Concept of the Camera at the Analogue - Digital Crossroads

Abstract

The study examines and compares various interpretations of the term camera as a means of expression in the individual stages of the development of film sciences, as well as the overlap of the mentioned theoretical concepts into groundbreaking film pieces by relevant filmmakers. In addition to theoretical knowledge, based on aesthetic and philosophical concepts, it also monitors their practical crossovers into cinematographic and directorial practice. The paper examines two basic periods in which the camera phenomenon developed – the period of classical film shooting on film stock, i.e. the period of analogue production and the period of digital production, which brought new theoretical knowledge into the development of the camera phenomenon. The study seeks to position the phenomenon of the cinematographic camera, which lies at the crossroads of art and technology. The value of this concept in film theories oscillates between the recording device and the means of expression. The authors of theoretical conceptions lead a long-term ontological and semiological discourse on how to understand the phenomenon of the camera in film – whether the camera is more like a pen writing in a special language or it is to be understood as a specific writing type or style. In any case, thanks to light, its mechanical-optical-electronical equipment conveys a cut-out of reality, which is a testimony of a special form and content. Film theory poses many questions and answers some of them, thanks to the knowledge of camera significance in film production realization. The purpose of this article is to zoom into the theoretical and practical side of looking at the phenomenon of cinematographic camera.

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European Journal of Media, Art & Photography
Faculty of Mass Media Communication
University of Ss. Cyril andMethodius in Trnava
ejmap2/2021
European Journal of Media, Art & Photography
Faculty of Mass Media Communication
University of Ss. Cyril andMethodius in Trnava
2021, Vol. 9, No. 2
ejmap
2
/
2
0
2
1
www.ejmap.sk www.fmk.sk www.ucm.sk
Vol. 9, No. 2
November 2021

Editor-In-Chief
Zora Hudíková
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Scientific and Creative Board
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Ivan Čaniga
Ladislav Čarný
Ľudmila Čábyová
Zora Hudíková
Martin Kasarda
Anne Lefebvre
Pavel Mára
Marián Pauer
Marián Paukov
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Jozef Sedlák
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Diana Bulganová
Eva Jonisová
Lucia Magalová
Kristián Pribila
EDITORIAL BOARD
Laurie Joly
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Vol. 9, No. 2, November 2021
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4
Editorial
5 European Journal of Media, Art & Photography, 2021, Vol. 9, No. 2
»
Dear fellow academics, professionals,
artists, dear readers.
In Slovakia, the year 2021 will be marked
by the celebration of anniversaries related
to art disseminated through “classical
media” – film, radio and television. We
are celebrating 125 years since the film’s
first public screening. It took place in
the extension to the Schalkház Hotel
in Košice on 19 December 1896. At that
time, a film was understood to be just
a minute or so of footage of a single
scene, without editing, something like
news footage documenting current
events. One hundred years ago, the first
Slovak feature-length feature film was
made. The legend of the national hero
Jánošík, adapted by the Siakeľ brothers
and directed by one of them, Jaroslav
Siakeľ, was made by the Slovak-American
company Tatra Film Corporation. It is
also 95 years since the beginning of
radio broadcasting in Slovakia (August
3, 1926) and 65 years since the beginning
of The Slovak Television broadcasting
(November 3, 1956). For many years, radio
has been a culture-creating factor, its
literary and dramatic editorial staff has
produced numerous programmes and
plays that still fill hours of airtime and the
radio archive. The so-called Bratislava
Mondays – television adaptations which
were based on dramatizations of famous
literary works of domestic and foreign
authors, were popular and cultivated the
taste of viewers. Art presented by classical
electronic media brought new forms of
artistic processing, new genres and made
it possible to bring art closer to the people
– into their homes. At the same time,
it spurred the emergence of so-called
hybrid forms of art and performance,
which, by combining old, classical (through
electronic media) and new (through digital
media) forms of presentation, evoke new
kinds of experiences for the recipients.
In this autumn issue, you will find several
studies that deal specifically with art
combined with electronic and new media.
To begin with, we bring you profiles
of two prominent women artists in the
visual arts – one from abroad and one
from the domestic art scene. Laurie Joly
is originally from France and she deals
with multidisciplinary artistic exploration
of the body through performance,
photography, video, sound, installation
and new technologies. Her works evolve
depending on converging issues touching
on aesthetics, society and politics. She
explores the relationship between the
physical presence of the body in the
material world and its digital co-presence
in virtual environments, constantly
considering corporeality and visibility.
The second artist is Kvet Nguen, a young
Slovak photographer with Vietnamese
roots. She deals with themes of otherness
and identity, not only in her art projects,
but also tries to talk about them openly
and open up a debate in conversations
or on other platforms. She translates her
vision of the world into various projects,
both civic and artistic, for which he has
won various awards. Another contribution,
“Concept of the Camera at the Analogue
– Digital Crossroads”, is also dedicated
to visual art. Authors L. Halama and
Z. Hudíková in their study deal with
defining the phenomenon of the film
camera, the characteristic of which in film
theories oscillates between a recording
device and a means of expression. The
paper examines two basic periods – the
period of classical filming on film stock,
i. e. the period of analogue production,
and the period of digital production,
which brought new insights into the
development of the camera phenomenon.
The paper written by P. Šenkár entitled
“Connotations of Significance and their
Visualization in Slovak Poems by Imrich
Fuhl” is devoted to verbal art. In the
paper, the author identifies the themes,
creative procedures, methods and means
of expression used in the Slovak poems of
Imrich Fuhl, tracing specific attributes of
the complex being of the individual in this
chronotope. He places particular emphasis
on those poems that are supported
by visualization in his two published
collections of poetry and characterizes
the connection between Fuhl’s poetry and
selected visual concretizations of his texts.
On the example of the work of Francis
Poulenc, the group of authors I. Drach, M.
Cherkashina-Gubarenko, M. Chernyavska,
N. Govorukhina, O. Mykhailova, points
to the relationship between visual art,
especially film art, and music. Francis
Poulenc as a “musical classic” tried to
write music for films. The study of “Francis
Poulenc’s Music through Screen Media”
brings the conclusion that “edginess”
in the work of the French composer
often acts as a formative tool and as a
meaningful principle of composition. In
their study “Fundamental Knowledge
behind Creation of Concept Art”, authors
M. Engler and A. Trnka emphasize that
when creating a new world in games and
films based on science fiction and fantasy
on the basis of story and concept, it is
essential to fully grasp the idea of the
designed objects from the inside and
to transform them into a new design by
means of basic artistic skills. It brings
together knowledge, experience, tips and
tricks from a variety of artists and authors
of renowned art books to convey the basic
thinking and processes behind creating
conceptual art and building new worlds
usable in films and digital games. In “Radio
Experiments: Aesthetic, Structure, Genre”,
the author N. Kowalska-Elkader aims to
describe the nature of radio experiments,
establish their genre structure and define
the governing principles of the form.
Specifically, the article describes issues of
structure, aesthetics, and non-aesthetics
in the field of radio experimentation.
The visual identity of a brand forms a
substantial part of its value, as it is the
logo and symbols used by a brand that
give it a competitive advantage. The logo
can even be seen as a work of art. The
aim of the paper “Logo As the Greatest
Symbol of Brand” by J. Galera Matúšová
is to clarify the issue of branding, which
is closely related to the creation of a
logo. The last contribution is S. Gálik’s
review of the scientific monograph
entitled “Mathematics and Beauty.
An Attempt to Link the Cognitive and
Philosophical-Spiritual Aspects of Beauty”.
The authors A. Démuth, S. Démuthová
and A. Slavkovský, in their monograph
explore beauty, which is found not only in
mathematics, but also in general – starting
with the beauty of the human body and
ending with the philosophical and spiritual
aspects of beauty.
Dear readers, I hope that reading our
EJMAP inspires you.
Zora Hudíková
Editorial
Zora Hudíková . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Portfolio
Laurie Joly Writings on and by the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Kvet Nguyen Cultural Identity and Otherness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Media / Art / Culture
Ladislav Halama, Zora Hudíková Concept of the Camera
at the Analogue – Digital Crossroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Patrik Šenkár Connotations of Significance and their Visualization
in Slovak Poems by Imrich Fuhl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Iryna Drach, Maryna Cherkashina-Gubarenko, Marianna Chernyavska, Nataliya
Govorukhina, Olga Mykhailova Francis Poulenc’s Music through Screen Media . . . 92
Martin Engler, Andrej Trnka Fundamental Knowledge behind
Creation of Concept Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Natalia Kowalska-Elkader Radio Experiments: Aesthetic, Structure, Genre . . 116
Jana Galera Matúšová Logo as the Greatest Symbol of Brand . . . . . . 126
Review
Slavomír Gálik Andrej Démuth, Slávka Démuthová, Adrián Slavkovský:
Mathematics and Beauty. An Attempt to Link the Cognitive
and Philosophical-Spiritual Aspects of Beauty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
CONTENT

70 Ladislav Halama, Zora Hudíková
Media / Art / Culture Concept of the Camera at the Analogue – Digital Crossroads
71 European Journal of Media, Art & Photography, 2021, Vol. 9, No. 2
»
Ladislav Halama, Zora Hudíková
Concept of the Camera at the
Analogue – Digital Crossroads
Abstract
The study examines and compares
various interpretations of the term
camera as a means of expression
in the individual stages of the
development of film sciences,
as well as the overlap of the
mentioned theoretical concepts
into groundbreaking film pieces
by relevant filmmakers. In addition
to theoretical knowledge, based
on aesthetic and philosophical
concepts, it also monitors
their practical crossovers into
cinematographic and directorial
practice. The paper examines two
basic periods in which the camera
phenomenon developed – the
period of classical film shooting
on film stock, i.e. the period of
analogue production and the period
of digital production, which brought
new theoretical knowledge into
the development of the camera
phenomenon. The study seeks to
position the phenomenon of the
cinematographic camera, which
lies at the crossroads of art and
technology. The value of this
concept in film theories oscillates
between the recording device
and the means of expression. The
authors of theoretical conceptions
lead a long-term ontological and
semiological discourse on how to
understand the phenomenon of the
camera in film – whether the camera
is more like a pen writing in a special
language or it is to be understood
as a specific writing type or style.
In any case, thanks to light, its
mechanical-optical-electronical
equipment conveys a cut-out of
reality, which is a testimony of a
special form and content. Film
theory poses many questions and
answers some of them, thanks to the
knowledge of camera significance
in film production realization. The
purpose of this article is to zoom
into the theoretical and practical
side of looking at the phenomenon
of cinematographic camera.
Key words
Cameraman. Digital camera.
Director. Film. Film camera. Image.
Introduction
If we ask ourselves a question of
what we mean by the term camera,
the answer may seem simple. But
perhaps the confidence with which
we will answer should lead us to
hesitate and doubt whether our
faith and intuition are not obvious
and whether we can explain them.
The human imagination has always
been fascinated by the magical
aspect of mechanical reproduction
brought about by photography.
The tradition of “natural magic”, as
the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher, who
experimented with the “camera
obscura” in the mid-seventeenth
century, called his experiments,
opened the way for photography
and film. Kircher made a simple
optic, using it to concentrate light
rays and project images from the
outside world onto a screen in a
darkened room1. The first use of
the term “camera obscura” is also
dated back to this time. However,
whatever Kircher managed to
display, whether it was the landscape
or a random passer-by, he could
neither modify nor preserve their
image. The cumbersome attraction
could not be put to practical use
at that time. But its legacy was the
transformation of natural magic
into a human-controlled illusion,
the technical basis of which was
the chemical fixation of an optically
reflected image. With the right
number of frames per second, a
1 MULVEY, L.: Death 24x aSecond. Still-
ness and the Moving Image. London : Reaction Books,
2006, p. 18.
series of photographs turned into
an animated record of reality – a
film. The original content of the
search for a record of reality has
changed into a technical toy, and it
has gradually changed into art and
medium. All this would not have
been possible without the existence
of an ever-evolving object, which has
become a cinematic, semiological,
ontological and aesthetic
phenomenon, and which bears the
name: the camera. It is a comparative
study and the authors use their
empirical experience gained from
their own media practice.
1 Concept of the Camera in the
Analog Film Period
The main motive and space for
the research and development of
the camera as a device was the
effort to improve all the properties
of recording moving images:
optical-mechanical parameters of
shooting, quality of film stock, but
also the definition of the means
of expression which were brought
by imaging and reproduction
technology. The phenomenon
of the camera thus became the
cornerstone of film studies, the
focal point of film theory as art,
as a distinctive language and a
specific medium. The approach to
the camera phenomenon defines
different approaches to film theory:
communicational, psychoanalytic,
cognitive, aesthetic, semiotic, and
more. Reflections on the camera can
easily change and redirect to areas
related to different principles and
concepts of a particular type of film
theory.
In the context of our reflections,
we think primarily of the film
camera, as it evolved from the
camera, with the ability to capture
the movement and flow of real time.
Already when defining the term
camera, resp. film camera we come
across a semiotic plot: when we say
“film camera” we mean a device with
a mechanical device that can expose
film stock, or a device that captures
a digital chip in the quality required
for film? Or do we mean a specific
apparatus of technical and artistic
activities, which is represented by
the continuous creative activity of
a cameraman operating with an
optical-mechanical or optical-digital
device in the shooting of a film
piece? Another meaning that can be
hidden in this term is the display of
everything that passes through the
camera lens on the screen or display
– simply what we see – the image
output of the camera in its motion,
colour and compositional diversity.
Camera reflections can define
questions about the basic principles
of a given film theory, which are
often fundamental, sometimes
contradictory, and which interpret
the term itself in various senses.
In the study “Projecting a Camera:
Language-Games in Film Theory”, E.
Branigan proposes understanding
the camera as a linguistic and
rhetorical construct, the meaning of
which depends on the sense shared
by the interpretive community
and its specific inputs to the film.
In the context of art criticism, the
camera plays an ambivalent, if not
paradoxical, role. Many critics speak
of the camera as a recording device
that distinguishes film from other

72 Ladislav Halama, Zora Hudíková
Media / Art / Culture Concept of the Camera at the Analogue – Digital Crossroads
73 European Journal of Media, Art & Photography, 2021, Vol. 9, No. 2
»
forms of art, although the camera
itself may not qualify film as art – for
example, N. Caroll2 and A. Danto3.
The question of the extent to which
the mechanical recording created
by the camera may be expressive,
meaningful, or artistic was dominant
especially in the early theories
of film, i.e. theories that we call
classical from today’s point of view.
It is the period from about 1920 to
1970. In the 1920s, French creators
and critics L. Delluc4 and J. Epstein5
presented the impressionist idea
of the camera, called photogénie6,
as a possible solution to this
problem. Delluc and Epstein have
appropriated an expression7 from
2 CAROLL, N.: Defining the Moving Im-
age. In Theorizing the Moving Image. Cambridge :
Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 49-74.
3 DANTO, A.: The Moving Pictures. In
Philosophizing Art: Selected Essays. Berkeley : Uni-
versity of California Press, 1999, pp. 205–232.
4 DELLUC, L.: Photogénie. In SHEP-
HERDSON, K. J., SIMPSON, P., UTTERSON, A. (eds.):
Film Theory: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural
Studies. New York : Routledge, 2004, pp. 49-51.
5 EPSTEIN, J.: On Certain Characteristics
of Photogénie. In SHEPHERDSON, K. J., SIMPSON,
P., UTTERSON, A. (eds.): Film Theory: Critical Con-
cepts in Media and Cultural Studies. New York : Rout-
ledge, 2004, pp. 52-56.
6 Photogénie is a complex theoretical
concept that works in a number of ways. At its
heart,photogénie seeks the essence of cinema. It is
an argument for the importance of cinematic speci-
ficity, and we can mark out two ways in which the con-
cept operates: the cultural and the aesthetic. In the
cultural sense it proposes to legitimise the medium of
film, arguing that film can transcend its photochemi-
cal/mechanical base, and, in the right hands, become
art. See more: FARMER, R.: Epstein, Jean: 2010. [on-
line]. [2021-10-18]. Available at: <https://www.sensesof-
cinema.com/2010/great-directors/jean-epstein/>.
7 It is important to note that pho-
togénie was a term neither invented by Epstein
nor by any of the French Impressionists. The term
existed in general usage long before Louis Delluc.
According to Paul Willemen it appeared as early as
1874 in theLaroussedictionary, and the director Louis
Feuillade even wrote to the magazineCinéa(Delluc’s
own magazine) complaining about Delluc’s “Impres-
sionistic” appropriation of the term. See: Photogénie
and Epstein. In WILLEMEN, P.:Looks and Frictions:
still photography, which describes
the true quality of the moving
image, which is “generated by the
transforming power of the camera to
poeticize life”8. As Epstein claimed,
at the moment of exposure the
camera allows us to see the inner
nature of things. He also argued
that the most important ability of
film is the reproduction of motion9.
Moreover, the idea of photogénie
not only reflects the human
properties of camera perception
(anthropomorphic worldview)
or the feeling of an ephemeral,
preconceptual and inexplicable
aspect of experience. The camera
will be fully asserted only when
it converges with the vision of a
filmmaker, creator, cameraman.
On the one hand, the camera is
symbiotically connected with the
filmmaker – the creator, on the
other hand, the camera acquires
its own autonomy and influence on
technological unpredictability, which
exceeds the plans of the creator.
Russian filmmaker and theorist
Essays in Cultural Studies and Film Theory. London
: BFI Publishing, 1994, p. 126. Nevertheless, it is Ep-
stein’s work onphotogéniethat is the most important
because it was he who developed the idea most fully.
See more: FARMER, R.: Epstein, Jean: 2010. [online].
[2021-10-18]. Available at: <https://www.sensesofcine-
ma.com/2010/great-directors/jean-epstein>.
8 The ultimate theme that binds togeth-
er the differentphotogéniesis mobility, and here we
will pay particular attention to the way that mobility
relates to the close-up. (…) One of Epstein’s most
vivid accounts of the power of the close-up concerns
the way in which subtle movements of the face are
revealed. See more: FARMER, R.: Epstein, Jean: 2010.
[online]. [2021-10-18]. Available at: <https://www.sens-
esofcinema.com/2010/great-directors/jean-epstein/
online>.
9 TURVEY, M.: Classical Film Theory. In
BRANIGAN, E., BUCKLAND, W. (eds.): The Rout-
ledge Encyclopedia of Film Theory. New York : Rout-
ledge, 2014, p. 90.
V. Pudovkin criticized Delluc’s
notion of photogénie as a vague
symbolism that obscures traditional
notions of taste and beauty. For
him, film is not a “merger” of the
photographic image with the
“genius of cinematography”, but
rather is created and obtained
from the correct application of
the principles of montage10. His
critique also marks a historical
shift from aesthetic to semiotic
film theories and the related
camera phenomenon. The original
concept concerned the aesthetic
possibilities of film expression and
emphasized the achievement of
sublime experiences. Pudovkin’s
concept explores the conditions and
possibilities of film language. In the
first case, the camera transforms
reality into a sensory form that
shows new or unseen aspects of
reality. For avant-garde filmmakers,
the camera became a means of
defamiliarization, which pointed
to an alternative way of seeing or
towards the “otherness” of human
perception. For Pudovkin, the
camera serves as a deictic tool11
that directs the viewer’s attention;
guides the viewer through space-
time in the order and in the sense
10 PUDOVKIN, V.: Photogeny. In TAYLOR,
R. (ed.): Vsevolod Pudovkin: Selected Essays. London
: Seagull Books, 2006, p. 6.
11 Adeictic expressionordeixisis a word
or phrase (such asthis, that, these, those, now, then,
here) that points to the time, place, or situation in
which a speaker is speaking. Deixis is expressed in
English by way ofpersonal ronouns,demonstratives,
adverbs, and tense. The term’s etymology comes
from the Greek, meaning “pointing” or “show” and
it’s pronounced “DIKE-tik”. NORDQUIST, R.: Deictic
Expression (Deixis). [online]. [2021-10-18]. Available
at: <https://www.thoughtco.com/deictic-expres-
sion-deixis-1690428>.
that the filmmaker intends. In this
concept, the camera enacted the
compositional rules of assembly
and production – the production
process. If the “camera lens is the
viewer’s eye” – the most famous
metaphor of the Soviet film school12
– it is the filmmaker who looks
through the viewer.
The camera does not just point to
a profilmic13 event; it also presents
this event within a specific narrative
or argumentative framework14.
As a narrative interface between
the filmmaker and the viewer, the
camera is in the position of an ideal
observer, whose perception is a
synthetic product of the filmmaker’s
supposed observation. Because this
position extends to the postfilmic,
12 PUDOVKIN, V.: The Montage of a Sci-
entific Film. In TAYLOR, R. (ed.): Vsevolod Pudovkin:
Selected Essays. London : Seagull Books, 2006, p. 16.
13 Profilmic: Everything placed in front of
the camera that is then captured on film and so con-
stitutes the film image.The slice of the world in front
of the filmcamera; including protagonists and their
actions,lightning, sets, props andcostumes, as well
as the setting itself, as opposed to what eventually
appears on the cinema screen. In studio-made fiction
films, the profilmic event is a set constructed for the
purpose of being filmed. At the other extreme, in
observational documentary forms like direct cinema,
filmmakers seek, as a fundamental element of their
practice, to preserve the integrity of the real-life
space and time of the profilmic event. Many films oc-
cupy a middle ground in their organization of, or rela-
tionship with, the profilmic event: as for example in the
case of location-shot, but acted, films such as those
ofneorealism. See more: Profilmic. [online]. [2021-10-
18]. Available at: <https://www.oxfordreference.com/
view/10.1093/acref/9780199587261.001.0001/acref-
9780199587261-e-0561>.
14 See also: RADOŠINSKÁ, J., KVETA-
NOVÁ, Z., RUSŇÁKOVÁ, L.: Globalizovaný filmový
priemysel. Praha : Wolters Kluwer, 2020; PRAVDOVÁ,
H.: Remake as a Commercial media strategy. In KUSÁ,
A., ZAUŠKOVÁ, A., BUČKOVÁ, Z. (eds.): Marketing
Identity: Offline Is the New Online. Trnava : Fakulta
masmediálnej komunikácie UCM v Trnave, 2019, pp.
1065-1080; RADOŠINSKÁ, J.: New Trends in Produc-
tion and Distribution of Episodic Television Drama:
Brand Marvel-Netflix in the Post-Television Era. In
Communication Today, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 4-29.
i.e. viewing situation, the concept
of the camera is enriched by the
aspect of camera work and editing,
which can be considered as two
other forms of directing the viewer’s
attention. While the theorists
following Pudovkin emphasized the
importance of editing and assembly,
A. Bazin advocated long, continuous
shots. Like Pudovkin, Bazin, in his
vision of the camera, combines a
profilmic and postfilmic sense, which
is viewed through a dialectic that
compares the possibilities of the
film medium with the perceptual
limitations of human vision15. In a
profilmic sense, it is primarily the
technique of “wide” depth of field
(deep focus)16, i.e. the image that
allows the viewer to see distant and
near objects equally sharply. This
characteristic of the image also
includes the concept of depth of
field, i.e. the viewer’s searching gaze
(see depth of field)17.
An example of thoughtful work with
a camera that seems to respect
Bazin’s theory (although it was
15 QUENDLER, CH.: Camera. In BRANI-
GAN, E., BUCKLAND, W. (eds).: The Routledge Ency-
clopedia of Film Theory. New York : Routledge, 2014,
p. 70.
16 Deep focus is a style or technique ofcin-
ematography and staging with greatdepth of field,
using relativelywide-angle and small lens apertures
to render in sharp focus near and distant planes
simultaneously. A deep-focus shot includes fore-
ground, middle-ground, and extreme-background
objects, all in focus. See more: Deep focus. [online].
[2021-10-18]. Available at: <https://filmglossary.ccnmtl.
columbia.edu/term/deep-focus/>.
17 Depth of field is the area, range of dis-
tance, or field (between the nearest and farthest
planes) in which the elements captured in a camera
image appear in sharp focus. Depth of field is con-
nected to focus but should not be confused with it.
See more: Depth of field. [online]. [2021-10-18]. Avail-
able at: <https://filmglossary.ccnmtl.columbia.edu/
term/depth-of-field/>.
made much later) is the film by
cinematographer G. Toland and
director O. Wells Citizen Kane (1941).
Thanks to improved film optics, this
film seized the whole, “wide” depth
of sharpness and used the entire
depth of the image field. This way, in
several plans, it offered the viewer
much information that forced them
to work intellectually, to choose
important details, to perceive the
atmosphere of the whole18. This led
to the establishment of an internal
mounting, which advanced the
camera to an “integrator” of symbols
and signs.
A strong directive of the postfilmic
camera is to amplify the illusion
of extending out-of-frame reality.
Instead of preferring “dramatic field
analysis” with a cut that “sequences”
time and space, Bazin prefers to
constantly reconfigure the cutout by
moving the camera, light, sound, and
other means of expression that the
director or cameraman has19. In his
conception, editing was understood
as the movement of a camera that
offered new compositions and
cutouts. Bazin likens his camera
model to an invisible guest and
omniscient narrator. In film theory,
camera movement and editing are
very often associated and compared
to the natural movements of the
human eye and changes in attention
as produced by the human brain.
Thus, the synthesis of observation
18 CIEL, M.: Metódy a možnosti analýzy
filmového obrazu. Bratislava : VŠMU, 2011, p. 17.
19 BAZIN, A.: The Evolution of the Lan-
guage of Cinema. In What Is Cinema? Berkeley : Uni-
versity of California Press, 1967, p. 34.

74 Ladislav Halama, Zora Hudíková
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75 European Journal of Media, Art & Photography, 2021, Vol. 9, No. 2
»
and perception becomes similar to
a montage and film image mediated
by the camera. The camera
records a narrative attitude that is
simultaneously bound and unbound
to the diegetic world: “It is a way
of seeing which, while free of all
contingency, is at the same time
limited by the concrete qualities
of vision: its continuity in time and
vanishing point in space. It is like the
eye of God, in the proper sense of
the word, if God could be satisfied
with a single eye”, as A. Bazin
pertinently put it20.
A striking manifestation of the
physical existence of the camera
in the analogue period is its
movement. The theory sought
to grasp this concept in physical,
psychological and philosophical
terms. The movement of the
camera has become a fundamental
expression of the dynamics of
film narration and is generally
considered an important aspect
of directing style. This led to
the appreciation and detailed
analysis of the work of many
important directors, who created
iconic techniques and influenced
the practical side, specifically
the manifestations of the film
language of the camera. (F. W.
Murnau, O. Wells, S. Kubrick, and
others.) It is also an evidence that
camera movement has become a
significant example of directorial
virtuosity. Since the early days
20 BAZIN, A.: Jean Renoir. New York : Si-
mon and Schuster, 1973, p. 88.
of cinematography, awareness of
camera movement has been defined
as a large space for expressiveness21.
As the theorist J. Mitry wrote: “It
was around 1924 – when the camera
really started to move – but at that
time it was more moving around the
characters than with them.” He cites
the classic films of F. Murnau and
D. W. Griffith’s film Intolerance22 as
examples. The question of what the
motive for movement is – physical,
dramatic, or psychological – is a
constant and persisting question of
research23.
Despite its scale and complexity, the
classical period of film aesthetics
can be understood as the genealogy
of conflicting debates that sought
the identity of film in a medium of
specific concepts or techniques.
It was the photogénie of L. Delluc
and J. Epstein; defense of great
detail as formulated by B. Balázs;
rhythmic cinégraphie admired by
French Impressionist filmmakers24
21 BORDWELL, D., STAIGER, J., THOMP-
SON, K.: The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style
and Mode of Production to 1960. New York : Colum-
bia University Press, 1985, p. 12.
22 MITRY, J.: The Aesthetics and Psycholo-
gy of Cinema. Bloomington : Indiana University Press,
2000, p. 184.
23 Ibid, p. 185.
24 French Impressionist Cinema – describes
an avant-garde film movement lasting approximately
from 1918 to 1929. It was characterised by camera and
editing techniques which both augmented the beau-
ty of the image and evoked characters’ psychological
states. Impressionist filmmakers regarded film as an
art form in itself rather than simply a means for re-
cording plays and novels. Mood and suggestion took
precedence over plot. Notable Impressionist direc-
tors include Abel Gance (1889-1981), Marcel L’Herbier
(1890-1979), Germaine Dulac (1882-1942), Jean Epstein
(1897-1953), Jacques Feyder (1885-1948) and Jean
Renoir (1894-1979). LESKOSKY, R.: French Impression-
ist Cinema. [online]. [2021-10-18]. Available at: <https://
www.rem.routledge.com/articles/french-impression-
ist-cinema>.
and debates about montage during
the golden age of the Soviet school.
All these aesthetic outbursts carried
the phenomenon of the camera as
a universal key to explicating and
defending their ideas.
If we analyzed this topic three
or four decades ago, we would
probably focus on defining shooting,
crane movement, Steadicam rides
– so especially on the technical-
technological view. However, from
the point of view of the evolving
theory, it is more likely that currently
we will perceive movement as a
problem in relation to the viewer
rather than technology. How do
we “read” and understand camera
movement today? D. Bordwell and
E. Branigan became pioneers in this
new concept of movement. Both
of them often focused on camera
movement and emphasized its
function, especially from the point of
view of narration25. Bordwell’s essay,
“Camera Movement and Cinematic
Space” (1977), seeks to develop what
he calls the “perceptual approach”,
which places his exploration into
the realm of how we “read” camera
movement. An interesting direction
in which Bordwell is moving is an
attempt to separate the appearance
of the camera’s movement from the
likely actual action of the camera
that has moved. He sees the need to
do so to emphasize how we perceive
25 More see: BORDWELL, D.: Camera
Movement and Cinematic Space. In ALLEN D., DE-
LAURENTIS, T. (eds.): CINÉ – TRACTS: A Journal of
Film, Communications, Culture, and Politics, 1977,
Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 19-26; BRANIGAN, E.: Projecting a
Camera: Language-Games in Film Theory. New York :
Routledge, 2006.
movement and its importance, not
just to identify that movement has
taken place. He considers animated
films to be examples, in which the
movement takes place without the
camera moving – similarly in case
of some animated films (e.g., back
projection)26.
At the end of the 20th century,
however, came the beginning of
digital disruption – a breakthrough
that began with digitized
photographs and cameras. By
the beginning of the 21st century
theorists had to face a fundamental
change in the essence of film:
“extinction” of tangible analogue
recording and its shift to digital
motion picture recording.
2 The Concept of the Camera in
the Digital Film Period
The transition from analogue to
digital in film became a widely
discussed topic in the 1990s, when
more modern theoretical concepts,
determined by new semiotic and
psychoanalytic directions, adopted
this topic. The contradictions in the
discussions between supporters and
opponents were fundamental, but
gradually, for a variety of reasons,
the scales prevailed on the side of
supporters of new technologies. It
could be said that film technology
in the whole production chain
– from shooting to projection –
has “freed” itself from “metallic
26 BORDWELL, D.: Camera Movement
and Cinematic Space. In ALLEN D., DELAURENTIS, T.
(eds.): CINÉ-TRACTS: A Journal of Film, Communica-
tions, Culture, and Politics, 1977, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 19-26 .
solidity” and shifted users to “plastic
universality”. This is how we would
like to name the external change
of the camera body, its principle
of operation and the expansion of
accessibility, which in many ways
also influenced the work of great
personalities from the circle of
renowned film professionals. No
matter what technologies are used
in the production, editing and
projection of films, they are still
“haunted” by the history and logic
of film or cinematography. In fact,
the term “film” itself remains a sign
of the uncertain transformation
from analogue to digital – we still
use the term film even though we
refer to “movies” that are not shot
on celluloid. This means that the
narrative and aesthetic dimensions
of film are shaped by the technology
itself and the apparatus that gives
them material form, and also by
the fact that the change happens
gradually, not always rationally
and without stopping. And these
changes in the visual and the
principle of operation of the
electronic and later digital camera
also affected its film-theoretical
postulation.
“Movies have become files”,
D. Bordwell27 aptly named the
transformation, and J. Baudrillard
wrote that “when everything can
be digitally encoded, language
becomes a useless function”28. Old
27 BORDWELL, D.: Pandora’s Digital Box:
Film, Files, and the Future of Movies. Madison : The
Irvington Way Institute Press, 2012, p. 8.
28 BAUDRILLARD, J.: Impossible Ex-
change. London : Verso, 2001, p. 40.
film syntax – crosscutting, montage,
ellipses, dissolves, fade-ins and
fade-outs, establishing shots – were
responses not to a certain way of
seeing images, but to a certain way
of making them, which was based on
the possibilities of analogue film and
camera as technical devices. Syntax
was a manifestation of technology,
raised to the level of art. Today,
even the simplest camera provides
various syntax elements along with
digital video features. Moreover,
moving images appear to us much
more natural as they correspond to
our experience of everyday reality
more than ever before.
The tendency towards an expansive,
figurative understanding of the
camera as a centre of experience
is a characteristic of many more
modern camera concepts in film
theory. This corresponds to the
instrumental function of the camera,
which serves people according
to the human disposition of some
embodied thinking29. Theorist
M. McLuhan presented the view
that the camera is an extension of
the body and mind, and mediates
and connects perception and
communication30. The perceptual
framework of interpretation invites
viewers to think of the film as a
fictional experience. Through
the camera, the cinema offers
us a “safe” place for imaginative
29 More see: LAKOFF, G., JOHNSON,
M.: Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and
Its Challenge to Western Thought. New York : Basic
Books, 1999.
30 McLUHAN, M.: Understanding Media:
The Extensions of Man. New York : McGraw-Hill, 1964,
p. 160.

76 Ladislav Halama, Zora Hudíková
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participation in alternative and
impossible worlds. We can freely
exist in these imaginative worlds
and freely identify with the actors
on the screen in the way they are
presented to us. When films are
produced for the public, they
involve us in social practice and
communication. Although there is
no need to continue communication
(after the end of the film, silence
may remain, or a critical evaluation
may come, or a message about
our experience may be sent), our
communication framework requires
the message to be decoded. The
dual function of the camera as
a mediator of perception and
communication creates a paradox:
the film image is both a product and
a perceptual and communicative
act31.
Double camera activity – profilmic
act of description and postfilmic act
of presentation – as A. Gaudreault
calls the “act of monstration” and
the “act of narration” in the case
of narrative films, is linked to
perception and communication,
together with their corresponding
interpretive frameworks, thanks
to the camera32. This paradox
can be solved by privileging one
or the other framework: either
communication or perception. As
Branigan points out, if the mode
of presentation is considered
31 QUENDLER, CH.: Camera. In BRANI-
GAN, E., BUCKLAND, W. (eds).: The Routledge Ency-
clopedia of Film Theory. New York : Routledge, 2014,
p. 72.
32 GAUDREAULT, A.: From Plato to Lumi-
ere: Narration and Monstration in Literature and Cin-
ema. Toronto : University of Toronto Press, 2009.
to be filtered or broken by the
communication framework, then
the camera assumes “the author’s
forms of utterance: commentary,
indignation, irony, melancholy,
ambiguity, paradox, playfulness,
lyric, etc.”33. The subject and the
way of presentation, i.e. camera
imaging – are analyzed as a
cultural-imaginary mirror, where
the processes in the subconscious
inform about the meanings shared
with the symbolic order of the social
world.
Communicative and psychoanalytic
approaches use the word camera as
a heuristic term in the interpretive
process of identifying conscious
intentions or subconscious desires.
In these approaches, the camera
serves as a construct that seeks to
reconcile the audiovisual sensation
with either targeted reasoning
or scenarios of subconscious
imagination. As the camera is
responsible for all or almost all of
the film’s manifestations, it becomes
a global interpretive tool supporting
the top-down understanding of
processes. In order to better reflect
the cognitive mobility of viewers,
cognitive approaches to film have
been supplemented by various
studies with bottom-up models of
understanding – those that work
with local or distributed camera
concepts.
Viewers continuously reinterpret
the “camera” by placing it in various
mental models to be in harmony
33 BRANIGAN, E.: Projecting a Camera:
Language-Games in Film Theory. London : Routledge,
2006, p. 84.
with the world of characters, or
as an invisible observer or entity
without a body that transcends
the rules of time and space as
well as the boundaries of the
human imagination. This is how
D. Bordwell interpreted this in
his 1991 study34, but even more
thoroughly in E. Branigan’s book in
199235. Integrating this view into his
definition of the camera, Branigan
in his subsequent work proposes
accepting the camera as “part
of the mental procedure used by
viewers on solving interpretation
problems”36. This meta-theoretical
approach allows us to explore
different camera concepts in
relation to specific frameworks
of interpretation and to highlight
the aesthetic and textual effects
that these frameworks support.
Accordingly, the idea of the camera
as a source of sensory imaging
can be understood as a reference
to the aesthetic framework of
defamiliarization, the rhetorical
principles of composition, the
specific possibilities of the
medium, and communication or
psychoanalytic frameworks.
The new concept of the camera
was also important for creators
who had the first opportunity
to get acquainted with the new
34 BORDWELL, D.: Camera Movement
and Cinematic Space. In BURNETT, R. (ed.): Explora-
tions in Film Theory: Selected Essays from Ciné-tracts.
Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1991, pp. 229-
236.
35 More see: BRANIGAN, E.: Narrative
Comprehension and Film. New York : Routledge, 1992.
36 BRANIGAN, E.: Projecting a Camera:
Language-Games in Film Theory. London : Routledge,
2006, p. 90.
and had enough ambition and
desire to experiment to bring new
technologies into film practice.
One of the interesting, rather
experimental than commercial
shocks, was the manifesto of the
creators known as Dogme 95. Its
rules for shooting outside the
studio, in location, in natural light
and with the simple movement of
a handheld camera are really an
expression of the ability to return
to reality, in the form we know. And
it fully corresponded to the new
possibilities of cameras with simple
electronic recording: the camera
must be held in the hand, because it
can be held in the hand, the camera
must not contain any artistic light,
because it does not need any artistic
light. In this respect, the rules of
Dogme 95 are not rules, but rather
expressions of everyday facts about
digital cameras. Many films in the
digital age seem to be completely
unbiased with the elaborate framing
and poetics of the mise-en-scène.
One of Branigan’s great
contributions is to emphasize
the idea of a narrative motif in
relation to camera movement.
Considering the amount of time
spent plotting camera movement,
Branigan lists up to seven narrative
functions that say movement is
motivated. For example, “observes
or discovers views”, “establishes the
scenography of the space”, “reveals
the subjectivity of the character”
or “selects a narratively significant
detail”, etc.37. This then leads him
37 Ibid, p. 26.
to the conclusion that all other
camera movements that do not
fulfill any of the listed functions
are unmotivated. The provocative
result of this way of looking at
camera movement is its argument
that motivated camera movements
are not visible, while unmotivated
movements are. If the motivated
movements of the camera are the
domain of the classical style, then
the unmotivated movements are the
domain of art and experimental film.
Here, Branigan is close to the view
of Bordwell, who came to essentially
the same conclusion. Branigan
also names an extensive list of
creators (J. L. Godard, A. Resnais,
T. Dreyer, L. von Trier, A. Cuarón,
K. Jacobs) who use unmotivated
camera movement in their range of
aesthetic expressions38.
However, as Bordwell says, “camera
movement during production
does not guarantee that camera
movement will appear on the
screen”. So its goal is to look for
what it calls “perceptual signals
that determine the effect of camera
movement”. In this way, he tries to
overcome what he considers too
loose theoretical notions of camera
movement, “not derived from a
unified critical theory, but rather ...
from a mixture of technical jargon
and actual parlance”39. It would be
38 BRANIGAN, E.: Projecting a Camera:
Language-Games in Film Theory. New York : Rout-
ledge, 2006, p. 27.
39 BORDWELL, D.: Camera Movement
and Cinematic Space. In BURNETT, R. (ed.): Explora-
tions in Film Theory: Selected Essays from Ciné-tracts.
Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1991, pp. 229-
236.
tempting to ask how the movement
of the camera can be associated
with the physical activities of the
character within the narrative.
Does a fast-moving handheld
camera bring the running figure
closer? Can a fluctuating camera
express intoxication? In this way, the
movement of the camera can be the
main means by which we see a shift
from classic film with its emphasis
on connection and causation to
alternative practices of unmotivated
and “lost” movements.
Periods of intense technological
change are always extremely
interesting for film theory, because
the film itself constantly deals
with its primary question: What
is cinema? And right after that
question follows: What is a camera?
The advent of the digital age
raises these questions in a new
and interesting way, because for
the first time in the history of film
theory, the photographic process
is questioned as the basis of
filmmaking. If the discipline of film
sciences is anchored to a specific
material object, the real conundrum
appears with the advent of digital
technologies as the dominant
aesthetic and social force.
As digital processes increasingly
displace analogue processes,
what is the potential benefit for
photographic film ontology? Unlike
analogue representations, which are
based on the transformation of a
substance isomorphic to the original
image, all virtual representations
of power derive from numerical
manipulation. T. Binkley clarifies
the issues of digital technology
by reminding us that the numbers

78 Ladislav Halama, Zora Hudíková
Media / Art / Culture Concept of the Camera at the Analogue – Digital Crossroads
79 European Journal of Media, Art & Photography, 2021, Vol. 9, No. 2
»
and the types of symbolization that
make it possible are the first “virtual
reality”40. Analogue art is basically
the art of depth or machined matter
– a literal carving of light into a film
raw material, the variable density
of which creates a visible image.
However, the transformation of
matter in electronic and digital
art takes place on a different
atomic register and in a different
conceptual area. If analogue media
records traces of events, digital
media creates number tokens,
Binckley said41. This transformation
of the concept of significance is
key to understanding some of the
fundamental differences between
analogue and digital. And it’s
not just that visuality has been
given a new mobility, in which it
is possible to move or change its
value at will by any pixel in the
electronic image. Since digital art
is without substance, it cannot be
identified as an object, it cannot be
corrected by any specific ontology.
Digital art renders all expressions
as identical, because they are all
ultimately reducible to the same
computational notation. At the
heart of every representation is
virtuality: mathematical abstractions
that make all characters equal
regardless of their output medium.
However, digital cameras or even
“virtual” cameras, which create
completely synthesized spaces in
40 BINCKLEY, T.: Refiguring Culture. In
HAYWARD, P., WOLLEN, T. (eds.): Future Visions.
London : British Film Institute, 1993, p. 96.
41 BINCKLEY, T.: Refiguring Culture. In
HAYWARD, P., WOLLEN, T. (eds.): Future Visions.
London : British Film Institute, 1993, p. 98.
computers, are still based on the
same optical geometry as traditional
cameras and rely on the same
historically and culturally developed
perspective of depth and rendering
of light. Comparing a digital
camera with a film camera reaffirms
the fundamental differences in
mechanics, image recording, and
optical conversion of light to a
chip-generated value, defined as a
numeric code.
Despite all the advancing perfection
of the digital image, it is still
common among creators to believe
that “photographic” realism remains
the holy grail of digital imaging.
So if digital is such a revolutionary
image creation process, why is
its technological and aesthetic
goal to become perceptually
indistinguishable from the previous
method of image production? A
certain cultural sense of “cinema”
and a non-reflective notion of
“realism” remain in many respects
the cornerstones for valuing the
aesthetic innovation of digital. Of
course, in the process of digital
representation what thinkers like
A. Bazin or R. Barthes considered
to be the basis of the photographic
image is still absent: its causal force
as the literal spatial and temporal
formation of the original event,
preserved in physical material.
In the most technologically
advanced films of the 21st century,
for example, Matrix (1999), Beowulf
(2007), Avatar (2009), cameras have
only an ancillary role. On screen
we do not see the information
that light originally transmitted
through the camera lens, what
we see is a computer-generated
artifact through modifications of
many contributing visual elements
and over all standing software. The
computer provides a clear view
that can be further developed
through virtual imaging. A closer
look at the camera as a technical
device in the digital version, it is
clear that the only thing a digital
camera has in common with an
analogue is a lens. But all its other
components are incomparably
lighter, smaller, more compact and
also cheaper. The digital camera
thus brings democratization to
the world – it makes potential
filmmakers or reporters of the
world’s population, it becomes a
family archivist and, in countless
cases, a source of visual evidence.
We have known a lot of examples
where the common or even non-
film use of a digital camera has
become the basis for film creativity
in the last two decades. Many films
were made, based on or inspired
by documentary recordings, even
sources of visual evidence, from
security or surveillance cameras.
For example, Grizzly Man, (2005)
in which director W. Herzog used
amateur footage to compose a
dramatic story of the lead actor’s
life and death. Similarly, the film
Ring (1998) or Timecode (2000),
where the common possibilities of
amateur video cameras were fully
used artistically. In these and many
other films, images from amateur
video cameras can compete
with those shot in professional
formats, representing two different
fundamentally different ontological
and syntactic levels. The strange
thing is that the electronic image
almost always represents the
original level of reality, celluloid is
a kind of “beautiful literature” that
requires special design and editing,
unlike these “simply” shot but
successful video films.
Conclusion
What is the right answer – the right
theory – in the face of the global
digital spectacularity that surrounds
us today, less than two decades
after the advent of digital? Today’s
approach is marked by such rapid
development and changes caused by
the superfast development of digital
possibilities that the astonishment of
the film’s instant and democratization
is long overdue and today’s
perception of the camera is much
more complex than with the lifting
of Dogme 95. The current form of
the film has taken over all TV and
cinema screen sizes. The screen in
the cinema is a thing of the past, and
movies are moved from oversized to
miniature display devices via digital
cameras, codecs and containers,
although they have no source – so
to speak – except a digital code that
adapts them to the sizes and formats
of the display surfaces.
The idea of the camera as a
conceptual metaphor can help
with integration – or at least
imagine various new approaches
to theorizing about the camera.
Yes, this word – camera – does
not have a single meaning, but it
changes and adapts its designation
according to the context of its use.
The approach to the camera as a
conceptual metaphor thus offers a
critical perspective on the way in
which mental models of the camera
differ in individual theories and
change with respect to time. As
Branigan notes: “Today, the camera
seems to be neither a machine nor
an invisible witness recording the
facts of the world, but rather an
aspect of collective subjectivity – a
concept by which we speak and
think about cinema at a specific
time and with a specific purpose.
And in collective subjectivity, the
state of the camera fluctuates
in the gray zone between the
material object and the interpreting
object, between the world and the
language”42. In this sense, Branigan’s
definition of the camera continues
the metonymic extension that can
be observed in early film theories,
where the mechanism of the camera
defines cinema as such. Instead of
understanding film as an art form,
the field of film expands into a
cultural habit created by all kinds of
film genres and institutions.
Acknowledgement: The study
was elaborated within a national
research project supported by the
Grant Agency of the Ministry of
Education, Science, Research and
Sport of the Slovak Republic and the
Slovak Academy of Sciences (VEGA)
No. 1/0283/20, titled ‘Synergy of
the Media Industry Segments in the
Context of Critical Political Economy
of Media’.
42 BRANIGAN, E.: Projecting a Camera:
Language-Games in Film Theory. London : Rout-
ledge, 2006, p. 96.

81 European Journal of Media, Art & Photography, 2021, Vol. 9, No. 280 Ladislav Halama, Zora Hudíková
Media / Art / Culture Concept of the Camera at the Analogue – Digital Crossroads
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
Authors
Mgr. Ladislav Halama
dir@lacohalama.sk
Assoc. prof. PhDr. Zora Hudíková,
PhD.
zorahudikova@gmail.com
Faculty of Mass Media
Communication
University of Ss. Cyril and
Methodius in Trnava
Námestie J. Herdu 2
91701 Trnava
SLOVAK REPUBLIC
Profile of the Authors
Assoc. prof. PhDr. Zora Hudíková,
PhD. is an associate professor
at the Faculty of Mass Media
Communication at UCM in Trnava
and is head of the Department
of Artistic Communication. She
specializes in media psychology and
media and communication studies.
Her research and teaching activities
include topics such as media
psychology, the personality of the
creator and the personality of the
percipient, cognitive processing of
media content, creativity in media
and artistic production, the effects
of media production, management
of creative teams, radio and
television journalism, sociocultural
aspects of the market environment
and media performance.
Mgr. Ladislav Halama, renowned
Slovak film and tv director and
producer, after many years of
experiencein the field of film and
television, has started working as
a university lecturer.He passes
his experienceon directing and
audiovisual production onto his
students, helping them to improve
their school filmprojects. As part
of his doctoral studies, he examines
the area of film production and
its reorganisationin the period
of analogue-digital transition. He
deals mainly with the impact of
technologyon creative processes,
evolution in storytelling techniques,
transformations in analogue-
digital image perception,and
other essential changes caused by
digital transformation in the entire
production chain developmentand
production in the media of the film.