
programs of fitness in introductory-preparation part of
the lesson, especially the ones that are performed with
music. Also, teachers should be additionally educated
and trained. Disadvantage of the study is relatively
small number of female subjects.
Conclusion
Although Pilates is present for long period of time, it
has taken a leading role among group fitness programs
in the last few years and tendency of its growth is
constantly rising and its application in P.E. lessons.
Each exercise of Pilates activates a great number of
muscles; therefore, results are shown quickly. Results
of this study confirm positive effects of Pilates
exercises on improvement of posture balance and
repetitive strength in female students of experimental
group. When comparing two groups it is noticed that
effects of Pilates method were more pronounced in
relation to classical exercises and it is suggested that
Pilates exercises should be used in as additional tool in
P.E lessons. This study proves that female students
can improve their muscle endurance and balance by
using Pilates exercises, which do not demand
additional equipment or high-level skills or previous
knowledge. With its integral approach to the body,
Pilates enables smarter exercise selection and thus a
more efficient approach to load dosage, especially for
female population. There were no significant
differences in flexibility because development of
flexibility requires greater volume of Pilates exercises
on weekly basis.
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Corresponding author:
Lejla Šebić
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Sarajevo
e-mail address: lejla.sebic@fasto.unsa.ba
Submitted: 16.12.2022.
Accepted: 21.12.2022.