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HOMEOF
INFOTAIN-
MEET
Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda v Trnave
FACULTY OF MASS MEDIA COMMUNICATION
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovakia
MEGATRENDS
AND MEDIA
Monika Prostináková Hossová
Jana Radošinská
Martin Solík
(eds.)
home
ocetainment
Ǥ
MEGATRENDS AND MEDIA
Monika Prostináková Hossová
Jana Radošinská
Martin Solík
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ʹͳʹͲʹͳǡ
ǤFacebook
ʹͲʹͳ
MEGATRENDS AND MEDIA: Home Officetainment
Conference Proceedings from the International Scientific Conference “Megatrends and
Media: Home Officetainment”, 21 ʹͲʹͳǡ Ǥ Facebook
ǣȀȀǤȀǦǦȀǦǦǦʹͲʹͳȀ
Editors:Mgr. Monika Prostináková Hossová, PhD.
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Jana Radošinská, PhD.
JUDr. PhDr. Martin Solík, PhD.
Technical Editing: Mgr. Monika Prostináková Hossová, PhDǤ
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Jana Radošinská, PhD.
Mgr. Anna Paulína Jelínková
Mgr. Miroslav Macák
Mgr. Alexandra Mathiasová
Mgr. Zuzana Točená
Production: ǤǡǤ
Mgr. Monika Prostináková Hossová, PhDǤ
ǤǤPhDr. Jana Radošinská, PhD.
JUDr. PhDr. Martin Solík, PhD.
Cover: ǤǡǤ
All submitted papers have been individually reviewed in an anonymous double-blind peer
review process, on basis of which the editors have decided about their publication in the
conference proceedings.
The authors of the individual scientific papers are responsible for their technical, content
and linguistic correctness.
© ǡ Ǥ
ǡǡʹͲʹͳ
ͻͺǦͺͲǦͷʹǦͲͳͺ͵ǦͲ
ʹʹͻǦͶͲ͵
MEGATRENDS AND MEDIA: Home Officetainment
International Scientific Conference, 21st April 2021
Available via @FMK.UCM on Facebook and https://fmk.sk/megatrends-and-media/
megatrends-and-media-2021/
Megatrends and Media
Ǥȋ
ȌǤ ǡ ǡ
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Slovakia and many other countries. Regardless of the conference’s main topic that
ǡ–ǡ
Ǥ
ͳ Megatrends and Media ȋconference’s main
ʹͲͳͳǡ On Problems of
Media Communication, Mass Media Communication and Realityǡ Media,
Society, Media Fiction), ʹͳʹͲʹͳ
Ǧͳͻ Ǥ
ǣȀȀǤȀǦǦȀǦ
ǦǦ2021/ and also at FMK UCM’s Facebookǣ ǣȀȀǦ
ǤǤȀǤȀ
ǣ
• ͳǣInfotainment
• ʹǣEdutainment
• ͵ǣMarketainment
• ͶǣDigitainment
The conference’s Scientific Board and Organising and Programme Committee were
ǡ
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Conference website:
ǣȀȀǤȀǦǦȀ
Faculty website: ǣȀȀǤ
Facebook account of FMK Conferences:
ǣȀȀǤǤȀ
ȋȌ
SCIENTIFIC PARTNERS
• ǡ
• ȋȌǡ
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SCIENTIFIC BOARD
Prof. PhDr. Miloš Mistrík, DrSc.
Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava, Slovak Republic
ǤǤǡǤ
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
ǤǦ
Mutah University, Amman, Jordan
ǤǤǤǡǤǤ
Research Studios Austria Forschungsgesellschaft mbH, Austria
ǤǡǤǡǡ
Loughborough University, United Kingdom
ǤǤ
University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Anton Chekhov Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute, Russian Federation
Prof. PhDr. Slavomír Gálik, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
ǤǤsc. Denis Jelačić
The University of Zagreb, Croatia
ǤǤ
University of Bremen, Germany
Prof. PhDr. Hana Pravdová, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
ǤǤǤ
The United Nations University, the Netherlands
Prof. José Manuel Pérez Tornero, PhD.
Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Ľudmila Čábyová, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
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University of Economics in Katowice, Poland
ǤǤǤǡǤǤ
Centre of Global Studies, Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Zora Hudíková, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Jana Radošinská, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
Assoc. Prof. Mgr. Ondřej RoubalǡǤǤ
University of Finance and Administration in Prague, Czech Republic
Assoc. Prof. Mgr. Art. Jozef Sedlák
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
ǤǤǡǤǤ
National University of Political Studies and Public Administration in Bucharest, Romania
ǤǤǡǤ
National School of Political Studies and Public Administration in Bucharest, Romania
ǤǤǤǡǤ
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Ján Višňovský, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
ǤǤǤǡǤ
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
Mgr. Dáša Franić, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
PhDr. Jakub Končelík, Ph.D.
Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic
Mgr. Peter Krajčovič, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
Mgr. Zuzana Kvetanová, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
ǤǡǤ
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
Mgr. Juliána Mináriková, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
PhDr. Peter Murár, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
Mgr. Lenka Rusňáková, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
JUDr. PhDr. Martin Solík, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface .................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Infotainment .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Evaluating the Film ‘Hey There!’ Which Has Been Shot during the Covid-19
Quarantine in the Context of “Ideology and the Ideological State Apparatuses” ...................................................18
Gülten Arslantürk, Filiz Erdoğan Tuğran
Labor Force Mobility – Understanding the Needs and Motives, Evidence
from the Republic of Croatia during the Covid-19 Pandemic ................................................................................ 26
Višnja Bartolović, Jerko Glavaš, Sanela Ravlić
Vaccination Discourse on Social Media: Preliminary Notes on Theory,
Method and Ethical Challenges .............................................................................................................................. 41
Anita Dremel, Gordana Lesinger, Juraj Jurlina
Historical Film: Eternal Struggle between the Facts and Myths ............................................................................56
Laco Halama, Zora Hudíková
The Relationship between the Price of Real Estate in Slovakia and the Basic Interest Rate .................................68
Róbert Halenár
Media Representation of Topics Related to Scandals in the Catholic Church ........................................................75
Anna Hurajová
Covid-19 in Media as an Alien: The Topos of “Threat from Out There” ............................................................... 81
Martin Charvát, Jan Jirák
Pandemic, Technology, Television: Popular Television during
the Covid-19 Virus Pandemic (Croatian TV) .........................................................................................................89
Tatjana Ileš, Andrea Zakšek
Photography in the Era of Smartphone Journalism ..............................................................................................104
Eva Jonisová
Auditive Space as an Information Channel .......................................................................................................... 118
Patrik Kolenčík, Zora Hudíková
Opportunities of Podcasting during Pandemic in Social Media Environment ..................................................... 131
Jana Kozmonová
Podcast – A Modern Form of Original Audio Formats? .......................................................................................142
Viera Krúpová, Zora Hudíková
Utilizing the Dark Social and Echo Rooms in the Expense of Truth:
The Case of “Clubhouse” (Celebritizenship vs. Citizenship) ............................................................................... 155
M Selahattin Okuroğlu, Turancan Şirvanlı
Portrayal of Journalistic Profession in the Superhero Movie Venom ...................................................................164
Jana Radošinská, Zuzana Kvetanová
Narrativization and Naturalization of the Life with Covid-19 in the Czech Radio News .................................... 175
Renáta Sedláková, Marek Lapčík
Debunking: The Method of Uncovering Hoaxes and Fake News ........................................................................191
Magdaléna Švecová, Anna Kačincová Predmerská
A Painting Exhibition as a Personal Multimodal Diary:
Example of the Facebook Page “Guy De Montlaur” ............................................................................................ 202
Marina Zagidullina
Edutainment ........................................................................................................................................................ 211
Communication Challenges of Distance Learning during Covid-19 Pandemic in Croatia .................................. 212
Alta Pavin Banović, Hrvoje Mesić
Reection of Environmental Topics in the Broadcasting of Public Television ....................................................229
Dušan Blahút, Matej Majerský
Spreading the Culture of Fear in Croatian Online Media:
Analysis of the Coronavirus First Wave ..............................................................................................................236
Marina Đukić, Tina Škrljac
Artistic Text and Combined Genres in Press for Children ....................................................................................252
Danuša Faktorová
Current State of Cyberbullying in Selected Educational Institutions in Slovakia ................................................ 270
Monika Prostináková Hossová, Žoa Koštialová
Treasure Chest: How Micro-Headings Create Cognitive Frames
(on the Example of the Educational Web-Site “Arzamas”) .................................................................................. 287
Arina Medvedeva
God Online ............................................................................................................................................................ 297
Radek Mezuláník
Reections on the Criminal Law Consequences of Media Behavior
during the Corona Crisis ....................................................................................................................................... 309
Stanislav Mihálik
Using Facebook Applications in Teaching English Online ..................................................................................321
Dmytro Poberezhnyi
Impact of Distance Education and Absence of Organized Physical Activities
on Posturae and Spine in School Aged Children ..................................................................................................327
Marina Potašová, Róbert Rusnák, Zuzana Hrčková, Martin Komár,
Peter Mačej, Radka Komárová
The Identication of University Students with Online Teaching
in the Second Wave of the Covid-19 Pandemic .................................................................................................... 336
Ondřej Roubal
Media Platforms of Discussion about the Aesthetics of the 1920s Photography
in Czechoslovakia within the Contexts of Europe ................................................................................................ 346
Jozef Sedlák, Petra Cepková
Clubhouse Application as an Effective Tool for Media Students .........................................................................356
Marek Šimončič, Kristián Pribila
Marketainment .................................................................................................................................................... 365
Social Media Marketing: Implementation of Guerrilla Marketing
among Instagram Inuencers ............................................................................................................................... 366
Iva Buljubašić, Ivana Nobilo, Ena Jambrečina
Inevitable Changes in Internal and External Communication of Regional
Self-Government Bodies during Corona Crisis .................................................................................................... 379
Martin Halmo, Andrea Tománková
Analytical View of Consumer Patterns of Behavior in Searching through Mobile
Communication Platforms in E-Commerce Conditions ....................................................................................... 387
Jakub Horváth, Radovan Bačík, Richard Fedorko
Aspects of Communication of Territory towards the Population during the Pandemic .......................................398
Denisa Jánošová, Renáta Sádecká, Lenka Labudová
The Way of Marketing Communication Data Visualization in the Context
of the Groundswell ................................................................................................................................................ 406
Michal Kubovics, Anna Zaušková
Generation Z as a Target of Mobile Apps Advertising .........................................................................................414
Patrik Lenghart, Andrea Lesková
Advertisement Text as Semiotic Construal ........................................................................................................... 421
Nataliya Panasenko, Romana Mudrochová
Corporate Social Responsibility during the Covid-19 Pandemic:
Evidence from Croatia .......................................................................................................................................... 439
Marija Šain
Perception of the Ethical Aspect of Business Reputation Management
in the Online Environment ................................................................................................................................... 453
Róbert Štefko, Nella Svetozarovová, Ľudovít Nastišin
Digitainmnet ........................................................................................................................................................ 465
New Normal: Digital Leadership .......................................................................................................................... 466
Axel Müller, Alena Müller
Economic Contribution of the Video Game Industry and New Trends
during the Covid-19 Pandemic .............................................................................................................................477
Marta Borić Cvenić, Marija Tolušić, Zoran Žalac
Digital Games and Smart City .............................................................................................................................. 491
Kristína Dzureková
Being Digital with My Daughter: A Continual Search for Positive
Effects of Digital Games ....................................................................................................................................... 500
Tomáš Farkaš
Cyberstalking and Cybergrooming as Risks of Communication in Cyberspace
and Their Legislative Regulation by Terms in the Slovak Republic ....................................................................516
Vladimíra Hladíková, Zuzana Mažgútová
Digital Game as an Artistic Mimesis and a Cult Brand ........................................................................................528
Dinko Jukić
When Game Is the Exercise and Exercise Is the Game:
Design Analysis of Ring Fit Adventure ................................................................................................................544
Miroslav Macák
Reection of Marvel’s Spider-Man Games in the Context of Current
and Upcoming Media Trends ...............................................................................................................................551
Zdenko Mago
Why We Need Fiction during the Covid-19 Pandemic?
Videogames: A Sketch for a Genre Typology ....................................................................................................... 563
Hrvoje Mesić, Snježana Barić-Šelmić
New Opportunities for Virtual and Augmented Reality
during the Covid-19 Pandemic .............................................................................................................................581
Ján Proner, Dušan Blahút
Articial Intelligence in Music Production ...........................................................................................................590
Marek Šimončič, Lenka Kajanovičová
Adaptation to Information Technology and the Risks of Excessive
Use of Smartphone ................................................................................................................................................ 599
Marcela Šarvajcová
Psychological and Physiological Anxiety and Stress in Competitive
E-Sports Settings ...................................................................................................................................................607
Nina Urukovičová
The Emergence of Digital Footprints and Digital Heritage
in the Age of Big Data ..........................................................................................................................................618
Vojtěch Záleský
Editorial Policy .................................................................................................................................................... 630
13
PREFACE
ǡǡ
ͳ
Megatrends and Media,
ǡ Ǥ ȋ
UCM). The last year’s Preface written by Martin Solík and Zuzana Kvetanová
Ǧͳͻ
Ǥ Megatrends and Media 2020
indeed strange and definitely ‘out of ordinary’. And still, probably all of us secretly
– ǡ Ǥ ǡ
Megatrends and Media ‘alive’ in 2021 turned out to be even more complicated due to
‘Second Wave’ and the related health crisis in Slovakia that followed very quickly. Our
aim to offer the scholarly community a day resembling ‘normal’ academic life wit
ǡǤǡ
Ǥ
Ǣǡ
‘online’ and there are hardly any surprising features left to offer. It has become
increasingly difficult to ‘stand out’, to come up with something original.
Yet, we tried; hence this year’s conference title, which is ‘Home Officetainment’. It is true
Ǥǡ
hiding behind it. And this year’s idea is to discuss the ‘hybrid’ nature of everyday life in
Ǥ ǡ ǡ
‘intelligence games’ or even hybrid media culture. Nevertheless, this hybridity is
ǡ
ǡ
ǡǦǤ
ǡ
Ǥ ʹͲʹͲǡ
ǡǤ
ǡǡ
Ǥ
ǦǡǤ
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else should we do to explain the birth of (home) ‘officetainment’ than outlining its true
ǫ
ǡ Ȁ
hybrids established a few decades ago, (home) ‘officetainment’ seems to be just another
portmanteau ǡ
Ǧ
Ǥ ǡ Ǥ
ǡǡǡ
ǡ
ǡ
Ǥ
14
ǦͳͻǤ
ǡ –
overseeing their children’s education and taking care of older family members in need of
ǤǤǡ
Ǥ
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ǡ
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believe, the term (home) ‘officetainment’ goes beyond stating that our ways of life
ǡǤǦǡ
ǡ Ǥ
Ǣ
ǡ ǡ
thanks to the very same device(s) we use to learn. Knowledge gaps (or “digital divides”)
ǡ
Ǧ Ǥ
– ǡ
ǡ
ǡǡ
ȀǤǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
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–
ssessing knowledge and establishing priceless contacts. This year’s keynote
Facebook Ǥ
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The main programme was introduced by Martin Solík, who also offered his brief
Communication TodayǤ
He was followed by Ľudmila Čábyová, Dean of the
ǡ Ǥ
Radičová, the former Slovak Prime Minister and renowned sociologist. She talked about
the idea of digital democracy in relation to the media environment. Václav Moravec, the
ǡ
digital era, sharing his opinions on ‘infodemic’ as the key phenomenon of soǦ
postfactual society. Henrich Krejča, the director of TV Markíza’s department of news and
ǡ
ǡǡǤǡ
ǡ
15
Ǧ19 pandemic. Jörg Matthes, the Austrian media and communication expert,
ǡǦͳͻ
ȋȌǤǡǡ
ǡ
called “new visual ethics” associated with online corporate communications and digital
Ǥ
ǡ Ponyhouseǡ
–ǡǡ
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Ǧͳͻ
Slovakia as a fitting example, Tomáš Škarba, a FMK UCM’s PhD. candidate and journalist
Rádio ExpresǡǤ
ǡȋȌǡ
ǡǡǡ
Ǥ
Bielik, a journalist and FMK UCM’s PhD. candidate. The discussion was centred on
podcasts and how to create them professionally. Pavel Bielik’s guests were Jana
Maťková, an editor the daily newspaper SMEDobré ránoǡ
and Dávid Tvrdoň, aKlik.
As usual, the main topic of this year’s conference was formally divided into four sections,
ǤǤǡ Ǥ
ǡ
ǡǡ
ǣ
ͳǣ
ʹǣ
͵ǣ
Ͷǣ
ͷ͵ Ǥ
ed to represent the conference’s complexity and scholarly objectives. The
ǡ
ǡ ǡ ǡ ǡ ǡ ǡ
ǡǤ
ǦͳͻǤǡ
Marián Matyáš’s Pomegranate ȋȌ.
Megatrends and Media.
ǡǤ
Marián Matyáš (1978 –ʹͲͲȌǡǡ
ȋʹͲͲʹȌǡ
ȋʹͲͲʹ–2007). Later, becoming one of FMK’s ViceǦDeans, Marián
Ǥ The Pomegranate ʹͲͲͺǡ ǤǤǡ
year after Marián Matyáš’s untimely passing. The
ǡǡ
Ǧ
16
faculty, and thus honour Marián Matyáš’s extraordinary professional skills and
Ǥ ǡ –both Marián and the award named after him. If the
pandemic situation will not stop us from doing so (again), this year’s Pomegranates
Marketing Identity
2021ǡʹͲʹͳǤ
ǡǢ
ǡǡ
thanks. First, we thank all ‘FMK people’ making this conference (and its proceedings)
ǦǦ Ǥ ǡ
Megatrends and Media Ȁ
Ǥǡǡ
ǡ
colleagues, speakers and participants’ helping hands, words of support and pieces of
Ǥǡ
status quo–
Ǧ Ȁ ǡ ǡ
ǡ ǡ ǡ
ǤǡǢ
Ǥ ǦʹͲʹʹǡ
ǡ Ǥ
Ǥ
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Jana Radošinská, PhD.
Member the Organising Committee of Megatrends and Media
Faculty of Mass Media Communication
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava
56
Megatrends and Media: Home Ofcetainment
HISTORICAL FILM:
ETERNAL STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE FACTS AND MYTHS
Laco Halama – Zora Hudíková
Abstract:
The article examines the genre of historical film. It evaluates its documentary and historiographical possibilities,
compares the relationship and value of written and visualized history for historical research, popularization, and
teaching of history. It differentiates the approach to the processing of historical themes in documentary filmmaking
and feature films. It evaluates the possibilities of cinematographic processing of historical events in comparison
with the written description and the possibilities of cooperation of filmmakers with historians in film production.
It also calls for a substantial expansion of the means of expression provided by digital production (CGI).
Subsequently, it also deals with the possible role of the creator – director of film work and his responsibility for
respecting historical facts, in the context of dynamically evolving technology, and its use in the circumstances of
unlimited possibilities of digital production.
Key words:
CGI. Cinematic History. Film. Film Production. History. Historical Movie.
Introduction
Hundreds of films have been made all around the world for more than a century, trying to appeal
to audiences of all generations. The source of inspiration for many creators and producers is the
depiction of historical topics in various forms: films about ground-breaking historical events,
war conflicts, important politicians, artists, athletes – simply themes depicting real stories from
the past. The subjects of our interest are feature films with a theme that relates to a historical
event, personality, or real story and to assessment of the relationship between written and film
historiography, with emphasis on the proportions of historical fidelity, truthfulness, and
relevance of film usability as a useful tool in teaching history. Documentary films using a large
amount of archival, documentary, or other visual material, the volume of which naturally grows
over time, are considered to be primarily historically accurate and true. However, more
frequently they use narrative techniques of dramatic, fictional, or stylized stories. The creators
of documentaries try to dramatize historical stories; they often use staged shots or fictional,
arranged sequences. Conversely, feature filmmakers confirm the reconstructed historical
situation with archival materials or artifacts and more frequently use documentary materials
more or less directly in them. This way, the line between documentary and a feature film is
constantly blurring, intertwining, and the two worlds – originally divided – are getting closer
and closer, thanks to the endless anticipation of new experiences.
At the beginning of the 20th century, one of the most famous directors of the silent film era, D.
W. Griffith, author of the first iconic historical film The Birth of a Nation (1915), expressed a
prophecy about the future of history display: “Imagine a public library of the near future. (...)
Suppose you want to read an episode in Napoleon’s life. Instead of tediously looking through a
lot of books, wondering and without a clear idea of what exactly happened, you just sit at the
right window in the prepared room, press a button and see exactly what happened. (...) Writing,
revising, comparing, and reproducing will be done by a panel of renowned experts and you will
get a vivid and complete picture.”1 These words sound prophetic, and from today’s point of
view, the realization of such an idea already seems almost realistic. There are already plenty of
1 GRIFFITH, D. W.: Some Prophecies (Interlude: The Filmmaker as Creator: D. W. Griffith). In KNOPF, R. (ed.):
Theater and Film. A Comparative Anthology. New Haven : Yale University Press, 2005, p. 100.
57
Infotainment
historical feature films in libraries around the world that teachers use as audio-visual teaching
materials. Many of them are the work of creative inspiration of the authors, based on real,
historical events and biographies of historical figures. In addition, specialized TV channels offer
a variety of documentary insights into the past 24 hours a day, 7 days a week through thematic
programs and films based on a diverse combination of fiction and non-fiction. In addition, the
twentieth and twenty-first centuries leave more and more audio-visual traces. The present, but
also the very recent past, is currently mapped by billions of miniaturized digital recording
devices (from mobile phones, through all types of possible cameras including the security ones),
confirming that nothing important that happens today will be left without an audio-visual trail,
while cloud Internet archives allow unlimited sharing of these tracks. Thanks to these means
and decades of development of cinematography, the recent past, in particular, seems to be more
accessible. And so, even today, in the search for information about the ancient past, it seems as
if it was really enough to press a button and we can call up an illustration of any period of
human history. So, the possibilities of ‘audio-visual reading’ of information, as described by
Griffith, are almost a reality. The global and local film industry is constantly producing
historical, biographical or period films with a more or less ambitious intention to present a
historical story or event faithfully, truthfully, and engagingly. However, these three attributes
hide a contradiction: prioritizing either can damage the other two. In addition, a faithful, true,
and engaging visualized description of the past can be presented by two fundamentally different
approaches: fiction and non-fiction. However, both approaches should respect available
historical sources (whether written, pictorial or material) and avoid ideological, political, or
national tendencies when visualizing them in their own original way. Therefore, the following
questions are becoming more and more current for the researcher in this field: Can film fiction
provide relevant historical knowledge or a true depiction of historical reality? Can the use of
documentaries ‘guarantee’ historical fidelity to the description of past events? To what extent
can a feature film director become a creator of history? If such a question seems too bold, we
can replace it with a less provocative one – can we consider a historical film at least as a type
of historical experiment? In our article, we present some views and reflections on the
connection and counterpoints of historical science and film. When processing the study, we will
use methods of logical analysis, such as analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, comparison,
or generalization. Our goal is to find out in which direction is the ambivalent relationship
between historical science and historical film moving.
1 History in Film and Film in History
Let us say we want to examine two parameters. The extent to which the approach of feature
filmmakers to the processing of historical themes leads to the interpretation of historical events
and the extent to which the depiction of events or personalities can be considered faithful,
historically based, and usable in scientific research of historical events. To do this, it is
necessary to clarify a few basic concepts and starting points. The first area is the quality and
volume of professional discourse focused on the assessment of film depictions of the past from
the perspective of historians. This discourse evolved from the growing interest in visual media,
which began to penetrate many academic areas after the 1960s. At that time, several conferences
took place, at which European and American historians translated the results of their analysis
of the interaction between film and historiography. Topics such as the production, reception,
and value of a historical documentary began to be explored, as well as the issue of how to
evaluate the current film as a historical source, resp. what problems the use of films as a teaching
aid brings. In the English-speaking world, the historical film came to the attention of historians-
academics in 1988, when the oldest and most respected professional journal, The American
58
Megatrends and Media: Home Ofcetainment
Historical Review (AHR) devoted more than half of its pages to a “film and history forum” in
its quarterly edition. Robert A. Rosenston’s ground-breaking essay History in Images/History
in Words: Reflections on the Possibility of Really Putting History on Film2 was also published
in it. In this essay, several renowned historians argued in favour of the historical film. One of
the most renowned, H. White, took the opportunity to introduce the term “historiophoty” (as a
pendant to “historiography”) and define it as “a representation of history and our thinking
about it in visual images and written discourse”.3 The question then is, what is the meaning of
the term “historical film” and how can we define this term. In the broadest sense of the word,
and in what appears to be a common assumption by researchers, the term seems to apply to any
film that is consciously set in the past, at some point before the actual production of a particular
work. (In this sense, it is clear that all films, as well as other cultural artifacts, will become
historical documents once completed.) However, we point to films that are purposely aimed at
depicting the past, a specific section of historical time. Into this category, famous Canadian
historian Natalie Zemon Davis puts either films based on a dramatic plot rooted in real historical
events or films based on an imaginary plot that use historical events which then become the
central motive of the story.4 Theorist Robert A. Rosenstone distinguished historical film from
costume drama by insisting that historical films intersect, comment, or add something to a
broader discourse about the historical image of a particular person or event.5 In examining
(American) historical films, Robert Burgoyne argues that historical film is a genre in which
stories focus on documentable historical events which serve as its main storyline – unlike films
in which the past serves only as a scenic, nostalgic environment for developing a fictitious plot.
He further states that the genre has five sub-genres: the war film, the epic, the biopic, the
metahistorical film, and the topical historical film.6
Over the next decade, several respected historians, such as Natalie Zemon Davis, Robert Sklar,
and Robert Toplin, helped legitimize the subject of historical film through essays in scientific
publications. Many historical journals began to review films, and the AHR introduced the
annual edition of its historical film magazine. Film theorists such as Tony Kaes, Thomas
Elsaesser, Leger Grindon, Robert Burgoyne, and Vivian Sobchack have published successful
scientific essays on historical films. Robert B. Toplin devoted himself to postulating the term
“cinematic history” perhaps the most rigorously.7 Together with Robert Burgyon and Leger
Grindon, they defined historical film as a specific genre. They state that in comparison with
other genres, film history has “great diversity in terms of settings, plots and characters” and
that “there are some familiar practices in the craft”. He describes and discusses nine such
practices, noting that not all historical films adhere to every single one:
1. Cinematic history simplifies historical evidence and excludes many details.
2. Cinematic history appears in three acts featuring exposition, complication and resolution.
3. Cinematic history offers partisan views of the past, clearly identifying heroes and villains.
4. Cinematic history portrays morally uplifting stories about struggles between Davids and
Goliaths.
5. Cinematic history simplifies plots by featuring only a few representative characters.
6. Cinematic history speaks to the present.
2 See: WHITE, H.: Historiography and Historiophoty. In American Historical Review, 1988, Vol. 93, No. 5, p.
1193-1199. [online]. [2021-05-02]. Available at: <https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/93.5.1193>.
3 Ibidem.
4 DAVIES, N.: Slaves on Screen. Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 2000, p. 5.
5 ROSENSTONE, R.: History on Film/Film on History. Harlow : Pearson, 2006, p. 45-46.
6 BURGYONE, R.: The Hollywood Historical Film. Oxford : Blackwell, 2008, p. 3-4.
7 TOPLIN, R. B.: Reel History: In Defense of Hollywood. Lawrence : University of Kansas Press, 2002, p. 12-15.
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7. Cinematic history frequently injects romance into its stories, even when amorous affairs are
not central to these historical events.
8. Cinematic history communicates a feeling for the past through attention to details of an
earlier age.
9. Cinematic history often communicates as powerfully in images and sounds as in words.8
The American historian Alison Landsberg studied the influence of art, especially film on
memory and cognitive processes. Her research pointed to the great viewers’ appeal of historical
films based on “immersive identification”. According to her, for the viewer, the historical film
is an opportunity to connect with the characters in the film and thus immerse themselves in
historical events, shown as they could happen, learn about the dynamics of events and even get
the feeling of having a share in the displayed events. The space of the cinema thus becomes a
place where people experience an extremely intense encounter with the lives and contexts of
historically and spatially distant historical film characters. Landsberg goes on saying that the
danger of feature film as a means of portraying history lies precisely in its virtuoso ability to
entice viewers to deeply identify with the characters and events of the past. Thus, the viewer
may have the illusory feeling that he understands the position of another person or knows how
those who lived then felt in the past. In this intense identification, the viewer can experience
the existence in someone else's skin without having to struggle with the distance that separates
him from the past or without even understanding it.9 Over the last 25 years, many professional
scientific works on the topic of history and film have been created.10 Today, there is a very wide
field of different approaches, methods and ways of analysing works that take the past as a space
for their interpretation of history and as a subject of interest. Professional historians (with a few
exceptions) refuse to accept cinema as a serious way of interpreting and thinking about the past.
In contrast, the disciplines that deal with the study of visual media (film, television, cultural
studies) focus more on the ways and quality of its depiction than on assessing the degree of
truth in a film about history. With that being said, we can simply say that a historical film only
very rarely becomes a ‘historiographic film’.
For many historians, the main obstacle that stands in their way of accepting dramatic
construction (a story) as a way of creating history is an opinion that such films are not about
the past, but are, in fact, about the present. That being a matter of reconfiguring the past in
relation to current religions, conflicts, wars, social movements, individuals, and ideologies.
Anyone who creates works of history knows (or should know) that even the most accurate
scientific books are always, in the words of historian Natalia Zemon Davis, “Ianus faced”.11 In
addition, as renowned theoreticians of history, such as Hayden White, claim, any attempt to
translate information about the past into a historical narrative necessarily involves rhetorical
conventions, a form of fiction. Alun Munslow emphasized: “Like written history, history in
8 TOPLIN, R. B.: Reel History: In Defense of Hollywood. Lawrence : University of Kansas Press, 2002, p. 12-17.
9 LANDSBERG, A.: Politics and the Historical Film: Hotel Rwanda and the Form of Engagement. In
ROSENSTONE, R., PARVULESCU, C. (eds.): A Companion to the Historical Film. Chichester : Wiley-
Blackwell, 2013, p. 13.
10 See, for example: LEGER, G.: Shadows on the Past – Studies in the Historical Fiction Film. Philadelphia :
Temple University Press, 1994; ROSENSTONE, R. A.: Visions of the Past – Challenge of Film to Our Idea of
History. Cambridge, London : Harvard University Press, 1995; MUNSLOW, A.: Deconstructing History. London,
New York : Routledge, 1997; ROSENSTONE, R.: History on Film/Film on History. Harlow : Pearson, 2006.
11 Remark by the author: “Janus, Roman god. Janus: a Roman god that is identified with doors, gates, and all
beginnings and that is depicted with two opposite faces. To understand this idea, it is necessary to know that
the Roman god Janus had the form of a man with two faces, each looking in the opposite direction – in our
case into the past and into the present.” Source: Janus Roman God. [online]. [2021-04-20]. Available at:
<https://www.britannica.com/topic/Janus-Roman-god>.
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film is fictional, genre-based, strongly authorial, factually selective, ideologically driven,
condensed and targeted”.12 The solid world of history on the pages of the book and the equally
well-known (but more fleeting) world history on a movie screen are similar in at least two
aspects. They refer to real events, moments and movements from the past, but at the same time
they contribute to an unrealistic and fictional depiction of the past. To accept film, especially
dramatic feature film, as a medium capable of conveying ‘serious’ history contradicts with
everything we have learned at school since childhood: history is generally perceived as a
science based on documents – documentary or book archives, which are the basis for the
interpretation of historical facts in textual form. Conversely, the film was and is perceived only
as an entertainment, a departure from the serious, which we consume to escape the various
social and political problems that fill everyday life and which as such has nothing to do with
the serious world of events and developments described in history books and textbooks. The
common viewers’ perception of films is that they serve primarily to create a reputation for the
director and the actors and a financial profit for the production companies. And that for them,
history is just another tool for selling tickets. Not only experience, but also facts confirm that a
successful biographical film or a serious historical drama is still one of the best ways leading to
the Oscar.13
There is a group of historians who tend to see history as a set of impartial and objective
information, as a direct reflection of what happened. On the other hand, at least in the current
generation of academic historians, there is also the view that all history, whether written or film,
is an interpretation, a narrative construct, and never just a transparent reflection on the past.
Following Hayden White, Robert Rosenstone emphasizes: “Neither people nor nations live
historical ‘stories’; coherent stories with beginnings, centers, and ends are constructed by
historians as part of their attempts to understand the past.”14 This view encourages a
speculation on how historical narrative shapes the past. If we look at the catalogues of national
cinemas very quickly, not only in the most significant ones (USA, Russia, Italy, France, United
Kingdom, Japan, etc.) we can find a number of titles that were created with the ambition to
approach specific historical events and specific personalities. Many of them have been filmed
repeatedly, in newer and newer versions. They have repeatedly ‘revived’ historical events and
personalities, often several years or decades apart. It is also clear from these ‘remakes’ that each
subsequent creative experiment dealt with the same theme in its own way, which included the
current expression of artistic utterance, film speech, or an updated interpretation of historical
events and facts. In each period of the film’s history, representative works depicting the past
can be found, and each of them can be judged in terms of historical fidelity and accuracy – not
only in depicting events, characters, their actions and motives, but also in realization’s accuracy,
detail of historical stage setting and many other specific details. From this point of view, each
film diving into history with the ambition of a faithful depiction of historical truth can be an
object of independent inquiry. An interesting project of Fordham University in New York called
12 MUNSLOW, A.: The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies. London : Routledge, 2005, p. 111. See also:
WHITE, H.: Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press,
1978.
13 Remark by the author: To name the most famous examples of historical films that won an Oscar: 1930 – All
Quiet on the Western Front; 1936 – Mutiny on the Bounty; 1938 – The Life of Emile Zola; 1940 – Gone with the
Wind; 1958 – The Bridge on the River Kwai; 1960 – Ben Hur; 1963 – Lawrence from Arabia; 1971 – Patton;
1985 – Amadeus; 1998 The Last Emperor; 1994 – Schindler’s List; 1998 – Titanic; 2013 – Argo; 2014 – 12 Years
Slave; 2001 – Gladiator; 2019 – Green Book, etc. See: RENFRO, K.: See the Movie That Won Best Picture at the
Oscars the Year You Were Born. [online]. [2021-04-28]. Available at: <https://www.insider.com/oscars-all-best-
picture-winners-2017-2>.
14 ROSENSTONE, R.: Visions of the Past: The Challenge of Film to Our Idea of History. Cambridge : Harvard
University Press, 1988, p. 35.
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Medieval History in Movies15 provided a broader view of the discourse on the fidelity and
truthfulness of historical films. History students compared several hundred films thematically
placed in the Middle Ages with period historical documents which resulted in interesting
findings about ‘medieval’ films. They discovered obvious and hidden errors in the reproduction
of historical circumstances, interpretation of events, and heroes. These mistakes can be
attributed to the activity associated with the making of films – the creation of a specific pre-
camera reality that can bring more or less free interpretation of historical circumstances, despite
the fact that each of the films undoubtedly worked with more than one historical advisor. Such
research opens a discussion about how modern artists have adapted and responded to medieval
history and how sensitive topics have been portrayed in ‘medieval’ cinema – depicting men,
women, their roles and relationships, ethnicity, race, or other social backgrounds. The
mentioned topics were determined by the current view and the current interpretation of the film
narrative. The analysis of the results also confirmed that the creators cope differently with far-
back events and topics than with recent ones.16 It can be said that the deeper we go into the past,
the more space opens up for a freer interpretation of events and historical figures. And this
applies not only to the history visualized in the film, but also in written historiography.
2 Historical Film and Processes of (Re)Construction and (De)Construction
of the Past
In recent decades, it has become common practice for several, historically specialized historians
to be involved in the production of a film on any historical topic. Not only to provide advice
during the production process but also to contribute to the scientific evaluation of the film after
its completion. These evaluations of historians are also presented as a part of a material that is
commonly available as ‘special editions’ on film DVDs. It has almost become an obligation for
the creators of a historical film to attach interviews or statements that document the depiction
of historical details and thus certify the film in terms of its historical fidelity to the film’s DVD
release. In a way, the documentation provided legitimizes the concept and interpretation of the
creators, their interpretation of the past. However, it must be said that these DVD materials
represent a highly controlled and potentially selective use of evaluations made by historians.
The production teams responsible for compiling the content of the DVD have ultimate control
over which scientists are chosen to speak, as well as over the way their statements are edited.
They often only supplement and support the statements of the main creators. On the other hand,
it is beneficial and should be appreciated that these evaluation documents and comments do
exist at all. Academic historians are not (and have never been) the most important in the
production of historical films, but the ways in which they work with creators provide valuable
insight into the relationship between films and the fidelity of portrayals of history. Needless to
say, there are also opinions that historians work as a kind of protection that secures averting
public criticism or as a necessary means of legitimizing historical content. What historians have
failed to do, however, is to act as guardians of the representation of history in the filmmaking
process. This is confirmed by the statement of historian Robert Rosenstone: “The film is beyond
the control of historians. The film shows that we do not own the past. The film creates a
historical world that books cannot compete with, at least in terms of popularity. The film is a
disturbing symbol of an increasingly post-literary world.”17 The whole history, including the
written one, is a construction, not a reflection. History is an ideological and cultural product of
15 Medieval Hollywood. [online]. [2021-04-28]. Available at: <https://medievalhollywood.ace.fordham.edu>.
16 Ibidem.
17 ROSENSTONE, R. A.: Visions of the Past: The Challenge of Film to Our Idea of History. Cambridge : Harvard
University Press, 1995, p. 11.
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a society in a specific period of its development. History is therefore a series of conventions for
our thinking about the past. And the language we use for such thinking does not have to be just
written – it can be a way of thinking that uses elements other than the written word, namely
sound, moving image, emotion, montage.18 Alun Munslow, a professor of cultural history,
argues that since the 1970s that challenged the empirical-analytical method as a privileged path
to historical knowledge, significant changes in the theory and methodology of historical
research have led to the emergence of new concepts.19 This is true in all artistic, human, social,
and even natural and biological sciences and Munslow wonders how we can be sure that
empiricism and deduction will bring us closer to ‘true meaning’? How does the consciousness
of ‘something has happened’ relate to that amorphous and easily misunderstood, albeit
culturally valuable, ‘thing’ we call ‘truth’?20 The historian, as the ‘author’, creates a connection
between the content of the past (what happened) with the form or shape we know (as history is
described). That means that history as a picture of the past and the past itself may not coincide.
In other words, there is no direct correlation between what happened and the truth of what it
means. History is in itself an idea of something, and faithful reality cannot be transferred in its
absolute form to a page or a film. That means that even faithful reconstruction cannot be
translated into concrete images and words. Most historians realize that the medium is important
to the message. However, there is still a deep-rooted desire, even among those most aware of
this, to reconstruct the past in the form it was – that is, to ‘tell the truth about history’.
Uncovering historical truth requires more skills. First, the ability to estimate the intentions
behind human actions (e.g., via detailed knowledge of the archival remains of such human
activity). And second, thanks to the logic of deduction, we are able to find out not only what
happened, but most likely also what it means. Detailed knowledge of the content of the past
makes it possible to reveal the most probable causes, the hidden story, and thus the most
probable meaning. In other words, to create a ‘true story’, it is necessary to know what
happened, to know the sources, and to be able to empathize with the actors of history.
History has the same epistemological status as all cultural discourses – it is never neutral, but
always partial (usually ideological) with open meaning. This is extremely important for us to
be able to deconstruct, respectively analyse the mechanisms by which we create history. And
so, the filmmakers come into confrontation. On one hand, they face the conflict that exists
between known facts and widespread myth. On the other hand, it is the inalienable right of the
creator to create his own description of causes, consequences, motives, and visuals in the film
narrative. However, engaged historians of all political beliefs do the same. They also construct,
plot, and interpret based on the knowledge of partial facts. Thus, even a ‘serious’ history does
not completely avoid a continuous discourse in the search for an objective interpretation and
depiction of historical facts. In the context of these findings, it is entirely appropriate to consider
historical film as a type of experiment in the field of historiography, ergo – historiophoty. Many
historians will undoubtedly continue to view experiments in history as transgressions and
recklessness that contradict to ‘good scientific practice’. Some may even consider them
dangerous and destructive. But historical experiments rethink history. Hayden White argues
that any attempt to translate historical information about the past into a historical narrative
necessarily involves narrative conventions that bring some form of fiction. He also emphasizes
that “history is a process of social change that includes not only the past but also the present”.21
18 Ibidem, p. 55.
19 MUNSLOW, A.: Introduction: Theory and Practice. In MUNSLOW, A., ROSENSTONE, R. A. (eds.):
Experiments in Rethinking History. New York : Routledge, 2004, p. 7.
20 Ibidem.
21 WHITE, H.: Film and History: Questions to Filmmakers and Historians. In Cineáste, 2004, Vol. 2, No. 29,
p. 66.
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Historical films, like historical speculations, are carefully constructed, crafted, highly aware,
and reflective. Perhaps the biggest difference between a historian and a filmmaker is the
personal involvement in talking about the past. This personal insertion can take many forms,
motivations, and can use a variety of creative techniques. However, it is based on the
development of a fantasy component that creates an original construct, defining and
concretizing every detail of the visualized reality: matter, shape, structure, space, and the people
who animate, ‘play/embody/represent’ its animated story. Although filmmakers and producers
who embark on demanding historical projects have to reckon high costs for their realization,
this brings along a great opportunity to learn about the cognitive power of narration and at the
same time to recognize the nature of history as a representation of the past with an author’s
clause.
3 Historical Film in the Digital Age
In order to faithfully and effectively evoke the experience of the past, the historical film is also
characterized by the collection and display of visual information. As Michele Pierson points
out, historical cinema is, to a certain extent, “the cinema of a production designer”.22 The film’s
designer or architect creates and authenticates a depiction of the past through a detailed and
generously conceived visual design. However, in addition to creating a sense of the past, the
depiction of such a stylized historical reality is the second key aspect of historical cinema: the
presentation of the ‘spectacle’. The term “spectacle” in the context of the film refers to the
staging of spectacular large scenes, often with a number of performers. The connection between
historical filmmaking and spectacle has always been very close. In many important historical
films, the use of a monumental performance/spectacle is inevitably stimulated by the story.
According to Maria Wyke, the presentation of ancient Rome in the film functioned “not only
as a mechanism for presenting national identity”, but also “as a mechanism for depicting the
technical capacity, perfection, progress and cultural value of cinema itself”.23
The ground-breaking historical films, which we perceive as monumental works, have been shot
throughout the film’s history using the most innovative technologies available at the time.
Technicolor technology has been used in films such as The Ten Commandments (1923), Ben
Hur (1925), Robin Hood (1938) to document technical excellence and spectacularity. In the
1950s, CinemaScope technology expanded the breadth of cinema images to gigantic
proportions and was also often used in films with historical themes – The Robe (1953), The
Bridge on the River Kwai (1957), The Diary of Anne Frank (1959), etc. The monumentality
created by widescreen films in the 1950s and 1960s suggested that a sense of wonder could
really bring the viewer closer to the historical ‘spectacle’ itself. And so, the subsequent
development of the digital process of imaging (CGI – Computer Generated Imagery) from the
1990s naturally continued this trend and became an essential element in the emergence of
historical films, which fundamentally expanded the imaginative possibilities of the genre. The
first major historical film using CGI was Forrest Gump (1994). Among other things, they used
the digital processing of the film into documentaries from the past, which allowed him to
communicate with historical figures such as President Kennedy and Johnson and the first
African-American students enrolled at the University of Alabama. Robert Burgoyne, on the
scene where Gump is ‘copied’ into an archival weekly for a fictional interview with President
22 PIERSON, M.: A Production Designer’s Cinema: Historical Authenticity in Popular Films Set in the Past .
In KING, G. (ed.): Spectacle and the Real. Bristol : Intellect, 2005, p. 145-155.
23 WYKE, M.: Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema and History. London : Routledge, 1997, p. 30.
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Kennedy, argues that “this sequence no longer comes from a fixed moment in history, no longer
bears the archival trace of the moment it was filmed, rather, it carries a double temporality and
expresses its independent origin – Kennedy from the past 1962, Hanks as Gump from the past
1994 – as well as the resulting transformed present”.24 Likely, experienced, media-literate
audiences will immediately understand that such scenes are fictional constructs, especially
when viewed in the context of the specific style of Gump’s narration. However, this is clearly
a significant narrative hyperbolization, in which the dimension of historical truth shifts within
the genre towards mystification. Therefore, it is possible to state the obvious potential of CGI
on one hand to reduce the ‘authority’ of archival images and on the other hand – to increase the
potential to present historical events in the film narrative in an infinite number of
interpretations. Both of these phenomena thus appear to be problematic in terms of the ambition
to achieve historical fidelity. According to Kirsten Moan Thompson, digital effects in historical
film tend to be associated with “spectacular action (individual and crowd), spectacular
architecture, and spectacular details”.25 These elements can sometimes be seen in unison,
especially during moments when historical films consciously represent the unlimited
capabilities of digital technology. In Titanic, for example, a remarkably large and flawlessly
digitally created ship is the focal point of the film’s ‘production value’. Its fantastic dimensions
are set in several wide shots at the beginning of the film, and the ‘spectacle’ is maximized by
the longitudinal movement of a flying camera, which moves from the ship’s bow to the stern,
and depicts live actors on real fragments of the deck combined with digitally animated models.
We see a similar ‘theatre’ in the digitized scenes of the film Gladiator (2000), during the
depiction of the Colosseum in Rome.
Its space is a combination of real and digital elements. As in the case of Titanic, the grandeur
of the architecture is illustrated by the tiny human figures visible in the stands of the Colosseum.
When viewed from the outside as well as from the inside, the digital architecture is stunning
both in its gigantic dimension and in the smallest decorative details. This combination of
vastness and complexity can be seen in both CGI images of both Gladiator and Titanic and
appears to be characteristic of digital imaging in general. In addition to this ‘megalithic’
architecture building, CGI has a major impact on the detail of the display of structures or
materials. Amelia Arenas drew attention to digitally composed panoramic shots in Gladiator,
in which “the level of detail is so exhausting that it looks hyperrealistic, creating an effect that
is more hallucinatory than realistic”.26 In addition to the specifics of visualizing inanimate
objects, CGI allows live actors to be designed directly; Thompson states that “exponential
multiplication of bodies into masses or crowds” 27 composes entirely new dimensions of crowd
and fight scenes where the arrays of digitally cloned (but maximally realistic) fighters are spread
beyond the visible horizon. Films such as Gladiator, Alexander (2004) and 300 (2006) have
elevated the visualization of historical sources to a realized legend – all thanks to crowd
replication software that allows you to animate thousands of autonomous three-dimensional
digital characters and integrate them into one footage with live actors. An example of a visual
archetype that is evolving under the influence of unlimited possibilities of digital production is
the depiction of a typical combat image: a view of a ‘cloud’ of shot arrows flying at the enemy.
24 BURGYONE, R.: Memory, History and Digital Imagery in Contemporary Film. In GRAINGE, P. (ed.): Memory
and Popular Film. Manchester : Manchester University Press, 2003, p. 228.
25 THOMPSON, K. M.: ‘Philip Never Saw Babylon’: 360-Degree Vision and the Historical Epic in the Digital
Era. In BURGYONE, R. (ed.): The Epic Film in World Culture. New York : Routledge, 2010, p. 46.
26 ARENAS, A.: Popcorn and Circus: Gladiator and the Spectacle of Virtue. In Arion: A Journal of Humanities
and the Classics, 2001, Vol. 1, No. 9, p. 4.
27 THOMPSON, K. M.: ‘Philip Never Saw Babylon’: 360-Degree Vision and the Historical Epic in the Digital
Era. In BURGYONE, R. (ed.): The Epic Film in World Culture. New York : Routledge, 2011, p. 46.
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In the film Braveheart (1996) it is possible to count the arrows when the image is stopped (they
are in the order of tens). In the film 300 (2006) a Persian officer boasts that “our arrows cover
the sun”. The shot that follows fulfils this promise and, with the number of arrows in the tens
of thousands, surpasses similar shots in older films. The shot thus provides a visual presentation
of the strength of the Persian army, but also the potential of digital technology to push the
boundaries of visual surplus. It could be said that the contrast between the arrows in Braveheart
and in 300 embodies the fundamental influence of digital technologies on historical films –
their gradual substitution of the physical world for virtualized objects, scenes, and any (non)
human beings. The almost unlimited possibilities of digital production currently bring several
dilemmas to the creators in the realization of historical themes. For example, the design
dilemma: any object in front of the camera, including the actor (but also the costume, props,
space) is modifiable – expandable, editable in space and colour, per the imagination of the
creator, no matter how subjective. Or also the dilemma of measure: the possibility of displaying
an almost infinite number of military lines, warships, or a horizon built by architecture, which
is only a matter of programming skill and robustness of computing capacity, brings unlimited
freedom to express the idea of the visual form of historical reality. By law, the most essential
dilemma emerges from this – the dilemma of truth and responsibility. Every director (and their
creative collaborator) making a historical film should undoubtedly try to portray historical
events to get as close as possible to (historical) truth, however difficult, relative, and subjective
such approach may be. The approach to achieve such demonstration of the creator is possible
on several levels, which depend on his knowledge of historical reality and its critical evaluation
and interpretation (from literary, scientific professional sources) aligned with his intention to
convey a true historical picture of events which are also a dramatic space to tell his story to the
viewer.
Conclusion
History is a social memory. Historical films often reflected broader cultural and historical trends
and offered targeted and involuntary commentary on the cultures that created them. The process
of building the relationship of the average film viewer or the engaged applicant (student or
scientist) with history can be the basis for the fruitful use of the genre of historical film as a
specific form of the historical experiment. Throughout the decades of technological innovation,
the restructuring of the film industry, and the transformation of the creators’ relations to various
topics, the popularity of the historical film has been constant. The filmmaker mastered a series
of specific rhetorical techniques and tools for depicting historical contexts and sought a
framework beyond the record of simplified patterns of individual actions and actions of
extraordinary leaders or heroes. A historical film can offer a way of representation comparable
to historiography itself.28 Throughout its existence, it is constantly confronted with debates
about the suitability of the film medium as a means of historical narrative and the cultural value
of the genre in general. However, questions about the authenticity, accuracy, and fidelity of
truth in historical films will always be legitimate, and the confrontation of historiophoty and
historiography in any serious dramatic historical production will be considered important. At
the same time, it will add a new dimension to the relationship between the past and its popular
understanding. From this point of view, a historical film remains a fascinating area to study.
And history remains a story that will need to be told – over and over again.
28 GRINDON, L.: Shadows on the Past – Studies in the Historical Fiction Film. Philadelphia : Temple University
Press, 1994, p. 223.
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Acknowledgement: The study was elaborated within a national research project supported by
the Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak
Republic and the Slovak Academy of Sciences (VEGA) No. 1/0283/20, titled ‘Synergy of the
Media Industry Segments in the Context of Critical Political Economy of Media’.
Literature and Sources:
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