Content uploaded by Himanshu Kulkarni
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Himanshu Kulkarni on Feb 21, 2023
Content may be subject to copyright.
Unravelling Pune’s Aquifers
Framework for Groundwater Management and Governance
Unravelling Pune’s Aquifers
Framework for Groundwater Management and Governance
Principal Authors
Himanshu Kulkarni, Jairaj Rajguru and Pratik Korde
With contribution from
Uma Aslekar and Manoj Bhagwat (Formerly with ACWADAM)
In collaboration with
Mission Groundwater (Bhujal Abhiyan)
and
Centre for Environment and Education (CEE)
January 2023
Technical Report: ACWA/Hydro/2023/H142
Unravelling Pune’s Aquifers
Framework for Groundwater Management and Governance
Principal Authors
Himanshu Kulkarni, Jairaj Rajguru and Pratik Korde
With contribution from
Uma Aslekar and Manoj Bhagwat (Formerly with ACWADAM)
In collaboration with
Mission Groundwater (Bhujal Abhiyan)
and
Centre for Environment and Education (CEE)
January 2023
Technical Report: ACWA/Hydro/2023/H142
Unravelling Pune’s Aquifers: Framework for Groundwater Management and Governance
Principal Authors: Himanshu Kulkarni, Jairaj Rajguru and Pratik Korde
with contribution from
Uma Aslekar and Manoj Bhagwat (formerly with ACWADAM)
Project support: Wipro Foundation
Published by: ACWADAM, Pune
Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM)
‘Suvidya’, 27 Kshipra society, Lane 3, Karvenagar, Pune-411052, Maharashtra, India.
Phone: +91-9172246959
Email: acwadam@gmail.com
Website: www.acwadam.org
The contents of this publication may be used with due acknowledgement of the source. Any form of
reproduction, storage in a retrieval system or transmission by any means requires a prior written
permission from the publisher.
Citation: Kulkarni H., Rajguru J., and Korde, P. (2023). Unravelling Pune’s aquifers: framework for
groundwater management and governance. ACWA/Hydro/2023/H142, Advanced Center for Water
resources Development and Management, Pune.
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Photographs
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1
The history of groundwater usage 2
The advent of wells – access to groundwater in agriculture 3
The modern era of groundwater: explosion in groundwater utilization 6
Groundwater in India: the urban side 10
Pune’s groundwater study 14
The methodology (in continuation of the earlier phase) involved 15
Chapter 2: GEOLOGY OF PUNE AND ITS ENVIRONS – DEFINING THE AQUIFER SETTING 17
Geological setting of Pune city and its environs 21
Hydrogeological mapping of Pune city: a simplied geological framework 27
Chapter 3: PUNE’S GROUNDWATER VIEWED THROUGH ITS AQUIFERS 33
Rainfall in Pune city 34
Hydrological features 46
Conceptualizing Deccan basalt aquifers 41
Aquifers of Pune: understanding their geometries and characteristics 43
Groundwater levels 47
Springs 51
Groundwater Quality 57
Ward-wise survey of groundwater sources 64
Chapter 4: A FRAMEWORK FOR GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN PUNE CITY 69
Pune’s groundwater footprint 70
Understanding Pune’s rainfall variability 73
Moving towards a groundwater balance for Pune city 74
Groundwater recharge: A strategy of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) for Pune city 83
The land-use and land-cover on Pune’s aquifer recharge zones 89
Protecting water bodies in Pune city: their relevance to groundwater recharge
and discharge 93
Protection of natural discharge through the protection of springs 95
Restoring urban groundwater: a mission-mode programme on reviving the
shallow unconned aquifers in Urban India 97
Managing demand, monitoring quality and protecting aquifers for
sustainable urban water management 100
Chapter 5: DEVELOPING PUNE’S GROUNDWATER GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK 101
Groundwater governance: short background 102
From urban groundwater management to groundwater governance 104
Moving forward: Pune’s urban groundwater governance framework 107
Urban Groundwater (Governance) Cell 107
Urban groundwater governance: from protection to regulation 109
References 112
Content
Unravelling Pune’s Aquifers: Framework for Groundwater Management and Governance
Principal Authors: Himanshu Kulkarni, Jairaj Rajguru and Pratik Korde
with contribution from
Uma Aslekar and Manoj Bhagwat (formerly with ACWADAM)
Project support: Wipro Foundation
Published by: ACWADAM, Pune
Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM)
‘Suvidya’, 27 Kshipra society, Lane 3, Karvenagar, Pune-411052, Maharashtra, India.
Phone: +91-9172246959
Email: acwadam@gmail.com
Website: www.acwadam.org
The contents of this publication may be used with due acknowledgement of the source. Any form of
reproduction, storage in a retrieval system or transmission by any means requires a prior written
permission from the publisher.
Citation: Kulkarni H., Rajguru J., and Korde, P. (2023). Unravelling Pune’s aquifers: framework for
groundwater management and governance. ACWA/Hydro/2023/H142, Advanced Center for Water
resources Development and Management, Pune.
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Photographs
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1
The history of groundwater usage 2
The advent of wells – access to groundwater in agriculture 3
The modern era of groundwater: explosion in groundwater utilization 6
Groundwater in India: the urban side 10
Pune’s groundwater study 14
The methodology (in continuation of the earlier phase) involved 15
Chapter 2: GEOLOGY OF PUNE AND ITS ENVIRONS – DEFINING THE AQUIFER SETTING 17
Geological setting of Pune city and its environs 21
Hydrogeological mapping of Pune city: a simplied geological framework 27
Chapter 3: PUNE’S GROUNDWATER VIEWED THROUGH ITS AQUIFERS 33
Rainfall in Pune city 34
Hydrological features 46
Conceptualizing Deccan basalt aquifers 41
Aquifers of Pune: understanding their geometries and characteristics 43
Groundwater levels 47
Springs 51
Groundwater Quality 57
Ward-wise survey of groundwater sources 64
Chapter 4: A FRAMEWORK FOR GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN PUNE CITY 69
Pune’s groundwater footprint 70
Understanding Pune’s rainfall variability 73
Moving towards a groundwater balance for Pune city 74
Groundwater recharge: A strategy of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) for Pune city 83
The land-use and land-cover on Pune’s aquifer recharge zones 89
Protecting water bodies in Pune city: their relevance to groundwater recharge
and discharge 93
Protection of natural discharge through the protection of springs 95
Restoring urban groundwater: a mission-mode programme on reviving the
shallow unconned aquifers in Urban India 97
Managing demand, monitoring quality and protecting aquifers for
sustainable urban water management 100
Chapter 5: DEVELOPING PUNE’S GROUNDWATER GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK 101
Groundwater governance: short background 102
From urban groundwater management to groundwater governance 104
Moving forward: Pune’s urban groundwater governance framework 107
Urban Groundwater (Governance) Cell 107
Urban groundwater governance: from protection to regulation 109
References 112
Content
Figure 1: (above) Groundwater exploitation map (below) Groundwater contamination maps. . . . . 7
Figure 2: India’s unique groundwater story.........................................8
Figure 3: A schema representing the four stages that a small township to
reach the state of urban agglomeration (after Shah and Kulkarni, 2015).
The four stages can also help classify the stage of urban growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 4: (A) Hydrogeological settings in India dening its diverse aquifer typology
(B) The distribution of rural and urban habitations across these settings
(C) Degree of urbanisation in each of these settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 5: Hydrogeological settings for states from different regions of India
(modied after Kulkarni, 2005).................................................19
Figure 6: The distribution of hydrogeological settings from the broad aquifer
typology of Maharashtra state (modied after Kulkarni, 2005 and District
Resource Maps prepared by GSI) ...............................................20
Figure 7: Relative percentages of different aquifer settings in the Maharashtra state . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 8: Summary of the Deccan Volcanic Province with key features that dene
the hydrogeological character and the spread of the Deccan Volcanic Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 9: Extract from the District Resources Map of Pune district (left) and the lithology
of the stratigraphy of Pune district (after Kale, et al., 2019) showing the Formation (Fm.)
names of the lava formations exposed in the Pune region. The elevations shown in the
log are idealized and will show local variations (becoming lower towards the east)
because of the uneven thicknesses of various formations. The number of the
formations depicted in this log are the same as those in the adjoining map (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 10: Generalised cross section of Sheet lava ows (after Kale, 2019).
The relative thickness of the various layers in such ows may vary laterally
across the area of exposure of the ow...........................................23
Figure 11: Generalised cross section of Lobate lava ows (after Kale, 2019). Although
individual lobes of such ows may be up to 10 m thick, the thickness of the compact
basaltic core rarely exceeds a few meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 12: Trends in groundwater demand leading to a rise in the number of wells –
1960 to 2010 (after Macdonald et al, 1995 and GSDA and CGWB, 2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 13: Deccan basalt groundwater systems or aquifers (after Kulkarni et al, 2000) . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 14: Geological map of the area under PMC limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 15: Litholog of the area under PMC limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 16: (a)Rainfall data for Pune district (based on IMD’s hundred-year data set +
India Water Portal (sourced from Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research): Analysed
annual rainfall data, with ten-year moving average trendline and accumulated rainfall
anomalies; (b) Seasonal distribution trends – annual rainfall separated season-wise . . . . . . . . . . 35
List of Figures
Figure 17: Location of Pune in the Bhima Basin (map modied after Kulkarni et al, 2005). . . . . . 36
Figure 18: Pune Urban Region (marked by the square) on a lithological map of the
Ujani reservoir catchment (Ujani reservoir is just beyond the terminal part of the river
in the southeastern portion of the map) (map modied after: Rajguru et al, 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 19: (a) Natural drainage system within PMC boundary and (b) third order
basins within PMC boundary...................................................39
Figure 20: (a) A conceptual model of a typical layered Deccan basalt sequence
showing how the VABs and the CBs are exposed above the ground in step-like geometry
and their near-horizontal disposition below the ground; (b) Simplied conceptualization of
aquifers formed due to the geometry of alternating VABs and CBs, the largely unjointed /
unfractured central portions of the CBs forming the impermeable sections that separate
aquifers in a vertical sequence of basalt units (modied after Kulkarni et al., 2000). . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 21: An illustration of a horizontally layered sequence of basalt units that results in
the formation of unconned and conned aquifers in the Deccan Volcanic Province
(diagram is not to scale)......................................................42
Figure 22: Unconned (Phreatic) aquifers of Pune – their spatial distribution
(modied after ACWADAM, 2019) ..............................................44
Figure 23: Cross section illustrating the vertical disposition of aquifer systems – the
aquifers are under unconned conditions wherever they are exposed or are close to
the surface while they form conned conditions where there is a signicantly thick set of . . . . . . . 45
Figure 24: Surveyed dug wells, bore wells and springs – locations overlaid to
satellite imagery hosted by Esri.................................................46
Figure 25: Groundwater ow lines for June 2018 (a) and November 2018 (b)
overlaid on Google Earth imagery ..............................................47
Figure 26: Groundwater ow lines for December 2020 (a) and December 2021
(b) overlaid to Google Earth imagery.............................................48
Figure 27: A hydrograph of automated sensor based selected groundwater levels in
representative wells from three main aquifers of Pune city – longest records
over two and a half years.....................................................50
Figure 28: A sample of springs in Pune mapped and recorded by ACWADAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 29: (a) Springs along the courses of stream and river channels within
PMC boundary (b) Location of springs overlaid to the natural drainage and the
aquifer-wise groundwater discharge zones for Pune city, showing a close correlation . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 30: (a) Water quality sampling locations in Pune during the two seasons of 2019
(b) Water quality sampling locations in Pune during the summer season of 2022. . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 31: Piper trilinear plots for samples from representative groundwater
sources for (a) January 2019 and (b) June 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 1: (above) Groundwater exploitation map (below) Groundwater contamination maps. . . . . 7
Figure 2: India’s unique groundwater story.........................................8
Figure 3: A schema representing the four stages that a small township to
reach the state of urban agglomeration (after Shah and Kulkarni, 2015).
The four stages can also help classify the stage of urban growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 4: (A) Hydrogeological settings in India dening its diverse aquifer typology
(B) The distribution of rural and urban habitations across these settings
(C) Degree of urbanisation in each of these settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 5: Hydrogeological settings for states from different regions of India
(modied after Kulkarni, 2005).................................................19
Figure 6: The distribution of hydrogeological settings from the broad aquifer
typology of Maharashtra state (modied after Kulkarni, 2005 and District
Resource Maps prepared by GSI) ...............................................20
Figure 7: Relative percentages of different aquifer settings in the Maharashtra state . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 8: Summary of the Deccan Volcanic Province with key features that dene
the hydrogeological character and the spread of the Deccan Volcanic Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 9: Extract from the District Resources Map of Pune district (left) and the lithology
of the stratigraphy of Pune district (after Kale, et al., 2019) showing the Formation (Fm.)
names of the lava formations exposed in the Pune region. The elevations shown in the
log are idealized and will show local variations (becoming lower towards the east)
because of the uneven thicknesses of various formations. The number of the
formations depicted in this log are the same as those in the adjoining map (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 10: Generalised cross section of Sheet lava ows (after Kale, 2019).
The relative thickness of the various layers in such ows may vary laterally
across the area of exposure of the ow...........................................23
Figure 11: Generalised cross section of Lobate lava ows (after Kale, 2019). Although
individual lobes of such ows may be up to 10 m thick, the thickness of the compact
basaltic core rarely exceeds a few meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 12: Trends in groundwater demand leading to a rise in the number of wells –
1960 to 2010 (after Macdonald et al, 1995 and GSDA and CGWB, 2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 13: Deccan basalt groundwater systems or aquifers (after Kulkarni et al, 2000) . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 14: Geological map of the area under PMC limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 15: Litholog of the area under PMC limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 16: (a)Rainfall data for Pune district (based on IMD’s hundred-year data set +
India Water Portal (sourced from Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research): Analysed
annual rainfall data, with ten-year moving average trendline and accumulated rainfall
anomalies; (b) Seasonal distribution trends – annual rainfall separated season-wise . . . . . . . . . . 35
List of Figures
Figure 17: Location of Pune in the Bhima Basin (map modied after Kulkarni et al, 2005). . . . . . 36
Figure 18: Pune Urban Region (marked by the square) on a lithological map of the
Ujani reservoir catchment (Ujani reservoir is just beyond the terminal part of the river
in the southeastern portion of the map) (map modied after: Rajguru et al, 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 19: (a) Natural drainage system within PMC boundary and (b) third order
basins within PMC boundary...................................................39
Figure 20: (a) A conceptual model of a typical layered Deccan basalt sequence
showing how the VABs and the CBs are exposed above the ground in step-like geometry
and their near-horizontal disposition below the ground; (b) Simplied conceptualization of
aquifers formed due to the geometry of alternating VABs and CBs, the largely unjointed /
unfractured central portions of the CBs forming the impermeable sections that separate
aquifers in a vertical sequence of basalt units (modied after Kulkarni et al., 2000). . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 21: An illustration of a horizontally layered sequence of basalt units that results in
the formation of unconned and conned aquifers in the Deccan Volcanic Province
(diagram is not to scale)......................................................42
Figure 22: Unconned (Phreatic) aquifers of Pune – their spatial distribution
(modied after ACWADAM, 2019) ..............................................44
Figure 23: Cross section illustrating the vertical disposition of aquifer systems – the
aquifers are under unconned conditions wherever they are exposed or are close to
the surface while they form conned conditions where there is a signicantly thick set of . . . . . . . 45
Figure 24: Surveyed dug wells, bore wells and springs – locations overlaid to
satellite imagery hosted by Esri.................................................46
Figure 25: Groundwater ow lines for June 2018 (a) and November 2018 (b)
overlaid on Google Earth imagery ..............................................47
Figure 26: Groundwater ow lines for December 2020 (a) and December 2021
(b) overlaid to Google Earth imagery.............................................48
Figure 27: A hydrograph of automated sensor based selected groundwater levels in
representative wells from three main aquifers of Pune city – longest records
over two and a half years.....................................................50
Figure 28: A sample of springs in Pune mapped and recorded by ACWADAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 29: (a) Springs along the courses of stream and river channels within
PMC boundary (b) Location of springs overlaid to the natural drainage and the
aquifer-wise groundwater discharge zones for Pune city, showing a close correlation . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 30: (a) Water quality sampling locations in Pune during the two seasons of 2019
(b) Water quality sampling locations in Pune during the summer season of 2022. . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 31: Piper trilinear plots for samples from representative groundwater
sources for (a) January 2019 and (b) June 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 32: Wilcox plots for sodium and salinity hazard for samples collected in (a)
January 2019 and (b) June 2019 ...............................................62
Figure 33: (a) Piper trilinear plot for groundwater samples for June 2022; (b)
Wilcox plot for the same samples for June 2022 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 34: The three surveyed wards of the core city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 35: Surveyed dug wells (a), bore wells (b) and hand-pumps (c) in the three
municipal wards............................................................65
Figure 36: Distribution of groundwater sources across the three municipal wards . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 37: Isohyets based on the rain gauge measurements from ‘Rain Enthusiasts’ for
(a) 7th June; (b) 14th July; (c) 4th August and (d) 10th September during the
rainy months of 2020........................................................75
Figure 38: Groundwater level hydrographs corrected to the nearest rain gauge
station of the Rainfall Enthusiasts Group for better correlation. The sample hydrographs
have been grouped into (a) A dug well and a couple of bore wells from the
Dahanukar colony – Gandhi Bhawan area; (b) Dug wells from the Deccan
Gymkhana and Peth Areas; (c), (d), (e) and (f) are single well hydrographs for
Shaniwar Peth, Pashan, Gandhi Bhawan (dug well) and Gandhi Bhawan
(bore well) respectively.......................................................77
Figure 39: Natural recharge areas for Pune’s aquifer system
overlaid to a satellite image ...................................................86
Figure 40: Overlay of potential recharge areas on drainage map of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 41: Shallow aquifer – foundation and basement disruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 42: Distribution of land-cover elements on the aquifer
recharge areas for Pune city...................................................89
Figure 43: Recharge areas for the 5 aquifers based on the land-cover
elements in Pune city ........................................................90
Figure 44: Land-cover for recharge area of (a) aquifer 1, (b) aquifer 2, (c) aquifer 3,
(d) aquifer 4, and (e) aquifer 5.................................................91
Figure 45: Overlay of the natural recharge areas for the six main aquifers to
the road network map for Pune city..............................................92
Figure 46: Map showing the location of the water bodies with regard to the
different aquifers in Pune .....................................................94
Figure 47: Overlay of potential discharge areas
(as represented by the base of aquifer) on drainage network of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Table 1: The areas of different watersheds and estimates of water generated in each
watershed (the estimated areas may differ slightly from actual values on the ground). . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 2: Discharge of the springs and the status of biological contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Table 3: Density of groundwater sources in each sampled ward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 4: Annual groundwater extraction from the three sampled municipal wards . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 5: Indicative estimates of groundwater extraction as a difference between actual
sewage generated and estimates of sewage from formal, municipal water supplies
(for 2011) – numbers are approximate and may actually deviate from these estimates.
The core purpose of this exercise was to generate a rst order estimate of groundwater
withdrawals for Pune city, in the absence of any other data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 6: Current estimates of groundwater extraction from bore wells in Pune city . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table 7: Synopsis of estimates for groundwater extraction in Pune Municipal City limits . . . . . . . . 73
Table 8: Daily rainfall sheets (compiled) for 7 July and (a), A monthly compilation
of the data is shown in (b) and (c)...............................................74
Table 9: A summary of groundwater for Pune city (after Deolankar, 1977). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Table 10: Endogenous (local water resource) and exogenous water – a partially lled
template for comparison......................................................81
Table 11: Estimates of potential aquifer storage in Pune’s aquifers (at full saturation) . . . . . . . . . . 82
Table 12: The locations of the water bodies and their hydrogeological status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 13: Groundwater governance is not only part of the core SDG6 but
cuts across all the 17 SDGs of UNESCO.........................................103
List of Photographs
Photograph 1: Non energized groundwater extraction systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Photograph 2: Drilling a borewell in search of groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Photograph 3: A typical landform from the Deccan Volcanic Province in Maharashtra . . . . . . . . . 18
Photograph 4: Borewell in Pune city .............................................26
Photograph 5: Set of basalt subunit that constitute what is labelled as compound
lava ow exposed on road cut near Sus area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Photograph 6: High discharge, perennial, contact spring in Bavdhan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Photograph 7: Mula-Mutheshwar Spring – A perennial spring at Yerawada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Photograph 8: Water quality sampling from a spring near Nanded city. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Photograph 9: Half a day workshop at MCCIA on 31st January 2019 with
Govt ofcials, NGO’s and Citizens of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Photograph 10: Expert’s workshop on Pune’s Aquifer on 26th July 2019
at YASHADA with Govt ofcials, NGO’s and Citizens of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Photograph 11: Workshop in PMC with Mayor and Commissioner of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Photograph 12: Awareness programme hosted by Thermax Ltd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
List of Tables
Figure 32: Wilcox plots for sodium and salinity hazard for samples collected in (a)
January 2019 and (b) June 2019 ...............................................62
Figure 33: (a) Piper trilinear plot for groundwater samples for June 2022; (b)
Wilcox plot for the same samples for June 2022 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 34: The three surveyed wards of the core city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 35: Surveyed dug wells (a), bore wells (b) and hand-pumps (c) in the three
municipal wards............................................................65
Figure 36: Distribution of groundwater sources across the three municipal wards . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 37: Isohyets based on the rain gauge measurements from ‘Rain Enthusiasts’ for
(a) 7th June; (b) 14th July; (c) 4th August and (d) 10th September during the
rainy months of 2020........................................................75
Figure 38: Groundwater level hydrographs corrected to the nearest rain gauge
station of the Rainfall Enthusiasts Group for better correlation. The sample hydrographs
have been grouped into (a) A dug well and a couple of bore wells from the
Dahanukar colony – Gandhi Bhawan area; (b) Dug wells from the Deccan
Gymkhana and Peth Areas; (c), (d), (e) and (f) are single well hydrographs for
Shaniwar Peth, Pashan, Gandhi Bhawan (dug well) and Gandhi Bhawan
(bore well) respectively.......................................................77
Figure 39: Natural recharge areas for Pune’s aquifer system
overlaid to a satellite image ...................................................86
Figure 40: Overlay of potential recharge areas on drainage map of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 41: Shallow aquifer – foundation and basement disruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 42: Distribution of land-cover elements on the aquifer
recharge areas for Pune city...................................................89
Figure 43: Recharge areas for the 5 aquifers based on the land-cover
elements in Pune city ........................................................90
Figure 44: Land-cover for recharge area of (a) aquifer 1, (b) aquifer 2, (c) aquifer 3,
(d) aquifer 4, and (e) aquifer 5.................................................91
Figure 45: Overlay of the natural recharge areas for the six main aquifers to
the road network map for Pune city..............................................92
Figure 46: Map showing the location of the water bodies with regard to the
different aquifers in Pune .....................................................94
Figure 47: Overlay of potential discharge areas
(as represented by the base of aquifer) on drainage network of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Table 1: The areas of different watersheds and estimates of water generated in each
watershed (the estimated areas may differ slightly from actual values on the ground). . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 2: Discharge of the springs and the status of biological contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Table 3: Density of groundwater sources in each sampled ward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 4: Annual groundwater extraction from the three sampled municipal wards . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 5: Indicative estimates of groundwater extraction as a difference between actual
sewage generated and estimates of sewage from formal, municipal water supplies
(for 2011) – numbers are approximate and may actually deviate from these estimates.
The core purpose of this exercise was to generate a rst order estimate of groundwater
withdrawals for Pune city, in the absence of any other data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 6: Current estimates of groundwater extraction from bore wells in Pune city . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table 7: Synopsis of estimates for groundwater extraction in Pune Municipal City limits . . . . . . . . 73
Table 8: Daily rainfall sheets (compiled) for 7 July and (a), A monthly compilation
of the data is shown in (b) and (c)...............................................74
Table 9: A summary of groundwater for Pune city (after Deolankar, 1977). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Table 10: Endogenous (local water resource) and exogenous water – a partially lled
template for comparison......................................................81
Table 11: Estimates of potential aquifer storage in Pune’s aquifers (at full saturation) . . . . . . . . . . 82
Table 12: The locations of the water bodies and their hydrogeological status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 13: Groundwater governance is not only part of the core SDG6 but
cuts across all the 17 SDGs of UNESCO.........................................103
List of Photographs
Photograph 1: Non energized groundwater extraction systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Photograph 2: Drilling a borewell in search of groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Photograph 3: A typical landform from the Deccan Volcanic Province in Maharashtra . . . . . . . . . 18
Photograph 4: Borewell in Pune city .............................................26
Photograph 5: Set of basalt subunit that constitute what is labelled as compound
lava ow exposed on road cut near Sus area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Photograph 6: High discharge, perennial, contact spring in Bavdhan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Photograph 7: Mula-Mutheshwar Spring – A perennial spring at Yerawada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Photograph 8: Water quality sampling from a spring near Nanded city. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Photograph 9: Half a day workshop at MCCIA on 31st January 2019 with
Govt ofcials, NGO’s and Citizens of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Photograph 10: Expert’s workshop on Pune’s Aquifer on 26th July 2019
at YASHADA with Govt ofcials, NGO’s and Citizens of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Photograph 11: Workshop in PMC with Mayor and Commissioner of Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Photograph 12: Awareness programme hosted by Thermax Ltd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
List of Tables
‘Unravelling Pune’s aquifers: Framework for groundwater management and governance’ is a joint
collaboration between ACWADAM, Mission Groundwater and Centre for Environment and Education
supported through Wipro Foundation’s grant to ACWADAM. In many ways, this is one of the rst
systematic compilation of aquifer-related information in urban India. Studying groundwater in towns
and cities is challenging on many fronts obtaining access to existing wells for undertaking
measurements itself proves to be challenging. However, many organisations and individuals helped
us in overcoming such challenges. We are grateful to many people who played a signicant role in
supporting, encouraging and helping us during the course of this project as well as during the
compilation of this document. It is difcult to acknowledge each one of them individually. However,
we would specically like to thank:
• Mr. Dinni Lingaraj, Mr. Nakul Heble and Mr. P. S. Narayan of Wipro Foundation for signicant
suggestions and comments during various stages of the project.
• The teams of Mission Groundwater, CEE and Jeevit Nadi, especially Mr. Ravindra Sinha, Dr.
Sanskriti Menon and Ms. Shailaja Deshpande for discussions and suggestions in improving
project related inputs.
• The Pune Municipal Corporation for providing encouragement to undertake this programme and
in helping to access information and data. The study gained immensely from interactions with the
water supply department, the drainage department, the roads department, the environment
department, the development planning cell and the ofces of additional municipal commissioner
Mr. Kunal Khemnar and Mr. Ravindra Binwade.
• The student interns from Fergusson college, Wadia college, Poona college, Savitribai Phule Pune
University and MIT college without whom the data collection and compilation at the scale of a
rapidly growing city like Pune would not have been possible in such a short span of time.
• All our colleagues at ACWADAM and the ACWADAM trustees for help, critique and
encouragement during various stages of this work.
Acknowledgement CHAPTER 01
Introduction
‘Unravelling Pune’s aquifers: Framework for groundwater management and governance’ is a joint
collaboration between ACWADAM, Mission Groundwater and Centre for Environment and Education
supported through Wipro Foundation’s grant to ACWADAM. In many ways, this is one of the rst
systematic compilation of aquifer-related information in urban India. Studying groundwater in towns
and cities is challenging on many fronts obtaining access to existing wells for undertaking
measurements itself proves to be challenging. However, many organisations and individuals helped
us in overcoming such challenges. We are grateful to many people who played a signicant role in
supporting, encouraging and helping us during the course of this project as well as during the
compilation of this document. It is difcult to acknowledge each one of them individually. However,
we would specically like to thank:
• Mr. Dinni Lingaraj, Mr. Nakul Heble and Mr. P. S. Narayan of Wipro Foundation for signicant
suggestions and comments during various stages of the project.
• The teams of Mission Groundwater, CEE and Jeevit Nadi, especially Mr. Ravindra Sinha, Dr.
Sanskriti Menon and Ms. Shailaja Deshpande for discussions and suggestions in improving
project related inputs.
• The Pune Municipal Corporation for providing encouragement to undertake this programme and
in helping to access information and data. The study gained immensely from interactions with the
water supply department, the drainage department, the roads department, the environment
department, the development planning cell and the ofces of additional municipal commissioner
Mr. Kunal Khemnar and Mr. Ravindra Binwade.
• The student interns from Fergusson college, Wadia college, Poona college, Savitribai Phule Pune
University and MIT college without whom the data collection and compilation at the scale of a
rapidly growing city like Pune would not have been possible in such a short span of time.
• All our colleagues at ACWADAM and the ACWADAM trustees for help, critique and
encouragement during various stages of this work.
Acknowledgement CHAPTER 01
Introduction
The history of groundwater
usage
Many age-old systems of groundwater
sourcing, access and distribution still exist
across many regions of the world. These
systems represent long-standing traditions,
heritage, and culture of how communities
across the world used groundwater as water
for sustaining life and livelihoods. Stepwells,
spring-wells, qanats, karezs and various
adaptations of the Persian Wheel based
groundwater extraction mechanisms (Indian
systems such as rahats, mhots, chadas etc.)
represent a global history spanning at least a
few hundred years. These systems themselves,
represent the culmination of a longer history of
excavated wells that goes back over ten
thousand years. Further, much of this history is
a consequence of the ‘settling down’ of
humans for growing food, keeping animals,
and dening various civilizations. This history
was preceded by ‘hunting-gathering’ human
societies that existed on the surface of the earth
for a much longer period. Hence, we must also
consider the pre-settlement history of humans
and their tryst with groundwater. At the same
time, any natural resource that humans use, is
a consequence of the earth’s history that
precedes the evolution of humans by millions
and billions of years. Groundwater resources
occur in aquifers that are dened by rock
formations. The history of these rock
formations is seldom considered when we think
of groundwater from a historical perspective.
For a couple of millennia, humans roamed the
continents practicing a nomadic lifestyle and
subsisting on hunting animals and gathering
food. It is not difcult to imagine, therefore,
that early humans must have often sought the
underground space (such as caves) for shelter,
security and most signicantly, water. Natural
water sources must have meant reliance on
rivers, natural water bodies such as lakes and
quite signicantly on natural sources of
groundwater, mainly in the form of springs and
seeps emerging from the ground onto the
surface.
A recent study by scientists from Rutgers
1
University – New Brunswick provides evidence
about how access to hundreds of springs that
discharged water despite long dry spells allowed
early humans in East Africa to head north, and
possibly out of Africa, as part of our ancestral
history. The study uses the concept of ‘hydro-
refugia’ or water refugees in the East African
early human evolution and dispersal. Hydro-
refugia refers to water sources such as springs,
wetland and groundwater-fed perennial streams
and groundwater-fed rivers providing refuge
and solace to migrating humans as the went
from place to place. Clearly, the role of natural
groundwater sources such as springs was crucial
to the history of humans, particularly until the
rst well was sunk some 10000 years ago.
A reection of the ancient past is often found in
some of the ethnic tribal communities in Eastern
India. Many of these communities still consider
springs as the ‘source’ of water and almost
entirely depend upon springs for all their needs.
Many tribal societies such as the Juangs in
Kendujhar district of Odisha almost entirely
depend upon natural springs for their needs.
Springs on mountains and hill tops represent
the natural discharge from mountain aquifers.
Accessing such springs, especially for
traditional communities, must have enabled
the identication of ‘the perched aquifer’ in
specic locales. The ingenuity in selecting
locations for many forts in India lay in the
identication of perched aquifer systems –
possibly over a period of more than 1000 odd
years during which forts were built in different
parts of the country. The ‘tankas’ atop all the
hillforts of Maharashtra are an example of how
such locations were identied for the presence
of a productive perched aquifer in these
locations.
The advent of wells – access to
groundwater in agriculture
After a long nomadic history, ‘domestication’ of
plants and animal by humans gave rise to
early agriculture in some parts of the world,
between 10000 and 15000 years ago, based
on many different sources. According to
Brittanica, “Agriculture has no single, simple
origin. A wide variety of plants and animals
have been independently domesticated at
different times and in numerous places. The
rst agriculture appears to have developed at
the closing of the last Pleistocene glacial
period, or the Ice Age (about 11,700 years
2
ago)” . Agriculture meant tilling to land and
keeping animals or rearing livestock. In some
ways, this was a big move away from
migration based on natural water to sourcing
water at one place. While early settlements
must have been along rivers, the need for a
local water source in settled habitations tucked
away from owing water, must have prompted
farming communities to explore for water
beneath the ground. The early search for
tapping underground water through wells was
possibly done with the focus on protecting
crops from the failure of rains, although
subsequent systems of water distribution (such
as the qanats in Iran or the karezs in
Afghanistan) imply the early advent of
irrigation from a system of wells.
The rst wells were excavated about 10500
years ago, as evidenced through the discovery
of a prehistoric well in Kirsonerga village in
Paphos district of Cyprus (Cyprus Antiquities
Department), when archaeologists discovered
a water well in Cyprus that was built as long
3
back as 10,500 years ago . Of course, this is
the ofcial evidence of the oldest wells but the
likelihood of discovering older wells still exists
across the global landscape over which human
beings had travelled by this period (15000 BP
– before present). While wells emerged across
other parts of the world at different times, the
oldest wells in India – for instance from the
Dholavira and Lothal archaeological sites in
Gujarat – are dated to be from a period that is
at 3500 to 5000 years old - from the
4
Harappan period .
Moench et al. (2013), in their piece
‘Groundwater Governance’ write, “Society’s
systematic exploitation of groundwater began
with the discovery of the shallow dug well.
Water availability was central in determining
man’s settlement pattern. The group of 5 m
deep water wells of this age uncovered in
Cyprus, and elsewhere in the Near East,
reects a certain understanding of shallow
groundwater occurrences. This was likely linked
to experience gained when mining for other
material like ints (to make re) and later,
metallic minerals (for making implements and
weapons)”.The establishment of settled farming
went hand in hand with the concepts of
ownership of land and water points that
required protection and facets of augmentation
and conservation.
There was always a felt need to lift
groundwater from wells and bring it to the
surface of the earth for various purposes. The
dug wells served as sources of water but
creating the actual access to meet different
needs – drinking water, domestic water, and
irrigation – meant the use of power to move
water up, against the force of gravity. Further, it
often became necessary to move it over fairly
long distances and distribute it over large areas
of the land. Lifting groundwater to the surface
has a long history. The early discovery of
engineering applications using levers, pulleys
and gears enabled long periods of non-
energized groundwater extraction.
1Spring water was critical for early humans in East Africa: https://www.rutgers.edu/news/springs-were-critical-water-
sources-early-humans-east-africa-rutgers-study-nds
2 https://www.britannica.com/topic/agriculture/How-agriculture-and-domestication-began
3 https://phys.org/news/2009-06-ancient-body-cyprus.html#jCp
4 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1645/
Introduction Introduction
23
The history of groundwater
usage
Many age-old systems of groundwater
sourcing, access and distribution still exist
across many regions of the world. These
systems represent long-standing traditions,
heritage, and culture of how communities
across the world used groundwater as water
for sustaining life and livelihoods. Stepwells,
spring-wells, qanats, karezs and various
adaptations of the Persian Wheel based
groundwater extraction mechanisms (Indian
systems such as rahats, mhots, chadas etc.)
represent a global history spanning at least a
few hundred years. These systems themselves,
represent the culmination of a longer history of
excavated wells that goes back over ten
thousand years. Further, much of this history is
a consequence of the ‘settling down’ of
humans for growing food, keeping animals,
and dening various civilizations. This history
was preceded by ‘hunting-gathering’ human
societies that existed on the surface of the earth
for a much longer period. Hence, we must also
consider the pre-settlement history of humans
and their tryst with groundwater. At the same
time, any natural resource that humans use, is
a consequence of the earth’s history that
precedes the evolution of humans by millions
and billions of years. Groundwater resources
occur in aquifers that are dened by rock
formations. The history of these rock
formations is seldom considered when we think
of groundwater from a historical perspective.
For a couple of millennia, humans roamed the
continents practicing a nomadic lifestyle and
subsisting on hunting animals and gathering
food. It is not difcult to imagine, therefore,
that early humans must have often sought the
underground space (such as caves) for shelter,
security and most signicantly, water. Natural
water sources must have meant reliance on
rivers, natural water bodies such as lakes and
quite signicantly on natural sources of
groundwater, mainly in the form of springs and
seeps emerging from the ground onto the
surface.
A recent study by scientists from Rutgers
1
University – New Brunswick provides evidence
about how access to hundreds of springs that
discharged water despite long dry spells allowed
early humans in East Africa to head north, and
possibly out of Africa, as part of our ancestral
history. The study uses the concept of ‘hydro-
refugia’ or water refugees in the East African
early human evolution and dispersal. Hydro-
refugia refers to water sources such as springs,
wetland and groundwater-fed perennial streams
and groundwater-fed rivers providing refuge
and solace to migrating humans as the went
from place to place. Clearly, the role of natural
groundwater sources such as springs was crucial
to the history of humans, particularly until the
rst well was sunk some 10000 years ago.
A reection of the ancient past is often found in
some of the ethnic tribal communities in Eastern
India. Many of these communities still consider
springs as the ‘source’ of water and almost
entirely depend upon springs for all their needs.
Many tribal societies such as the Juangs in
Kendujhar district of Odisha almost entirely
depend upon natural springs for their needs.
Springs on mountains and hill tops represent
the natural discharge from mountain aquifers.
Accessing such springs, especially for
traditional communities, must have enabled
the identication of ‘the perched aquifer’ in
specic locales. The ingenuity in selecting
locations for many forts in India lay in the
identication of perched aquifer systems –
possibly over a period of more than 1000 odd
years during which forts were built in different
parts of the country. The ‘tankas’ atop all the
hillforts of Maharashtra are an example of how
such locations were identied for the presence
of a productive perched aquifer in these
locations.
The advent of wells – access to
groundwater in agriculture
After a long nomadic history, ‘domestication’ of
plants and animal by humans gave rise to
early agriculture in some parts of the world,
between 10000 and 15000 years ago, based
on many different sources. According to
Brittanica, “Agriculture has no single, simple
origin. A wide variety of plants and animals
have been independently domesticated at
different times and in numerous places. The
rst agriculture appears to have developed at
the closing of the last Pleistocene glacial
period, or the Ice Age (about 11,700 years
2
ago)” . Agriculture meant tilling to land and
keeping animals or rearing livestock. In some
ways, this was a big move away from
migration based on natural water to sourcing
water at one place. While early settlements
must have been along rivers, the need for a
local water source in settled habitations tucked
away from owing water, must have prompted
farming communities to explore for water
beneath the ground. The early search for
tapping underground water through wells was
possibly done with the focus on protecting
crops from the failure of rains, although
subsequent systems of water distribution (such
as the qanats in Iran or the karezs in
Afghanistan) imply the early advent of
irrigation from a system of wells.
The rst wells were excavated about 10500
years ago, as evidenced through the discovery
of a prehistoric well in Kirsonerga village in
Paphos district of Cyprus (Cyprus Antiquities
Department), when archaeologists discovered
a water well in Cyprus that was built as long
3
back as 10,500 years ago . Of course, this is
the ofcial evidence of the oldest wells but the
likelihood of discovering older wells still exists
across the global landscape over which human
beings had travelled by this period (15000 BP
– before present). While wells emerged across
other parts of the world at different times, the
oldest wells in India – for instance from the
Dholavira and Lothal archaeological sites in
Gujarat – are dated to be from a period that is
at 3500 to 5000 years old - from the
4
Harappan period .
Moench et al. (2013), in their piece
‘Groundwater Governance’ write, “Society’s
systematic exploitation of groundwater began
with the discovery of the shallow dug well.
Water availability was central in determining
man’s settlement pattern. The group of 5 m
deep water wells of this age uncovered in
Cyprus, and elsewhere in the Near East,
reects a certain understanding of shallow
groundwater occurrences. This was likely linked
to experience gained when mining for other
material like ints (to make re) and later,
metallic minerals (for making implements and
weapons)”.The establishment of settled farming
went hand in hand with the concepts of
ownership of land and water points that
required protection and facets of augmentation
and conservation.
There was always a felt need to lift
groundwater from wells and bring it to the
surface of the earth for various purposes. The
dug wells served as sources of water but
creating the actual access to meet different
needs – drinking water, domestic water, and
irrigation – meant the use of power to move
water up, against the force of gravity. Further, it
often became necessary to move it over fairly
long distances and distribute it over large areas
of the land. Lifting groundwater to the surface
has a long history. The early discovery of
engineering applications using levers, pulleys
and gears enabled long periods of non-
energized groundwater extraction.
1Spring water was critical for early humans in East Africa: https://www.rutgers.edu/news/springs-were-critical-water-
sources-early-humans-east-africa-rutgers-study-nds
2 https://www.britannica.com/topic/agriculture/How-agriculture-and-domestication-began
3 https://phys.org/news/2009-06-ancient-body-cyprus.html#jCp
4 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1645/
Introduction Introduction
23
Introduction Introduction
45
The classical case is that of the Persian Wheel
Technology and its ‘avatars’ that were used in
different parts of the world. The bullock-driven
rahat (in many parts of North and South India –
districts like Dungarpur in Rajasthan, Shivpuri in
MP and Kolar in Karnataka still have wells with
rahats), the bullock-powered mhot (was in
existence in large parts of Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh and Northern Karnataka,
Gujarat etc.) until quite recently, or the camel-
driven chadas (one still nds them in Rajasthan)
are all examples of a history of groundwater
extraction for at least the last 500 years. In
ethnic communities of Eastern India, one also
nds the use of the ‘tenda’ that is operated by
a person using a wooden pole with a leather
sack to extract shallow groundwater, again
going back several centuries of using human
effort to obtain groundwater from wells. The
‘dhekla’ and the ‘latha’ are terms used for
similar mechanisms from the Vidarbha region
of Maharashtra and from Bihar respectively.
Hence, the history of groundwater resources
development and usage in large regions of the
world, including India, until the 19th century,
was dominated by:
a. shallow sources, in the form of shallow dug
wells
b. community access to many from an only
source
c. human or animal powered devices to lift
water from these wells and bring it to the
surface for various uses
Photograph 1: Non energized groundwater extraction systems
Introduction Introduction
45
The classical case is that of the Persian Wheel
Technology and its ‘avatars’ that were used in
different parts of the world. The bullock-driven
rahat (in many parts of North and South India –
districts like Dungarpur in Rajasthan, Shivpuri in
MP and Kolar in Karnataka still have wells with
rahats), the bullock-powered mhot (was in
existence in large parts of Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh and Northern Karnataka,
Gujarat etc.) until quite recently, or the camel-
driven chadas (one still nds them in Rajasthan)
are all examples of a history of groundwater
extraction for at least the last 500 years. In
ethnic communities of Eastern India, one also
nds the use of the ‘tenda’ that is operated by
a person using a wooden pole with a leather
sack to extract shallow groundwater, again
going back several centuries of using human
effort to obtain groundwater from wells. The
‘dhekla’ and the ‘latha’ are terms used for
similar mechanisms from the Vidarbha region
of Maharashtra and from Bihar respectively.
Hence, the history of groundwater resources
development and usage in large regions of the
world, including India, until the 19th century,
was dominated by:
a. shallow sources, in the form of shallow dug
wells
b. community access to many from an only
source
c. human or animal powered devices to lift
water from these wells and bring it to the
surface for various uses
Photograph 1: Non energized groundwater extraction systems
Introduction 7
The modern era of
groundwater: explosion in
groundwater utilization
The last one hundred odd years, especially
since the end of the 19th century, have seen an
unprecedented development of groundwater
resources. This development can be attributed
to the advent of various technologies, driven by
the use of mechanized energy for:
a. Powering the excavation and drilling of
deeper wells (dug wells, boreholes, and
tube wells)
b. Pumping out water from these sources
At the same time, such groundwater resources
development enabled millions of users across
the world to soften the hardships resulting from
climate uncertainty and the shortcomings of
centralized water supply (usually surface water
supply). While the transition from traditional to
modern means of sourcing, access and
distribution of groundwater has been quite
varied across different regions of the world, the
overall usage of groundwater across the world
has increased signicantly. Groundwater is
perhaps the largest and most frequently
extracted material from inside the earth today.
3
Nearly 1000 km of groundwater is extracted
globally every year of which 70-90% of all
water consumed on an annual basis globally is
used in irrigated agriculture (Lopez-Gunn et al,
2011). By the turn of the century, South Asia
alone had more area under ‘groundwater
irrigation’ than the rest of the world combined;
at the beginning of the last decade 30% of the
global area under irrigation was in South Asia
(Shah, 2009). The largest share of global
groundwater extraction is used for agriculture
(Margat and van der Gun, 2013). India’s
aggressive pursuit of the green revolution for
achieving food security may have been
founded on the theory of large dams becoming
the backbone of the country’s irrigation
development, but its groundwater story, crafted
out of the ingenuity of millions of farmers,
emerged as the symbol of decentralised
irrigation development in India.
Consequently, India is today the country with
the largest extraction of groundwater in the
world (Shah, 2009; Margat and van der Gun,
2013), with an annual groundwater extraction
3
of over 250 km (CGWB,2017). This means
more than a quarter of the global groundwater
extraction occurs in India alone. India’s
groundwater extraction has increased by more
than 30 times since its independence in 1947.
Given India’s great dependency on
groundwater for agriculture, rural drinking
water and urban water supplies, many regions
have experienced groundwater extraction that
is more than the potential annual recharge to
aquifers, leading to a situation of serious
overexploitation of groundwater resources.
Groundwater over-abstraction and
groundwater contamination together have led
to an elevated level of vulnerability of resources
and populations across large swaths of India’s
landscape (Figure 1). Nearly 60% of the
districts in India have been affected by
depleting or contaminated groundwater or
both (Kulkarni et al, 2009). In many regions of
the country, groundwater contamination is co-
terminus with acute groundwater scarcity
posing us with a rather complex problem
requiring multifaceted responses
Figure 1: (above) Groundwater exploitation map (below) Groundwater contamination maps
Introduction 6
Introduction 7
The modern era of
groundwater: explosion in
groundwater utilization
The last one hundred odd years, especially
since the end of the 19th century, have seen an
unprecedented development of groundwater
resources. This development can be attributed
to the advent of various technologies, driven by
the use of mechanized energy for:
a. Powering the excavation and drilling of
deeper wells (dug wells, boreholes, and
tube wells)
b. Pumping out water from these sources
At the same time, such groundwater resources
development enabled millions of users across
the world to soften the hardships resulting from
climate uncertainty and the shortcomings of
centralized water supply (usually surface water
supply). While the transition from traditional to
modern means of sourcing, access and
distribution of groundwater has been quite
varied across different regions of the world, the
overall usage of groundwater across the world
has increased signicantly. Groundwater is
perhaps the largest and most frequently
extracted material from inside the earth today.
3
Nearly 1000 km of groundwater is extracted
globally every year of which 70-90% of all
water consumed on an annual basis globally is
used in irrigated agriculture (Lopez-Gunn et al,
2011). By the turn of the century, South Asia
alone had more area under ‘groundwater
irrigation’ than the rest of the world combined;
at the beginning of the last decade 30% of the
global area under irrigation was in South Asia
(Shah, 2009). The largest share of global
groundwater extraction is used for agriculture
(Margat and van der Gun, 2013). India’s
aggressive pursuit of the green revolution for
achieving food security may have been
founded on the theory of large dams becoming
the backbone of the country’s irrigation
development, but its groundwater story, crafted
out of the ingenuity of millions of farmers,
emerged as the symbol of decentralised
irrigation development in India.
Consequently, India is today the country with
the largest extraction of groundwater in the
world (Shah, 2009; Margat and van der Gun,
2013), with an annual groundwater extraction
3
of over 250 km (CGWB,2017). This means
more than a quarter of the global groundwater
extraction occurs in India alone. India’s
groundwater extraction has increased by more
than 30 times since its independence in 1947.
Given India’s great dependency on
groundwater for agriculture, rural drinking
water and urban water supplies, many regions
have experienced groundwater extraction that
is more than the potential annual recharge to
aquifers, leading to a situation of serious
overexploitation of groundwater resources.
Groundwater over-abstraction and
groundwater contamination together have led
to an elevated level of vulnerability of resources
and populations across large swaths of India’s
landscape (Figure 1). Nearly 60% of the
districts in India have been affected by
depleting or contaminated groundwater or
both (Kulkarni et al, 2009). In many regions of
the country, groundwater contamination is co-
terminus with acute groundwater scarcity
posing us with a rather complex problem
requiring multifaceted responses
Figure 1: (above) Groundwater exploitation map (below) Groundwater contamination maps
Introduction 6
Some salient features of the groundwater story
of the last century are listed below:
• There has been a six-time increase in the
extraction of groundwater throughout the
world over during the last fty years
3
• More than 1000 km of groundwater is
pumped every year at the global scale
• India, USA, and China account for nearly
half of the global groundwater use
• India, with nearly a quarter of the total
global extraction, is the country which has
the largest pumping by volume of
groundwater today
• India became the largest extractor of
groundwater in the world since the 1980s
India’s groundwater history has unfolded
during the last 70 to 80 years (Figure 2).
However, the real boom in groundwater use
occurred after the 1960s and 70s, partly
because of millions of farmers gaining access
to groundwater through different wells, in
pursuit of enabling food security for the
country. While the development of surface
water resources through dams and canals
proceeded through policy, farmers across
many regions of India invested their own
resources to dig wells and drill boreholes and
tube wells to gain access to irrigation.
While India became food secure through large
scale access to groundwater by farmers, the
groundwater story also began to unfold in
urban India. Sourcing, access, and distribution
to groundwater resources was propelled by
technologies like the hand pump along with
the borehole drilling rig on one side (1970s
and 80s) and the advent of the diesel and
electric centrifugal pumps rst and then by the
submersible pumps. Submersible pumps,
especially during the 1980s onward, enabled
groundwater users to drill deep wells and
pump water from any depth below the ground.
Groundwater sources, in the form of wells,
enabled people in both rural and urban areas
to gain access to groundwater, especially in
situations where formal supplies from public
sources such as dams fell short of the growing
demand.
Groundwater resources are the lifeline of
India’s water supply, in both the rural-agrarian
situations and in the growing urban-industrial
context. Today, at least 80-90 per cent of rural
settlements in India depend entirely on
groundwater for their domestic needs; further,
about 65 per cent of India’s irrigation, is based
on groundwater resources, while nearly half of
urban water usage is groundwater based
(Ministry of Drinking Water, River Development
and Ganga Rejuvenation, 2017; Ministry of
Agriculture, 2013; Narain, 2012). Put together,
these statistics indicate that at least 100 billion
Indians use groundwater in India daily, in one
way or another. Therefore, India’s groundwater
dependency is quite remarkable. With about
40 million wells, it presents a unique situation
of a large and growing dependency on
groundwater on one hand and increasing
challenges in groundwater management on
the other. Nearly 3 to 4 million springs
continue to support mountain communities,
often forming the only sources of water
supplies to communities in the mountains.
Depletion and contamination of dwindling
resources in some areas, impact on the
environment and growing competition and
conict are some key problems that have
emerged from this century-long history of the
growth of groundwater usage.
Hence, the last hundred years, and particularly
the last seventy years have witnessed a big shift
from the earlier history of groundwater use,
particularly in India. The signicant
consequences of the post nineteenth century
pattern of groundwater usage are:
• Increased number of groundwater sources
– throughseveral types of wells
• Technologies to tap aquifers at different
depths, implying increased access to
groundwater from great depths, especially
as shallower sources turned dry
• Individualization and privatization of
sources and access to groundwater,
moving away from the concept of
community sources
• Pumps with the capacity to extract large
volumes of groundwater over short periods
of time, leading to exploitation of
groundwater resources
• Groundwater quality deterioration due to
exploitation of groundwater and the
movement of contaminants from the
surface into the aquifers below
Figure 2: India’s unique groundwater story
Introduction Introduction
89
Some salient features of the groundwater story
of the last century are listed below:
• There has been a six-time increase in the
extraction of groundwater throughout the
world over during the last fty years
3
• More than 1000 km of groundwater is
pumped every year at the global scale
• India, USA, and China account for nearly
half of the global groundwater use
• India, with nearly a quarter of the total
global extraction, is the country which has
the largest pumping by volume of
groundwater today
• India became the largest extractor of
groundwater in the world since the 1980s
India’s groundwater history has unfolded
during the last 70 to 80 years (Figure 2).
However, the real boom in groundwater use
occurred after the 1960s and 70s, partly
because of millions of farmers gaining access
to groundwater through different wells, in
pursuit of enabling food security for the
country. While the development of surface
water resources through dams and canals
proceeded through policy, farmers across
many regions of India invested their own
resources to dig wells and drill boreholes and
tube wells to gain access to irrigation.
While India became food secure through large
scale access to groundwater by farmers, the
groundwater story also began to unfold in
urban India. Sourcing, access, and distribution
to groundwater resources was propelled by
technologies like the hand pump along with
the borehole drilling rig on one side (1970s
and 80s) and the advent of the diesel and
electric centrifugal pumps rst and then by the
submersible pumps. Submersible pumps,
especially during the 1980s onward, enabled
groundwater users to drill deep wells and
pump water from any depth below the ground.
Groundwater sources, in the form of wells,
enabled people in both rural and urban areas
to gain access to groundwater, especially in
situations where formal supplies from public
sources such as dams fell short of the growing
demand.
Groundwater resources are the lifeline of
India’s water supply, in both the rural-agrarian
situations and in the growing urban-industrial
context. Today, at least 80-90 per cent of rural
settlements in India depend entirely on
groundwater for their domestic needs; further,
about 65 per cent of India’s irrigation, is based
on groundwater resources, while nearly half of
urban water usage is groundwater based
(Ministry of Drinking Water, River Development
and Ganga Rejuvenation, 2017; Ministry of
Agriculture, 2013; Narain, 2012). Put together,
these statistics indicate that at least 100 billion
Indians use groundwater in India daily, in one
way or another. Therefore, India’s groundwater
dependency is quite remarkable. With about
40 million wells, it presents a unique situation
of a large and growing dependency on
groundwater on one hand and increasing
challenges in groundwater management on
the other. Nearly 3 to 4 million springs
continue to support mountain communities,
often forming the only sources of water
supplies to communities in the mountains.
Depletion and contamination of dwindling
resources in some areas, impact on the
environment and growing competition and
conict are some key problems that have
emerged from this century-long history of the
growth of groundwater usage.
Hence, the last hundred years, and particularly
the last seventy years have witnessed a big shift
from the earlier history of groundwater use,
particularly in India. The signicant
consequences of the post nineteenth century
pattern of groundwater usage are:
• Increased number of groundwater sources
– throughseveral types of wells
• Technologies to tap aquifers at different
depths, implying increased access to
groundwater from great depths, especially
as shallower sources turned dry
• Individualization and privatization of
sources and access to groundwater,
moving away from the concept of
community sources
• Pumps with the capacity to extract large
volumes of groundwater over short periods
of time, leading to exploitation of
groundwater resources
• Groundwater quality deterioration due to
exploitation of groundwater and the
movement of contaminants from the
surface into the aquifers below
Figure 2: India’s unique groundwater story
Introduction Introduction
89
Groundwater in India: the urban
side
The popularisation of groundwater access across
the world was a consequence of its low costs,
usually excellent quality, and its availability
directly underfoot, requiring only a small effort to
access; its ease of access places groundwater at
severe risk of pollution (Lerner, 2004). Even
globally, nearly 2 billion urban dwellers were
relying on groundwater by the end of the last
decade according to the study by Foster et al
(2010). The study further concluded that
dependence on groundwater, especially in
“developing cities” was quite high, urbanization
led to the modication of the groundwater cycle
and that many problems around groundwater
were predictable, but few were predicted. Two
major consequences of increasing groundwater
dependencies in the developing cities of the
world are listed out by various researchers
(Morris et al, 1994; Foster et al, 2010). These
two consequences can simply be summarized as:
1. The paradox of urban recharge represented
by the trade off between reduction in
inltration- facilitative surfaces (as cities get
built upon) and the induced inltration and
recharge from leaking water supply mains
and sewer lines.
2. Contaminant loading of sub-surface systems
because of improper sanitation, poor
sewerage, and haphazard waste-disposal.
While it is not surprising to acknowledge the role
of groundwater in rural India, it becomes difcult
for people to accept that groundwater plays a
signicant role in meeting urban water needs in
different regions of the country, particularly when
the growth of towns and cities is happening at
unprecedented rates. India’s urban population
has grown ve-fold during the last fty years.
The number of people living in urban areas of
India is expected to grow to around 800 million
by 2050. The demands of a rapidly urbanizing
society and industrializing economy come at a
time when the potential for augmenting supply is
limited, water bodies like lakes and rivers are
drying up, groundwater tables are falling, and
water quality issues are increasingly being
revealed in different ways.
Urban India and the nature of urbanisation
itself are quite diverse. It is impossible to make
sweeping generalisations about the growth of
small towns into cities and hence into urban
agglomerations in India. To capture the
diversity of urban growth, Shah and Kulkarni
(2015) provided a four-stage growth for the
towns and cities of India, labelling it as the
continuum of urban growth. Urban India, like
many regions of the world, has largely
emerged and grown out of the rural
hinterlands that constituted large swaths of the
Indian landscape even many years after
independence. (Figure 3) shows a schema of
urban growth as an expanding continuum of
towns and cities morphing into the agrarian,
rural space surrounding small townships. This
growth begins with the peripheral growth of
urban nuclei in a largely rural environment,
followed by growth wherein suburbs of the
township emerge. The third stage represents
further expansion into the rural space, where
Figure 3: A schema representing the four stages that a small township to reach the state of
urban agglomeration (after Shah and Kulkarni, 2015). The four stages can also help
classify the stage of urban growth
Photograph 2: Drilling a borewell in search of groundwater
Introduction Introduction
10 11
Groundwater in India: the urban
side
The popularisation of groundwater access across
the world was a consequence of its low costs,
usually excellent quality, and its availability
directly underfoot, requiring only a small effort to
access; its ease of access places groundwater at
severe risk of pollution (Lerner, 2004). Even
globally, nearly 2 billion urban dwellers were
relying on groundwater by the end of the last
decade according to the study by Foster et al
(2010). The study further concluded that
dependence on groundwater, especially in
“developing cities” was quite high, urbanization
led to the modication of the groundwater cycle
and that many problems around groundwater
were predictable, but few were predicted. Two
major consequences of increasing groundwater
dependencies in the developing cities of the
world are listed out by various researchers
(Morris et al, 1994; Foster et al, 2010). These
two consequences can simply be summarized as:
1. The paradox of urban recharge represented
by the trade off between reduction in
inltration- facilitative surfaces (as cities get
built upon) and the induced inltration and
recharge from leaking water supply mains
and sewer lines.
2. Contaminant loading of sub-surface systems
because of improper sanitation, poor
sewerage, and haphazard waste-disposal.
While it is not surprising to acknowledge the role
of groundwater in rural India, it becomes difcult
for people to accept that groundwater plays a
signicant role in meeting urban water needs in
different regions of the country, particularly when
the growth of towns and cities is happening at
unprecedented rates. India’s urban population
has grown ve-fold during the last fty years.
The number of people living in urban areas of
India is expected to grow to around 800 million
by 2050. The demands of a rapidly urbanizing
society and industrializing economy come at a
time when the potential for augmenting supply is
limited, water bodies like lakes and rivers are
drying up, groundwater tables are falling, and
water quality issues are increasingly being
revealed in different ways.
Urban India and the nature of urbanisation
itself are quite diverse. It is impossible to make
sweeping generalisations about the growth of
small towns into cities and hence into urban
agglomerations in India. To capture the
diversity of urban growth, Shah and Kulkarni
(2015) provided a four-stage growth for the
towns and cities of India, labelling it as the
continuum of urban growth. Urban India, like
many regions of the world, has largely
emerged and grown out of the rural
hinterlands that constituted large swaths of the
Indian landscape even many years after
independence. (Figure 3) shows a schema of
urban growth as an expanding continuum of
towns and cities morphing into the agrarian,
rural space surrounding small townships. This
growth begins with the peripheral growth of
urban nuclei in a largely rural environment,
followed by growth wherein suburbs of the
township emerge. The third stage represents
further expansion into the rural space, where
Figure 3: A schema representing the four stages that a small township to reach the state of
urban agglomeration (after Shah and Kulkarni, 2015). The four stages can also help
classify the stage of urban growth
Photograph 2: Drilling a borewell in search of groundwater
Introduction Introduction
10 11
Introduction 13
suburbs are engulfed into the core nucleus that
has grown and peri-urban spaces emerge and
grow. In many cases, a fourth stage is reached
where two expanding cities physically fuse into
each other, forming urban agglomerations.
Therefore, is important to understand the
comparative shares of surface and
groundwater that shape up through various
stages of such urban growth. Volumes of
surface water pumped from ponds, tanks, and
reservoirs, even in surface-water dependent
townships, increase with time. Similar trends in
groundwater usage are extremely difcult to
describe in the absence of reliable data but
groundwater extraction in urban India
continues to rise by the day. However, the
growth of urban usage of groundwater follows
a more complex and relatively indeterminate
trajectory as compared to surface water
supplies. This must be ascertained for efcient
planning of water supplies, sanitation, and
sewage management.
The growing dependence on groundwater,
both as the principal source of public water
supplies and as informal / formal supplements
to surface water supplies across all the four
stages of this growth, remains shadowed by
the formal, civic water supplies, usually through
large transfers from reservoirs, lakes, and
rivers. This growing groundwater dependency
in India’s small and large urban centers cannot
be ignored anymore as the problems
ofgroundwater scarcity, depletion and
contamination are no more restricted to the
sector of agriculture alone. But how much is
really known about India’s urban groundwater
and its usage? NIUA (2005) CGWB (2011)
and Narain (2012) clearly bring out the large
but sketchy picture of groundwater usage in
India’s small and large urban centers, all three
sources indicating that either half of urban
India depends on groundwater resources (the
social implications of urban groundwater
dependency) or half the urban water supply in
India come from groundwater sources (the
hydro-ecological implications of urban
groundwater dependency). Urban settlements
are quite diverse. Differently sized urban
settlements vary from small nuclear townships
to urban agglomerations. The large cities and
agglomerations themselves have changed from
smaller urban habitations to metropolises over
the last sixty to seventy years. Over 112 million
people live in the smallest towns of India, while
over 160 million urban Indians now live in
large cities with more than a million people.
Nearly 180 million Indians live in the middle
categories of ‘larger towns’ and ‘smaller cities’
today.Approaches of manging urban water
must be based on a matrix of differently sized
urban settlements and their
projections/trajectories of growth on one side
and their ecogeography, agroclimate,
hydrogeology etc. - on the other.
India’s groundwater resources can be
systematically viewed through a simplied
aquifer typology derived from a variety of
sources, such as Kulkarni (2005) based on the
District Resource Maps of GSI (various years)
and CGWB (2012). The map (Figure 4A) is
based on hydrogeological settings that
represent India’s broad aquifer systems. The
map also helps one arrive at the distribution of
rural and urban habitations according to the
aquifer settings in India (Figure 4B), based on
the Census of India (2011). Moreover, it also
illustrates the degree of urbanisation in each of
the hydrogeological settings (Figure 4C) from
which it becomes clear that the mountain
setting (Himalayan region) has the largest ratio
of urban to rural habitations (degree of
urbanisation) as compared to the hard-rock
settings (volcanic and crystalline aquifer
settings). It then becomes easy to imagine how
the numerous urban settings in the Himalayan
region are likely to fall in the Stage 1 or Stage
2 parts of the urban continuum while in the
latter two, there will be fewer towns and cities,
but these will belong to Stage 3 or Stage 4 of
the continuum.
Figure 4: (A) Hydrogeological settings in India dening its diverse aquifer typology(B)The distribution of rural and urban habitations
across these settings(C) Degree of urbanisation in each of these settings (After Kulkarni 2005 and Census of India, 2011)
Introduction 12
Introduction 13
suburbs are engulfed into the core nucleus that
has grown and peri-urban spaces emerge and
grow. In many cases, a fourth stage is reached
where two expanding cities physically fuse into
each other, forming urban agglomerations.
Therefore, is important to understand the
comparative shares of surface and
groundwater that shape up through various
stages of such urban growth. Volumes of
surface water pumped from ponds, tanks, and
reservoirs, even in surface-water dependent
townships, increase with time. Similar trends in
groundwater usage are extremely difcult to
describe in the absence of reliable data but
groundwater extraction in urban India
continues to rise by the day. However, the
growth of urban usage of groundwater follows
a more complex and relatively indeterminate
trajectory as compared to surface water
supplies. This must be ascertained for efcient
planning of water supplies, sanitation, and
sewage management.
The growing dependence on groundwater,
both as the principal source of public water
supplies and as informal / formal supplements
to surface water supplies across all the four
stages of this growth, remains shadowed by
the formal, civic water supplies, usually through
large transfers from reservoirs, lakes, and
rivers. This growing groundwater dependency
in India’s small and large urban centers cannot
be ignored anymore as the problems
ofgroundwater scarcity, depletion and
contamination are no more restricted to the
sector of agriculture alone. But how much is
really known about India’s urban groundwater
and its usage? NIUA (2005) CGWB (2011)
and Narain (2012) clearly bring out the large
but sketchy picture of groundwater usage in
India’s small and large urban centers, all three
sources indicating that either half of urban
India depends on groundwater resources (the
social implications of urban groundwater
dependency) or half the urban water supply in
India come from groundwater sources (the
hydro-ecological implications of urban
groundwater dependency). Urban settlements
are quite diverse. Differently sized urban
settlements vary from small nuclear townships
to urban agglomerations. The large cities and
agglomerations themselves have changed from
smaller urban habitations to metropolises over
the last sixty to seventy years. Over 112 million
people live in the smallest towns of India, while
over 160 million urban Indians now live in
large cities with more than a million people.
Nearly 180 million Indians live in the middle
categories of ‘larger towns’ and ‘smaller cities’
today.Approaches of manging urban water
must be based on a matrix of differently sized
urban settlements and their
projections/trajectories of growth on one side
and their ecogeography, agroclimate,
hydrogeology etc. - on the other.
India’s groundwater resources can be
systematically viewed through a simplied
aquifer typology derived from a variety of
sources, such as Kulkarni (2005) based on the
District Resource Maps of GSI (various years)
and CGWB (2012). The map (Figure 4A) is
based on hydrogeological settings that
represent India’s broad aquifer systems. The
map also helps one arrive at the distribution of
rural and urban habitations according to the
aquifer settings in India (Figure 4B), based on
the Census of India (2011). Moreover, it also
illustrates the degree of urbanisation in each of
the hydrogeological settings (Figure 4C) from
which it becomes clear that the mountain
setting (Himalayan region) has the largest ratio
of urban to rural habitations (degree of
urbanisation) as compared to the hard-rock
settings (volcanic and crystalline aquifer
settings). It then becomes easy to imagine how
the numerous urban settings in the Himalayan
region are likely to fall in the Stage 1 or Stage
2 parts of the urban continuum while in the
latter two, there will be fewer towns and cities,
but these will belong to Stage 3 or Stage 4 of
the continuum.
Figure 4: (A) Hydrogeological settings in India dening its diverse aquifer typology(B)The distribution of rural and urban habitations
across these settings(C) Degree of urbanisation in each of these settings (After Kulkarni 2005 and Census of India, 2011)
Introduction 12
Pune’s groundwater study
The Pune city water supply system dates to the
Peshwa period (nearly 200 years ago), where
daily household water supply was done
through a system of cisterns, reservoirs,
dipping wells, and aqueducts (Gokhale, 2016).
Rainwater and groundwater storage structures
like wells, kunds and baravs were built in Pune
during the Early Medieval Period (Marathe,
5
2019) . According to records compiled by
6
Sahapedia , “In the Peshwa period (1714 -
1818), when there were no dams to supply
water to the city of Pune, wells were the only
water source for daily use, potable water, and
agriculture. With the fall of the Peshwa and the
rise of Pune as a cantonment and an
administrative city, the growing population of
Pune and its water needs had to be
accommodated by the construction of dams.
Around 1850, the rst check dam (a
construction over a river that stops the ow of
water) was built to store water on the Mula-
Mutha and to supply water to the camp area.
Subsequently, a dam was planned at
Khadakwasla on the Mutha River, which was
completed in 1880. Eighty years after the
construction of Khadakwasla Dam, two more
dams were planned on the two tributaries of
the Mutha. According to a study done by the
Archaeological Department of Deccan College,
there were a total of 1,500 wells in Pune”.
Hence, it becomes important to locate any
study of groundwater in the context of the
broad typology of aquifers in India. A city like
Pune is no different. Pune is located in one of
the most fascinating geomorphological
ecosystems of the world; this geomorphology is
complex in many ways, with structural nuances
imposed by volcanology, climatology, and the
evolution of a landscape over time. Therefore,
understanding Pune’s hydrogeology and its
urban groundwater footprint requires a
focused and nuanced approach. The current
study by ACWADAM attempts to build upon
indicative aspects of demand-based studies
such as Narain (2012) and more incisive
hydrogeological investigations (Deolankar,
1977; Lalwani,1993; Kulkarni et al 1997). This
report, while drawing upon the works of many
workers, is mainly a continuation of the earlier
version of Pune’s Aquifers by ACWADAM
(2019). The scope of the study and the
methodology is based on the earlier version
while incorporating experiences, data, and
interaction with experts during the last three to
four years.
The scope of the study revolved around three
basic questions. The rst being estimation of
the quantities of groundwater extracted in the
city of Pune, say on an annual basis, while the
second question was more specic in terms of
the layout of Pune’s aquifers and their
characteristics. The 2019 report focused on
these two questions, while this report also
brings the third, most important component,
into focus, mainly, the basis for the planning,
management, and governance of groundwater
in Pune city. The report also includes short
narratives of certain decisions and actions
culminating from the earlier version of the
report and suggests certain key aspects of the
way forward. As a matter of fact, the study of
Pune’s Aquifers (ACWADAM, 2019) and a
study of similar work by ACWADAM in
Bengaluru (ACWADAM, 2017).
The methodology (in
continuation of the earlier
phase) involved:
Phase 1:
1. Over the last decade or so, ACWADAM,
through its own initiative began to collect
data, map the geology and partner with
organisations that were already working on
aspects like water supplies, rainwater
harvesting, urban biodiversity, education on
natural resources and the environment and
on the revival of streams and rivers. This
foundation research was key to developing
a focused phase during the early stage of
both these study versions, but especially
during the last three years, the focus was on
discussions with various experts who had
studied different dimensions of water in
Pune city.
2. As part of this phase, ACWADAM mainly
partnered with Mission Groundwater (Bhujal
Abhiyan Trust) and Centre for Environmental
Education (CEE). ACWADAM also worked
closely with organisations like Groundwater
Surveys and Development Agency (GSDA),
Jeevit Nadi, Ecological Society of India,
Department of Geology – SPPU, Fergusson
college, CGWB etc. The methodology also
included interactions with the Water Supply
and Planning Departments of Pune
Municipal Corporation, People’s
Representatives, Members of Housing
Societies, the Industry etc.
3. A design for collecting sample data on
groundwater usage through crowd sourcing
using a Google App was developed and
then launched jointly by CEE, Mission
Groundwater and ACWADAM in the earlier
phase. In the current phase, primary data
was collected from the eld using a
combination of sampling that included:
a. A systematic inventory of all the wells
from certain sample wards in the PMC
limits, mainly through the help of
student interns from Fergusson college –
students either submitted the results as
their dissertations or as project reports
as part completion of their MSc degree.
This survey was conducted over a period
of one year each, in each of the wards.
b. Representative data from other areas
which was not on an exhaustive basis as
in (a) above but indicative of the trends
in each of the locations / wards /
regions of the city. These data represent
a strategic smaller sample of direct
measurements.
4. A revalidation of the geological and
hydrogeological information collected
during the previous phase through a study
of freshly exposed geological exposures in
road cuttings, metro-work excavations, large
foundation excavations and well sections.
The well surveys from some areas also
divulged higher resolution data that was
used to validated and update information
on the geology and hydrogeology of Pune
city.
5. The Pune study also drew upon the
experiences from Bengaluru where
ACWADAM has been working as a
knowledge support partner to Biome Trust,
supported by Wipro Foundation. The
Bengaluru study mainly included mapping
of groundwater and piloting key
groundwater management protocols
including integrated rainwater harvesting
and groundwater recharge.
5https://tuprints.ulb.tudarmstadt.de/9281/1/Reimagining%20Water%20Infrastructure%20in%20its%20Cultural%20Specicity%
20Case%20of%20Pune%2C%20INDIA.pdf
6https://map.sahapedia.org/search/article/Wells%20in%20the%20City%20of%20Pune/6238
Introduction Introduction
14 15
Pune’s groundwater study
The Pune city water supply system dates to the
Peshwa period (nearly 200 years ago), where
daily household water supply was done
through a system of cisterns, reservoirs,
dipping wells, and aqueducts (Gokhale, 2016).
Rainwater and groundwater storage structures
like wells, kunds and baravs were built in Pune
during the Early Medieval Period (Marathe,
5
2019) . According to records compiled by
6
Sahapedia , “In the Peshwa period (1714 -
1818), when there were no dams to supply
water to the city of Pune, wells were the only
water source for daily use, potable water, and
agriculture. With the fall of the Peshwa and the
rise of Pune as a cantonment and an
administrative city, the growing population of
Pune and its water needs had to be
accommodated by the construction of dams.
Around 1850, the rst check dam (a
construction over a river that stops the ow of
water) was built to store water on the Mula-
Mutha and to supply water to the camp area.
Subsequently, a dam was planned at
Khadakwasla on the Mutha River, which was
completed in 1880. Eighty years after the
construction of Khadakwasla Dam, two more
dams were planned on the two tributaries of
the Mutha. According to a study done by the
Archaeological Department of Deccan College,
there were a total of 1,500 wells in Pune”.
Hence, it becomes important to locate any
study of groundwater in the context of the
broad typology of aquifers in India. A city like
Pune is no different. Pune is located in one of
the most fascinating geomorphological
ecosystems of the world; this geomorphology is
complex in many ways, with structural nuances
imposed by volcanology, climatology, and the
evolution of a landscape over time. Therefore,
understanding Pune’s hydrogeology and its
urban groundwater footprint requires a
focused and nuanced approach. The current
study by ACWADAM attempts to build upon
indicative aspects of demand-based studies
such as Narain (2012) and more incisive
hydrogeological investigations (Deolankar,
1977; Lalwani,1993; Kulkarni et al 1997). This
report, while drawing upon the works of many
workers, is mainly a continuation of the earlier
version of Pune’s Aquifers by ACWADAM
(2019). The scope of the study and the
methodology is based on the earlier version
while incorporating experiences, data, and
interaction with experts during the last three to
four years.
The scope of the study revolved around three
basic questions. The rst being estimation of
the quantities of groundwater extracted in the
city of Pune, say on an annual basis, while the
second question was more specic in terms of
the layout of Pune’s aquifers and their
characteristics. The 2019 report focused on
these two questions, while this report also
brings the third, most important component,
into focus, mainly, the basis for the planning,
management, and governance of groundwater
in Pune city. The report also includes short
narratives of certain decisions and actions
culminating from the earlier version of the
report and suggests certain key aspects of the
way forward. As a matter of fact, the study of
Pune’s Aquifers (ACWADAM, 2019) and a
study of similar work by ACWADAM in
Bengaluru (ACWADAM, 2017).
The methodology (in
continuation of the earlier
phase) involved:
Phase 1:
1. Over the last decade or so, ACWADAM,
through its own initiative began to collect
data, map the geology and partner with
organisations that were already working on
aspects like water supplies, rainwater
harvesting, urban biodiversity, education on
natural resources and the environment and
on the revival of streams and rivers. This
foundation research was key to developing
a focused phase during the early stage of
both these study versions, but especially
during the last three years, the focus was on
discussions with various experts who had
studied different dimensions of water in
Pune city.
2. As part of this phase, ACWADAM mainly
partnered with Mission Groundwater (Bhujal
Abhiyan Trust) and Centre for Environmental
Education (CEE). ACWADAM also worked
closely with organisations like Groundwater
Surveys and Development Agency (GSDA),
Jeevit Nadi, Ecological Society of India,
Department of Geology – SPPU, Fergusson
college, CGWB etc. The methodology also
included interactions with the Water Supply
and Planning Departments of Pune
Municipal Corporation, People’s
Representatives, Members of Housing
Societies, the Industry etc.
3. A design for collecting sample data on
groundwater usage through crowd sourcing
using a Google App was developed and
then launched jointly by CEE, Mission
Groundwater and ACWADAM in the earlier
phase. In the current phase, primary data
was collected from the eld using a
combination of sampling that included:
a. A systematic inventory of all the wells
from certain sample wards in the PMC
limits, mainly through the help of
student interns from Fergusson college –
students either submitted the results as
their dissertations or as project reports
as part completion of their MSc degree.
This survey was conducted over a period
of one year each, in each of the wards.
b. Representative data from other areas
which was not on an exhaustive basis as
in (a) above but indicative of the trends
in each of the locations / wards /
regions of the city. These data represent
a strategic smaller sample of direct
measurements.
4. A revalidation of the geological and
hydrogeological information collected
during the previous phase through a study
of freshly exposed geological exposures in
road cuttings, metro-work excavations, large
foundation excavations and well sections.
The well surveys from some areas also
divulged higher resolution data that was
used to validated and update information
on the geology and hydrogeology of Pune
city.
5. The Pune study also drew upon the
experiences from Bengaluru where
ACWADAM has been working as a
knowledge support partner to Biome Trust,
supported by Wipro Foundation. The
Bengaluru study mainly included mapping
of groundwater and piloting key
groundwater management protocols
including integrated rainwater harvesting
and groundwater recharge.
5https://tuprints.ulb.tudarmstadt.de/9281/1/Reimagining%20Water%20Infrastructure%20in%20its%20Cultural%20Specicity%
20Case%20of%20Pune%2C%20INDIA.pdf
6https://map.sahapedia.org/search/article/Wells%20in%20the%20City%20of%20Pune/6238
Introduction Introduction
14 15
Introduction 17
Phase 2:
1. Consolidation of baseline data collected
during the last 1.5 years: collation,
interpretation and inferential aspects using
the concept of ‘socio-hydrogeology’, that
combines data collected based on qualitative
and quantitative narratives on drilling,
installation of pumps, pumping schedules
etc. and observed data such as high scale
geological mapping and its correlation with
earlier work.
2. ‘Deep-dive’ monitoring of groundwater
sources from many different sites that
included the following aspects:
a. In-situ water level and water quality
measurement – reduced ground water
level, pH, TDS, Salinity and Temperature.
This was undertaken through the help of
trained volunteers.
b. Continuous water level measurement
with sensors – continuing measurements
from the previous phase plus an addition
of / change at a couple of more sites –
including the measurement of systematic
responses to pumping in different
aquifers and the patterns of pumping, in
addition to aquifer behavior.
3. ACWADAM’s staff provided regular back-up
support by visiting the sites on a periodic
basis to facilitate smooth functioning of both
volunteers and equipment.
4. Periodic meetings with stakeholders where
the sample studies were undertaken.
5. An inventory of springs in Pune city – this was
the additional aspect that ACWADAM has
integrated systematically into the study of
urban groundwater.
6. Continued dialogue and collaborations with
CEE and Bhujal Abhiyan through whom
many citizen groups could be sensitised and
even trained. Discussions with Jeevit Nadi
which is working on restoring stream and
river stretches with an ecosystem perspective
and with SPECTRUM, a group engaged in
systematic rainwater harvesting for well-
recharge in the Municipal Schools within
PMC limits.
7. Joint meetings with various stakeholders and
with ofcers from Pune Municipal
Corporation (PMC), including a couple of key
workshops, one of which was organised by
Bhujal Abhiyan in collaboration with
ACWADAM in January 2021.
Phase 3:
1. Compilation of data and information into a
database for analyses, interpretation and
inferential aspects of the study that led to not
just the compilation of the report but also
catalyzed decisions and actions on the
ground.
2. Collaborative planning of Managed Aquifer
Recharge (MAR) through public systems and
piloting rst initiatives in partnership with
Bhujal Abhiyan and Pune Municipal
Corporation in a couple of sites. A similar
exercise was also attempted in the
neighboring PCMC area at one location.
3. Focused discussions with the PMC’s
Additional Commissioner’s ofce (along with
Bhujal Abhiyan) on various aspects of
Managed Aquifer Recharge and the
protection and restoration of the shallow
unconned aquifers in Pune.
4. Field visits to various sites, in collaboration
with the Planning Department of PMC, to
conduct a rapid appraisal of water bodies in
some of the villages that have been included
in the newly accepted limits of the PMC.
5. Web-based outreach through various forums
on the topics of urban groundwater,
participatory urban aquifer mapping and
managed aquifer recharge (MAR) with
specic reference to Pune city.
Introduction 16
CHAPTER 02
Geology of Pune And Its Environs –
Defining The Aquifer Setting
Introduction 17
Phase 2:
1. Consolidation of baseline data collected
during the last 1.5 years: collation,
interpretation and inferential aspects using
the concept of ‘socio-hydrogeology’, that
combines data collected based on qualitative
and quantitative narratives on drilling,
installation of pumps, pumping schedules
etc. and observed data such as high scale
geological mapping and its correlation with
earlier work.
2. ‘Deep-dive’ monitoring of groundwater
sources from many different sites that
included the following aspects:
a. In-situ water level and water quality
measurement – reduced ground water
level, pH, TDS, Salinity and Temperature.
This was undertaken through the help of
trained volunteers.
b. Continuous water level measurement
with sensors – continuing measurements
from the previous phase plus an addition
of / change at a couple of more sites –
including the measurement of systematic
responses to pumping in different
aquifers and the patterns of pumping, in
addition to aquifer behavior.
3. ACWADAM’s staff provided regular back-up
support by visiting the sites on a periodic
basis to facilitate smooth functioning of both
volunteers and equipment.
4. Periodic meetings with stakeholders where
the sample studies were undertaken.
5. An inventory of springs in Pune city – this was
the additional aspect that ACWADAM has
integrated systematically into the study of
urban groundwater.
6. Continued dialogue and collaborations with
CEE and Bhujal Abhiyan through whom
many citizen groups could be sensitised and
even trained. Discussions with Jeevit Nadi
which is working on restoring stream and
river stretches with an ecosystem perspective
and with SPECTRUM, a group engaged in
systematic rainwater harvesting for well-
recharge in the Municipal Schools within
PMC limits.
7. Joint meetings with various stakeholders and
with ofcers from Pune Municipal
Corporation (PMC), including a couple of key
workshops, one of which was organised by
Bhujal Abhiyan in collaboration with
ACWADAM in January 2021.
Phase 3:
1. Compilation of data and information into a
database for analyses, interpretation and
inferential aspects of the study that led to not
just the compilation of the report but also
catalyzed decisions and actions on the
ground.
2. Collaborative planning of Managed Aquifer
Recharge (MAR) through public systems and
piloting rst initiatives in partnership with
Bhujal Abhiyan and Pune Municipal
Corporation in a couple of sites. A similar
exercise was also attempted in the
neighboring PCMC area at one location.
3. Focused discussions with the PMC’s
Additional Commissioner’s ofce (along with
Bhujal Abhiyan) on various aspects of
Managed Aquifer Recharge and the
protection and restoration of the shallow
unconned aquifers in Pune.
4. Field visits to various sites, in collaboration
with the Planning Department of PMC, to
conduct a rapid appraisal of water bodies in
some of the villages that have been included
in the newly accepted limits of the PMC.
5. Web-based outreach through various forums
on the topics of urban groundwater,
participatory urban aquifer mapping and
managed aquifer recharge (MAR) with
specic reference to Pune city.
Introduction 16
CHAPTER 02
Geology of Pune And Its Environs –
Defining The Aquifer Setting
Indian states can be classied in many ways.
The most common classication is based on
7,8
fteen agro-climatic zones . However, for
groundwater studies, it is more prudent to look
at the distribution of the broad aquifer
typologies (Kulkarni, 2005) across different
states. A broad classication reveals that the
mountain states like Himachal Pradesh are
dominated by a complex Himalayan geology
leading to a mix of hydrogeological settings,
while states like Uttar Pradesh are dominated
by alluvial sediments deposited by the Indo-
Gangetic River systems. States like Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh show mixed geological
formations, and therefore, a mixed
hydrogeological setting, while peninsular states
like Karnataka are dominated by crystalline
rocks that give rise to ‘hard rock’
hydrogeological settings.
Maharashtra’s uniqueness lies in the fact that it
is covered by Deccan Trap Basalts constituting
what is known as the Deccan Volcanic Province
(DVP) of west-central India. Some 60-70 % of
the DVP is exposed in the State of Maharashtra
alone. Hence, Maharashtra is not such a
hydrogeologically diverse state like many other
states of India. However, it has a unique
hydrogeological setting dened by the Deccan
Volcanic Province.
The Deccan Volcanic Province, constituted of
basalt lavas that were erupted some sixty-ve
million years ago, is a geological province that
is as majestic as any in the world. The Deccan
Volcanic Province encompasses more than half
2
a million km of India’s central-west regions.
The DVP also occupies great thickness –
ranging from a few meters to several hundreds
of meters – with a variety of basalt types
forming a sequence of lava ows and sub-units
of each ow. Groundwater resources form an
important source of water supplies in the
region. Deccan basalts outcrop in six states of
India and underlie nearly 50000 villages, 392
small towns and 32 variously sized cities (Shah
and Kulkarni, 2015) making it a region of
immense socio-economic importance. Further,
while these rural and urban habitations are
underlain by a common geology – basalts in
this case – they are spread across a variety of
agro-climatic zones. Moreover, the nature of
basalts, their weathering – fracturing pattern
and their geometry can vary from place to
place.
The basalts of the Deccan Volcanic Province are
exposed over 81% of the area of Maharashtra
State (Figure 6). The additional 11% covered by
other crystalline rocks – rocks of igneous and
metamorphic origin, Maharashtra can be called
a ‘hard-rock’ dominated region. One can
easily say that, except for parts of Vidarbha
region and South Konkan, the rest of
Maharashtra is underlain by basalt rock.
Photograph 3: A typical landform from the Deccan Volcanic Province in Maharashtra
7https://aicrp.icar.gov.in/vc/Ach_Zonespecic.aspx#:~:text=The%20countries%20is%20divided%20into,of%20AICRP%20(Ve
getable%20Crops).
8 http://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/agro-climatic-zones
Figure 5: Hydrogeological settings for states from different regions of India (modied after Kulkarni, 2005)
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting 18
Indian states can be classied in many ways.
The most common classication is based on
7,8
fteen agro-climatic zones . However, for
groundwater studies, it is more prudent to look
at the distribution of the broad aquifer
typologies (Kulkarni, 2005) across different
states. A broad classication reveals that the
mountain states like Himachal Pradesh are
dominated by a complex Himalayan geology
leading to a mix of hydrogeological settings,
while states like Uttar Pradesh are dominated
by alluvial sediments deposited by the Indo-
Gangetic River systems. States like Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh show mixed geological
formations, and therefore, a mixed
hydrogeological setting, while peninsular states
like Karnataka are dominated by crystalline
rocks that give rise to ‘hard rock’
hydrogeological settings.
Maharashtra’s uniqueness lies in the fact that it
is covered by Deccan Trap Basalts constituting
what is known as the Deccan Volcanic Province
(DVP) of west-central India. Some 60-70 % of
the DVP is exposed in the State of Maharashtra
alone. Hence, Maharashtra is not such a
hydrogeologically diverse state like many other
states of India. However, it has a unique
hydrogeological setting dened by the Deccan
Volcanic Province.
The Deccan Volcanic Province, constituted of
basalt lavas that were erupted some sixty-ve
million years ago, is a geological province that
is as majestic as any in the world. The Deccan
Volcanic Province encompasses more than half
2
a million km of India’s central-west regions.
The DVP also occupies great thickness –
ranging from a few meters to several hundreds
of meters – with a variety of basalt types
forming a sequence of lava ows and sub-units
of each ow. Groundwater resources form an
important source of water supplies in the
region. Deccan basalts outcrop in six states of
India and underlie nearly 50000 villages, 392
small towns and 32 variously sized cities (Shah
and Kulkarni, 2015) making it a region of
immense socio-economic importance. Further,
while these rural and urban habitations are
underlain by a common geology – basalts in
this case – they are spread across a variety of
agro-climatic zones. Moreover, the nature of
basalts, their weathering – fracturing pattern
and their geometry can vary from place to
place.
The basalts of the Deccan Volcanic Province are
exposed over 81% of the area of Maharashtra
State (Figure 6). The additional 11% covered by
other crystalline rocks – rocks of igneous and
metamorphic origin, Maharashtra can be called
a ‘hard-rock’ dominated region. One can
easily say that, except for parts of Vidarbha
region and South Konkan, the rest of
Maharashtra is underlain by basalt rock.
Photograph 3: A typical landform from the Deccan Volcanic Province in Maharashtra
7https://aicrp.icar.gov.in/vc/Ach_Zonespecic.aspx#:~:text=The%20countries%20is%20divided%20into,of%20AICRP%20(Ve
getable%20Crops).
8 http://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/agro-climatic-zones
Figure 5: Hydrogeological settings for states from different regions of India (modied after Kulkarni, 2005)
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting 18
Hence, any reference to groundwater in large
parts of the State must begin with an
understanding of the geological characteristics
of these basalt rocks that go on to dene the
hydrogeological (groundwater-related) features
of the region.
The gure below illustrates the hydrogeological
settings from the State of Maharashtra and the
percentages of different aquifer settings to the
total area of the state. More than 90% of
Maharashtra is underlain by igneous and
metamorphic rocks, including the Deccan
basalts. These rocks not only have low
porosities and permeabilities, but they have
local features that give rise to local aquifers that
have differing properties dening highly
variable conditions in the accumulation and
movement of groundwater.
Figure 6: The distribution of hydrogeological settings from the broad aquifer typology of
Maharashtra state(modied after Kulkarni, 2005 and District Resource Maps prepared by GSI)
Geological setting of Pune city and its environs
The city of Pune and its surrounding areas are located atop the Deccan plateau and underlain by the
basaltic lava ows of the Deccan Traps (Figure 8).
The Deccan Volcanic Province occupies a
region that stretches across more than 80%
of the State of Maharashtra and extends into
adjoining states like Gujarat, MP, Rajasthan,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. This province
is exposed over an area of more than half a
2
million km (Kulkarni et al., 2000). It is
constituted of lava ows of basalt composition
in which the accumulation and movement of
groundwater is a function of:
1. Lithology (type of basalt) – whether the
basalt is characterised by vesicles and
amygdales (degassing features when the
lava cooled) or ner grained dense,
compact rock
2. Degree of weathering leading to
development of porosity and permeability;
weathering is a function of the type of basalt
as well as the intensity and geometry of
weathered proles developed in various
parts of the province
3. Nature, intensity, and continuity of openings
that allow for the accumulation and
movement of groundwater (joints, fractures,
contacts etc.)
Figure 8: Summary of the Deccan Volcanic Province with key features that dene the
hydrogeological character and the spread of the Deccan Volcanic Province
Figure 7: Relative percentages of different aquifer
settings in the Maharashtra state
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
20 21
Hence, any reference to groundwater in large
parts of the State must begin with an
understanding of the geological characteristics
of these basalt rocks that go on to dene the
hydrogeological (groundwater-related) features
of the region.
The gure below illustrates the hydrogeological
settings from the State of Maharashtra and the
percentages of different aquifer settings to the
total area of the state. More than 90% of
Maharashtra is underlain by igneous and
metamorphic rocks, including the Deccan
basalts. These rocks not only have low
porosities and permeabilities, but they have
local features that give rise to local aquifers that
have differing properties dening highly
variable conditions in the accumulation and
movement of groundwater.
Figure 6: The distribution of hydrogeological settings from the broad aquifer typology of
Maharashtra state(modied after Kulkarni, 2005 and District Resource Maps prepared by GSI)
Geological setting of Pune city and its environs
The city of Pune and its surrounding areas are located atop the Deccan plateau and underlain by the
basaltic lava ows of the Deccan Traps (Figure 8).
The Deccan Volcanic Province occupies a
region that stretches across more than 80%
of the State of Maharashtra and extends into
adjoining states like Gujarat, MP, Rajasthan,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. This province
is exposed over an area of more than half a
2
million km (Kulkarni et al., 2000). It is
constituted of lava ows of basalt composition
in which the accumulation and movement of
groundwater is a function of:
1. Lithology (type of basalt) – whether the
basalt is characterised by vesicles and
amygdales (degassing features when the
lava cooled) or ner grained dense,
compact rock
2. Degree of weathering leading to
development of porosity and permeability;
weathering is a function of the type of basalt
as well as the intensity and geometry of
weathered proles developed in various
parts of the province
3. Nature, intensity, and continuity of openings
that allow for the accumulation and
movement of groundwater (joints, fractures,
contacts etc.)
Figure 8: Summary of the Deccan Volcanic Province with key features that dene the
hydrogeological character and the spread of the Deccan Volcanic Province
Figure 7: Relative percentages of different aquifer
settings in the Maharashtra state
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
20 21
Figure 9: Extract from the District Resources Map of Pune district (left) and the lithology of the
stratigraphy of Pune district (after Kale, et al., 2019) showing the Formation (Fm.) names of the lava
formations exposed in the Pune region. The elevations shown in the log are idealized and will show local
variations (becoming lower towards the east) because of the uneven thicknesses of various formations.
The number of the formations depicted in this log are the same as those in the adjoining map (right)
The city of Pune and its surrounding areas are
located atop the Deccan plateau and underlain
by the basaltic lava ows of the Deccan Volcanic
Province (Figures 8 and 9). The basalt lava ows
exposed in the region are classied from the
volcanological perspective (Kale, 2016, 2019)
into two major types, namely the Sheet Lava
Flows (also earlier called as ‘simple ows’ or ‘aa
ows’) and Lobate Lava Flows (earlier termed as
‘compound pahoehoe ows’). They may be
summarily described as follows:
A. The Sheet Lava Flows extend across many
tens (sometimes a few hundreds) of km
laterally, with a consistent thickness (varying
by about 10 – 15% at the most) across
large areas. Distinct interow horizons
(often described as red / green boles)
separate such ows. The topmost part of
such ows is constituted of vesicular basalts
with a thin (reddish) glassy rind on the top.
This portion (called the crust) is often seen
to be of a fragmented nature and identied
as ow-top breccia (Figure 10). The core of
such ows is thicker than the crust
(including the ow-top breccia and chilled
rinds where present). Some of these ows
in the Pune region display cores with
thickness of up to 20 m, while the crust
may be half or lesser than that in thickness.
The core often displays sub horizontal
bands of vesicles and sub horizontal
jointing that allows transmission of water
along such bands. The base of sheet lava
ows is composed of vesicular basalts and
may contain large cavities lined with
secondary minerals. Such ows are
normally more crystalline than the Lobate
Flows. A vertical sequence comprising of
several such sheet ows gives an
appearance of alternating compact and
vesicular basalts, since the vesicular crust
(of the lower ow), the interow horizon
and the vesicular base (of the upper ow)
can only be distinguished when observed
carefully. The weathered exposures of the
such ows display the famed step-like
geometry of the hillslopes, with the
vesicular zones yielding gentle slopes
having a deep weathering prole
alternating with steeper (at times
subvertical cliff-like) faces of the compact
basalt (with a very thin weathered zone).
Hydrologically, this combined vesicular
basalt (although volcanologically
constituted of three different layers) acts as
a single unit of a pervious basaltic layer
through which movement of groundwater is
easier and quicker. The compact portion
has much lesser porosity (unless traversed
by joints and fractures) and acts as a
relatively impervious layer alternating with
the vesicular basalt. This situation is
encountered in the northeastern parts of
the region around Pune where the
Indrayani Formation is exposed as well as
in the rugged hilly terrains south and
southwest of Pune city where the Diveghat
and Purandargarh formations are exposed.
Figure 10: Generalised cross section of Sheet lava ows (after Kale, 2019). The relative thickness of
the various layers in such ows may vary laterally across the area of exposure of the ow
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
22 23
Figure 9: Extract from the District Resources Map of Pune district (left) and the lithology of the
stratigraphy of Pune district (after Kale, et al., 2019) showing the Formation (Fm.) names of the lava
formations exposed in the Pune region. The elevations shown in the log are idealized and will show local
variations (becoming lower towards the east) because of the uneven thicknesses of various formations.
The number of the formations depicted in this log are the same as those in the adjoining map (right)
The city of Pune and its surrounding areas are
located atop the Deccan plateau and underlain
by the basaltic lava ows of the Deccan Volcanic
Province (Figures 8 and 9). The basalt lava ows
exposed in the region are classied from the
volcanological perspective (Kale, 2016, 2019)
into two major types, namely the Sheet Lava
Flows (also earlier called as ‘simple ows’ or ‘aa
ows’) and Lobate Lava Flows (earlier termed as
‘compound pahoehoe ows’). They may be
summarily described as follows:
A. The Sheet Lava Flows extend across many
tens (sometimes a few hundreds) of km
laterally, with a consistent thickness (varying
by about 10 – 15% at the most) across
large areas. Distinct interow horizons
(often described as red / green boles)
separate such ows. The topmost part of
such ows is constituted of vesicular basalts
with a thin (reddish) glassy rind on the top.
This portion (called the crust) is often seen
to be of a fragmented nature and identied
as ow-top breccia (Figure 10). The core of
such ows is thicker than the crust
(including the ow-top breccia and chilled
rinds where present). Some of these ows
in the Pune region display cores with
thickness of up to 20 m, while the crust
may be half or lesser than that in thickness.
The core often displays sub horizontal
bands of vesicles and sub horizontal
jointing that allows transmission of water
along such bands. The base of sheet lava
ows is composed of vesicular basalts and
may contain large cavities lined with
secondary minerals. Such ows are
normally more crystalline than the Lobate
Flows. A vertical sequence comprising of
several such sheet ows gives an
appearance of alternating compact and
vesicular basalts, since the vesicular crust
(of the lower ow), the interow horizon
and the vesicular base (of the upper ow)
can only be distinguished when observed
carefully. The weathered exposures of the
such ows display the famed step-like
geometry of the hillslopes, with the
vesicular zones yielding gentle slopes
having a deep weathering prole
alternating with steeper (at times
subvertical cliff-like) faces of the compact
basalt (with a very thin weathered zone).
Hydrologically, this combined vesicular
basalt (although volcanologically
constituted of three different layers) acts as
a single unit of a pervious basaltic layer
through which movement of groundwater is
easier and quicker. The compact portion
has much lesser porosity (unless traversed
by joints and fractures) and acts as a
relatively impervious layer alternating with
the vesicular basalt. This situation is
encountered in the northeastern parts of
the region around Pune where the
Indrayani Formation is exposed as well as
in the rugged hilly terrains south and
southwest of Pune city where the Diveghat
and Purandargarh formations are exposed.
Figure 10: Generalised cross section of Sheet lava ows (after Kale, 2019). The relative thickness of
the various layers in such ows may vary laterally across the area of exposure of the ow
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
22 23
B. The Lobate Lava Flows (Figure 11) have a
bun-shaped geometry in 3-dimensions, with
an inated middle portion and tapering
away in thickness in all directions. They may
internally be comprised of numerous lobes
outlined by reddened, chilled glassy rinds.
Ropy structures, tumuli and hummocky tops
are common in them. Individual lobes may
2
not spread more than a few km , while a
ow-eld may be traced over distances of a
few tens of km laterally. This type usually
displays a lateral spread to thickness ratio
in the range of 1: 10 to 1:100. These ows
are largely vesicular across their thickness,
but at times may display 2 – 5 m thick
compact basalts at their core. Their crust to
core thickness ratio is normally one or
greater. Their base is lined with pipe-
amygdales and oored by chilled glassy
tachylitic material.
Due to their high vesicularity, these types of
ows are easily weathered and usually display
a thick soil cover. Some of these ows have
their constituent lobes welded together into a
compounded unit resulting from a very rapid
emplacement of successive lobes and their
cooling together and fusing into a singular
unit. Such compound ows line sub-vertical
cliffs with smooth rounded surfaces (as in seen
in the hills hosting the Karla, Bhaja and other
caves west of Pune, where the Karla
Formation is exposed in the hill ranges.
Because of the profusion of vesicular cavities
in them, hydrologically these types of ows are
highly porous. However, their laterally pinching
geometry does not permit them to become
large aquifers, and they are likely to have
limited storage capacities. Signicantly, some
of such lobate ows have yielded perched
aquifers that feed the several famous wells
located within the forts around Pune.
Figure 11: Generalised cross section of Lobate lava ows (after Kale, 2019). Although individual
lobes of such ows may be up to 10 m thick, the thickness of the compact basaltic
core rarely exceeds a few meters
To understand groundwater in aquifers in all
dimensions, one must understand the
groundwater typology of a region. It can be
dened by a region’s hydrogeological settings,
aquifer scales and the socio-economic factors of
the region (Kulkarni and Vijayshankar, 2009).
Hence, the typology of groundwater decides how
and how much the water stored in an aquifer
change because of groundwater recharge and
extraction. Natural (climate, mainly rainfall) and
human uxes acting together on an aquifer
determine the status of the aquifer. The primary
consideration, though, is the medium – rocks
and rock material - in which groundwater
accumulates and through which it moves. Hence,
geology forms the fundamental basis for deriving
a groundwater typology. India’s geological
diversity lends itself to varied hydrogeological
conditions not only across the country, but even
within a single village or watershed. These
conditions are reected in well yields and in the
short - and long - term responses of aquifers to
natural and anthropogenic uxes. Groundwater
from the basalt aquifers forms a signicant
source of rural and urban water supply,
constituting the mainstay for agriculture, the
presence of many large dams in the region
notwithstanding. Groundwater abstraction from
the basalt aquifers has been on an increase
during the last three decades. Growing
groundwater usage has meant an increase in
competition between users of this precious
resource, across various sectors. Understanding
the hydrogeological aspects of the Deccan basalt
aquifers, particularly their heterogeneity, becomes
important in developing strategic approaches to
managing these aquifers and addressing
challenges of groundwater competition and
conict in the region (Kulkarni and Vijay Shankar,
2014). The increase in number of wells in
Maharashtra is also interesting to note. While the
number of wells in the state has increased ten
times since 1960s, the yield per well has been
dropping since the 1990s (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Trends in groundwater demand leading to a rise in the number of wells –
1960 to 2010 (after Macdonald et al, 1995 and GSDA and CGWB, 2014)
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
24 25
B. The Lobate Lava Flows (Figure 11) have a
bun-shaped geometry in 3-dimensions, with
an inated middle portion and tapering
away in thickness in all directions. They may
internally be comprised of numerous lobes
outlined by reddened, chilled glassy rinds.
Ropy structures, tumuli and hummocky tops
are common in them. Individual lobes may
2
not spread more than a few km , while a
ow-eld may be traced over distances of a
few tens of km laterally. This type usually
displays a lateral spread to thickness ratio
in the range of 1: 10 to 1:100. These ows
are largely vesicular across their thickness,
but at times may display 2 – 5 m thick
compact basalts at their core. Their crust to
core thickness ratio is normally one or
greater. Their base is lined with pipe-
amygdales and oored by chilled glassy
tachylitic material.
Due to their high vesicularity, these types of
ows are easily weathered and usually display
a thick soil cover. Some of these ows have
their constituent lobes welded together into a
compounded unit resulting from a very rapid
emplacement of successive lobes and their
cooling together and fusing into a singular
unit. Such compound ows line sub-vertical
cliffs with smooth rounded surfaces (as in seen
in the hills hosting the Karla, Bhaja and other
caves west of Pune, where the Karla
Formation is exposed in the hill ranges.
Because of the profusion of vesicular cavities
in them, hydrologically these types of ows are
highly porous. However, their laterally pinching
geometry does not permit them to become
large aquifers, and they are likely to have
limited storage capacities. Signicantly, some
of such lobate ows have yielded perched
aquifers that feed the several famous wells
located within the forts around Pune.
Figure 11: Generalised cross section of Lobate lava ows (after Kale, 2019). Although individual
lobes of such ows may be up to 10 m thick, the thickness of the compact basaltic
core rarely exceeds a few meters
To understand groundwater in aquifers in all
dimensions, one must understand the
groundwater typology of a region. It can be
dened by a region’s hydrogeological settings,
aquifer scales and the socio-economic factors of
the region (Kulkarni and Vijayshankar, 2009).
Hence, the typology of groundwater decides how
and how much the water stored in an aquifer
change because of groundwater recharge and
extraction. Natural (climate, mainly rainfall) and
human uxes acting together on an aquifer
determine the status of the aquifer. The primary
consideration, though, is the medium – rocks
and rock material - in which groundwater
accumulates and through which it moves. Hence,
geology forms the fundamental basis for deriving
a groundwater typology. India’s geological
diversity lends itself to varied hydrogeological
conditions not only across the country, but even
within a single village or watershed. These
conditions are reected in well yields and in the
short - and long - term responses of aquifers to
natural and anthropogenic uxes. Groundwater
from the basalt aquifers forms a signicant
source of rural and urban water supply,
constituting the mainstay for agriculture, the
presence of many large dams in the region
notwithstanding. Groundwater abstraction from
the basalt aquifers has been on an increase
during the last three decades. Growing
groundwater usage has meant an increase in
competition between users of this precious
resource, across various sectors. Understanding
the hydrogeological aspects of the Deccan basalt
aquifers, particularly their heterogeneity, becomes
important in developing strategic approaches to
managing these aquifers and addressing
challenges of groundwater competition and
conict in the region (Kulkarni and Vijay Shankar,
2014). The increase in number of wells in
Maharashtra is also interesting to note. While the
number of wells in the state has increased ten
times since 1960s, the yield per well has been
dropping since the 1990s (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Trends in groundwater demand leading to a rise in the number of wells –
1960 to 2010 (after Macdonald et al, 1995 and GSDA and CGWB, 2014)
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
24 25
As the graph above indicates, the 1990s was
the threshold period after which the yield per
well began falling. Today, the average yield per
well is like what it was in the 1960s. Of course,
the reasons for the poor yields are different. In
the 1960s, wells were shallow and mostly did
not fully penetrate the aquifer. They also had
limited capacities for pumping. Most
groundwater was hand-drawn or bullock-drawn
from wells. Today, we observe a wide range of
pumping systems ranging from electric powered
deep-well submersibles to various kinds of solar
powered pumps on wells. However, despite
many wells and many pumps, the aquifers in
Maharashtra permit only a small volume of
water to be available to each well as the limited
storage is now accessed by an increased
number of sources (wells and bore wells).
Hence, the limited well-yield is a function of
aquifers that have limited groundwater storage.
The groundwater resource became increasingly
divided as the number of wells increased, a
classical example of the basalt aquifers as
‘common pool resources’.
Maharashtra has nearly 13% share of irrigation
wells in the country (5th Minor Irrigation Census,
Government of India), even though over 40% of
the dams in the country are in the state of
Maharashtra alone (National Register of Large
Dams, Central Water Commission – cwc.gov.in).
Pune district shows over 118000 irrigation wells,
not to mention wells in the small towns and cities
that are growing at a rapid pace in the district.
With this background, it is important, to rst
explore the geological setting in and around Pune
city to make a logical progression towards
understanding the aquifers underneath Pune city.
Hydrogeological mapping of
Pune city: a simplied geological
framework
The geology of the Pune region is dominated by
a sequence of basalt (lava) ows. The lavas
disposed are horizontal “ows” and give rise to
a morphology called traps. Each lava ow
varies in thickness from 10s to 100s of meters.
These basalts were formed from lava erupted
on the surface, some sixty-ve million years
ago. The lava solidied, weathered, and was
fractured subsequently. Each lava ow can be
sub-divided into units and subunits to make a
fundamental hydrogeological differentiation,
even at the scales of river basins (Rajguru et al,
2018).
The Deccan basalts have been commonly
divided into ‘Simple’ and ‘Compound’
lavas/lava ows, depending on the viscosity of
the primary lava (Deshmukh,1988; Kale and
Kulkarni, 1992). Both types of basalt ows tend
to weather variably even across smaller
outcrops. The compound ow basalts result
from lavas, which lose much of their volatile
gases prior to extrusion and hence are more
viscous. This greater viscosity causes the
remaining volatile gases to be trapped within
the rapidly solidifying lava. In case of
compound ows fragmentation of the upper
surface results from the disruption of the ow
beneath it leading to the formation of squeeze
ups. Although distinction is made between the
two ow types, gradations between simple and
compound ows are common since the effects
of the loss of volatiles and cooling will increase
the viscosity of the lava and cause a change in
the physical characteristics (Macdonald et al,
1995).
Photograph 5: Set of basalt subunit that constitute what is labelled as compound
lava ow exposed on road cut near Sus area
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
26 27
Photograph 4: Borewell in Pune city
As the graph above indicates, the 1990s was
the threshold period after which the yield per
well began falling. Today, the average yield per
well is like what it was in the 1960s. Of course,
the reasons for the poor yields are different. In
the 1960s, wells were shallow and mostly did
not fully penetrate the aquifer. They also had
limited capacities for pumping. Most
groundwater was hand-drawn or bullock-drawn
from wells. Today, we observe a wide range of
pumping systems ranging from electric powered
deep-well submersibles to various kinds of solar
powered pumps on wells. However, despite
many wells and many pumps, the aquifers in
Maharashtra permit only a small volume of
water to be available to each well as the limited
storage is now accessed by an increased
number of sources (wells and bore wells).
Hence, the limited well-yield is a function of
aquifers that have limited groundwater storage.
The groundwater resource became increasingly
divided as the number of wells increased, a
classical example of the basalt aquifers as
‘common pool resources’.
Maharashtra has nearly 13% share of irrigation
wells in the country (5th Minor Irrigation Census,
Government of India), even though over 40% of
the dams in the country are in the state of
Maharashtra alone (National Register of Large
Dams, Central Water Commission – cwc.gov.in).
Pune district shows over 118000 irrigation wells,
not to mention wells in the small towns and cities
that are growing at a rapid pace in the district.
With this background, it is important, to rst
explore the geological setting in and around Pune
city to make a logical progression towards
understanding the aquifers underneath Pune city.
Hydrogeological mapping of
Pune city: a simplied geological
framework
The geology of the Pune region is dominated by
a sequence of basalt (lava) ows. The lavas
disposed are horizontal “ows” and give rise to
a morphology called traps. Each lava ow
varies in thickness from 10s to 100s of meters.
These basalts were formed from lava erupted
on the surface, some sixty-ve million years
ago. The lava solidied, weathered, and was
fractured subsequently. Each lava ow can be
sub-divided into units and subunits to make a
fundamental hydrogeological differentiation,
even at the scales of river basins (Rajguru et al,
2018).
The Deccan basalts have been commonly
divided into ‘Simple’ and ‘Compound’
lavas/lava ows, depending on the viscosity of
the primary lava (Deshmukh,1988; Kale and
Kulkarni, 1992). Both types of basalt ows tend
to weather variably even across smaller
outcrops. The compound ow basalts result
from lavas, which lose much of their volatile
gases prior to extrusion and hence are more
viscous. This greater viscosity causes the
remaining volatile gases to be trapped within
the rapidly solidifying lava. In case of
compound ows fragmentation of the upper
surface results from the disruption of the ow
beneath it leading to the formation of squeeze
ups. Although distinction is made between the
two ow types, gradations between simple and
compound ows are common since the effects
of the loss of volatiles and cooling will increase
the viscosity of the lava and cause a change in
the physical characteristics (Macdonald et al,
1995).
Photograph 5: Set of basalt subunit that constitute what is labelled as compound
lava ow exposed on road cut near Sus area
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
26 27
Photograph 4: Borewell in Pune city
subdividing lava ows into commonly
applicable units viz. Compact basalt including
columnar basalt (CB), Vesicular-amygdaloidal
basalt (VAB) and sometimes into a third type,
Compound basalt (CompB) to simplify
hydrogeological understanding at scales of
‘aquifers. This description is based on many
studies on groundwater in the Deccan basalts
(Adyalkar and Mani, 1971; Deolankar, 1980;
Lawrence and Ansari, 1980; Deolankar and
Kulkarni, 1984) including ACWADAM’s own
work in this terrain, summarized as part of a
detailed description of different Deccan basalt
groundwater systems (Kulkarni et al, 2000).
The mapping of aquifers in Pune city began
with a seven-step approach that ACWADAM
uses as a standard procedure in any region
where it works. The process includes certain key
specicities of mapping basalt aquifers,
scientically validated, and published in various
publications (Deolankar,1980;
Groundwater system A consists of an upper
vesicular amygdaloidal basalt unit and a
lower compact basalt unit, in which the
primary groundwater inow zones are sheet
joints in the upper and lower parts of the
vesicular amygdaloidal basalt and
subvertical joints in the uppermost part of
the compact basalt.
Groundwater system B consists of an upper
compact basalt unit and a lower vesicular
amygdaloidal basalt unit, in which primary
inow zones are subvertical joints in the
compact basalt and sheet joints in the
upper part of the underlying vesicular
amygdaloidal basalt.
Because of its well-developed network of
sheet joints and subvertical joints,
transmissivity and storage coefcient values
are higher for aquifers in system A. Wells
penetrating system A, therefore, are
capable of irrigating more cropped land or
providing larger supplies of groundwater
for urban uses. The yields of large diameter
open-dug wells can be classied based on
this simple scheme. Groundwater potential
of system A is better than that of system B,
because wells tapping the former can
irrigate a greater number of hectares in
summertime per well.
Figure 13: Deccan basalt groundwater systems or aquifers (after Kulkarni et al, 2000)
A basic classication of the geology using
the above-mentioned conceptual model
was used to develop an understanding of
the aquifers in Pune city. The mapping was
entirely based upon eld work involving
mapping outcrops of basalts exposed in
and around Pune city, logging well-
sections, stream and river sections,
excavation-cuts for roadworks and
construction sites. The study also included
referring to accessible lithologs from a
limited number of bore wells and
correlating these with earlier studies (such
as Kulkarni et al., 1995). Pune city is
underlain by basalt units of variable
thicknesses ranging from a few meters to
hundreds of meters. While mapping,
particular attention was paid to identifying
the contact between the above two types of
basalts, the nature of openings in each
basalt unit, especially the joints and
fractures, while also identifying fracture
trends within these units locally and
regionally.
Hence, the basalt units are broadly
classied into two major types. The rst
being the vesicular-amygdaloidal basalt
which has numerous voids and pores
along with horizontal sheet joints - often
the void spaces in vesicular basalt are lled
with secondary material called as
amygdales. The second variety is the
compact basalt which is ner-grained, with
negligible vesicles and with fewer fractures
that are sub-vertical in nature.
The mapping was based on the lithological
division of the basalt into these two types:
1. Vesicular – amygdaloidal basalt (VAB)
2. Compact basalt (CB)
The eld mapping was conducted during
the previous phase of the study
(ACWADAM, 2019). However, the exercise
was repeated during the last couple of
years to validate and improve the map.
The mapping also drew upon earlier work
on groundwater in Pune, namely
Deolankar (1977) and Kulkarni et al
(1995) which have provided some insights
to the hydrogeology of Pune city. Detailed
eld mapping of the basalts was conducted
between the altitudes of 525 m above msl
to the highest elevation of up to about
1145 above msl. Seventy-four units of
alternating CBs and VABs were identied.
The geological map has been produced,
based on this data, and overlaid on the
Pune’s electoral ward boundary (2017) to
get micro-level information shown in
(Figure 14). The shades of red/pink
represent VABs while the shades of green
represent CBs. An elevation-wise log of the
different basalt units is presented as Figure
15. Each ow/unit is variable in thickness.
The minimum thickness is 2m (VAB 17,
VAB18, VAB22, VAB27 and CB18, CB30,
CB32), and maximum thickness is 44m
(CB10). The maximum thickness seen in
the VAB is 17m (VAB9).
The vesicular amygdaloidal basalt in the
study area is weathered and shows parallel
to sub-parallel sheet joints resulting from
the weathering of the overburden and this
attributes them a higher hydraulic
conductivity when compared to compact
basalts. Each vesicular amygdaloidal
basalt unit is overlain by a denser, compact
basalt, which is jointed at a few locations.
Most of the vesicular amygdaloidal basalts
are capped by red layers. The compact
basalt in the study area is dense and
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
28 29
subdividing lava ows into commonly
applicable units viz. Compact basalt including
columnar basalt (CB), Vesicular-amygdaloidal
basalt (VAB) and sometimes into a third type,
Compound basalt (CompB) to simplify
hydrogeological understanding at scales of
‘aquifers. This description is based on many
studies on groundwater in the Deccan basalts
(Adyalkar and Mani, 1971; Deolankar, 1980;
Lawrence and Ansari, 1980; Deolankar and
Kulkarni, 1984) including ACWADAM’s own
work in this terrain, summarized as part of a
detailed description of different Deccan basalt
groundwater systems (Kulkarni et al, 2000).
The mapping of aquifers in Pune city began
with a seven-step approach that ACWADAM
uses as a standard procedure in any region
where it works. The process includes certain key
specicities of mapping basalt aquifers,
scientically validated, and published in various
publications (Deolankar,1980;
Groundwater system A consists of an upper
vesicular amygdaloidal basalt unit and a
lower compact basalt unit, in which the
primary groundwater inow zones are sheet
joints in the upper and lower parts of the
vesicular amygdaloidal basalt and
subvertical joints in the uppermost part of
the compact basalt.
Groundwater system B consists of an upper
compact basalt unit and a lower vesicular
amygdaloidal basalt unit, in which primary
inow zones are subvertical joints in the
compact basalt and sheet joints in the
upper part of the underlying vesicular
amygdaloidal basalt.
Because of its well-developed network of
sheet joints and subvertical joints,
transmissivity and storage coefcient values
are higher for aquifers in system A. Wells
penetrating system A, therefore, are
capable of irrigating more cropped land or
providing larger supplies of groundwater
for urban uses. The yields of large diameter
open-dug wells can be classied based on
this simple scheme. Groundwater potential
of system A is better than that of system B,
because wells tapping the former can
irrigate a greater number of hectares in
summertime per well.
Figure 13: Deccan basalt groundwater systems or aquifers (after Kulkarni et al, 2000)
A basic classication of the geology using
the above-mentioned conceptual model
was used to develop an understanding of
the aquifers in Pune city. The mapping was
entirely based upon eld work involving
mapping outcrops of basalts exposed in
and around Pune city, logging well-
sections, stream and river sections,
excavation-cuts for roadworks and
construction sites. The study also included
referring to accessible lithologs from a
limited number of bore wells and
correlating these with earlier studies (such
as Kulkarni et al., 1995). Pune city is
underlain by basalt units of variable
thicknesses ranging from a few meters to
hundreds of meters. While mapping,
particular attention was paid to identifying
the contact between the above two types of
basalts, the nature of openings in each
basalt unit, especially the joints and
fractures, while also identifying fracture
trends within these units locally and
regionally.
Hence, the basalt units are broadly
classied into two major types. The rst
being the vesicular-amygdaloidal basalt
which has numerous voids and pores
along with horizontal sheet joints - often
the void spaces in vesicular basalt are lled
with secondary material called as
amygdales. The second variety is the
compact basalt which is ner-grained, with
negligible vesicles and with fewer fractures
that are sub-vertical in nature.
The mapping was based on the lithological
division of the basalt into these two types:
1. Vesicular – amygdaloidal basalt (VAB)
2. Compact basalt (CB)
The eld mapping was conducted during
the previous phase of the study
(ACWADAM, 2019). However, the exercise
was repeated during the last couple of
years to validate and improve the map.
The mapping also drew upon earlier work
on groundwater in Pune, namely
Deolankar (1977) and Kulkarni et al
(1995) which have provided some insights
to the hydrogeology of Pune city. Detailed
eld mapping of the basalts was conducted
between the altitudes of 525 m above msl
to the highest elevation of up to about
1145 above msl. Seventy-four units of
alternating CBs and VABs were identied.
The geological map has been produced,
based on this data, and overlaid on the
Pune’s electoral ward boundary (2017) to
get micro-level information shown in
(Figure 14). The shades of red/pink
represent VABs while the shades of green
represent CBs. An elevation-wise log of the
different basalt units is presented as Figure
15. Each ow/unit is variable in thickness.
The minimum thickness is 2m (VAB 17,
VAB18, VAB22, VAB27 and CB18, CB30,
CB32), and maximum thickness is 44m
(CB10). The maximum thickness seen in
the VAB is 17m (VAB9).
The vesicular amygdaloidal basalt in the
study area is weathered and shows parallel
to sub-parallel sheet joints resulting from
the weathering of the overburden and this
attributes them a higher hydraulic
conductivity when compared to compact
basalts. Each vesicular amygdaloidal
basalt unit is overlain by a denser, compact
basalt, which is jointed at a few locations.
Most of the vesicular amygdaloidal basalts
are capped by red layers. The compact
basalt in the study area is dense and
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
28 29
massive, it is jointed, and most joints are
subvertical.
Fracturing is common in the study area,
especially in the upper and the lower
reaches. Closely spaced sub-vertical
fractures are apparent along fracture zones
that follow clear trends. The major regional
trends in the upper reaches of the area are
observed in two directions; NNE-SSW and
NW-SE. Closely spaced fractures trending
in these directions are observed covering
the entire Upper reaches of the study area.
This can also be observed in satellite
imagery (Google Earth). The evidence of
their presence has also been conrmed in
the eld. Along these fractures brittle
deformation of basalts (including close
spaced jointing; intense shearing, etc.) can
be recorded in the exposures. Some areas
of Pune, especially parts of the low-lying
portions adjoining the main river channels,
show deposits of course alluvial material,
particularly in the form of a gravel-
dominated sediment. This is observed in
excavations and well cuttings but is
challenging to map. It is difcult to
summarise if it is mappable at scales of the
city. While we mention its presence in the
report, we have consciously not included it
in our maps. Moreover, in most the wells, it
is curbed or lined out in contrast from the
exposed section of the underlying basalt.
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
30 31
Figure 14: Geological map of the area under PMC limit
massive, it is jointed, and most joints are
subvertical.
Fracturing is common in the study area,
especially in the upper and the lower
reaches. Closely spaced sub-vertical
fractures are apparent along fracture zones
that follow clear trends. The major regional
trends in the upper reaches of the area are
observed in two directions; NNE-SSW and
NW-SE. Closely spaced fractures trending
in these directions are observed covering
the entire Upper reaches of the study area.
This can also be observed in satellite
imagery (Google Earth). The evidence of
their presence has also been conrmed in
the eld. Along these fractures brittle
deformation of basalts (including close
spaced jointing; intense shearing, etc.) can
be recorded in the exposures. Some areas
of Pune, especially parts of the low-lying
portions adjoining the main river channels,
show deposits of course alluvial material,
particularly in the form of a gravel-
dominated sediment. This is observed in
excavations and well cuttings but is
challenging to map. It is difcult to
summarise if it is mappable at scales of the
city. While we mention its presence in the
report, we have consciously not included it
in our maps. Moreover, in most the wells, it
is curbed or lined out in contrast from the
exposed section of the underlying basalt.
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
30 31
Figure 14: Geological map of the area under PMC limit
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
32 33
Figure 15: Litholog of the area under PMC limit
CHAPTER 03
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed
Through Its Aquifers
Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting Geology of Pune And Its Environs – Dening The Aquifer Setting
32 33
Figure 15: Litholog of the area under PMC limit
CHAPTER 03
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed
Through Its Aquifers
Deccan basalts have been generally recognised
as low-permeability rocks (Adyalkar and
Mani,1971; Dhokarikar, 1984; Singhal, 1997;
Singhal and Gupta, 1998). The rst
comprehensive assessment of the heterogeneity
of these basalts was reported by Deolankar
(1980) and subsequently described in some detail
by Lawrence (1985), Kulkarni et al (2000) and
Duraiswami et al (2012). However, the socio-
economic implications of aquifer heterogeneity in
the Deccan basalts emerged through
ACWADAM’s work in the eld (Patil et al., 2017)
and through the understanding of groundwater
competition, conict and social iniquities resulting
out of aquifer heterogeneity and the rapid
trajectories of groundwater development (Kulkarni
and Vijay Shankar, 2014; Kulkarni and Gokhale,
2021).
To begin with, the development of Pune’s aquifer
system is a consequence of the alternate
sequence of VABs with their horizontal sheet
fractures and the CBs with their vertical fractures.
These two basalt units form different aquifers due
to their alternating sequences and due to how
their fracture geometries combine laterally and
vertically to accord a set of hydraulic continuities
and discontinuities in the sub-surface. The
fractures attribute hydraulic continuities not only
within a single unit or lava ow, but also across
horizontal units giving rise to Deccan basalt
aquifer systems (Kulkarni et al, 2000). Pune’s
aquifers can also be understood well, using this
hydrogeological model. Before coming to a
description of Pune’s aquifer, it is important to
summarise some of the salient features of the
hydrology of Pune city.
Rainfall in Pune city
Pune city is fortunate in many ways. Its location,
nestled in the gentler sloping, monsoonal leeward
side of the Western Ghats, is prone neither to the
heavy rainfall onslaught that the coastal plains
and the ghat regions experience nor to the
vagaries of many of the drought-prone, extreme
rain-shadow locations that lie further east from
the city. Moreover, the headquarters of the Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) is located in
Pune city which has long-term records of rainfall
from within the city. ACWADAM had procured
district-wise hundred-year rainfall data from IMD
some years ago. This data, when plotted for the
period 1901 to 2000 provided interesting insights
to Pune’s year-wise rainfall trend during these
hundred years, with addition of subsequent data
for the next 15 years from various sources in the
public domain, e.g., India Water Portal, Tyndall
9
Center for Climate Change Research . Figure 16
(a) illustrates the 115-year annual rainfall plot for
Pune. The plot includes annual rainfall and the
area plot for accumulated rainfall anomalies
(year-wise deviation from the long-term average
rainfall), the ten-year moving average for the
accumulated rainfall anomaly and a linear trend
for the annual rainfall. A noteworthy feature of
the graph shows how despite the slightly
increasing long-term trend in precipitation, there
are three clear cycles of the accumulated rainfall
anomaly – a negative anomaly dominant period
between 1901 and 1930 followed by a positive
anomaly dominated period from 1930 to 1983
and again a negative anomaly period from 1983
until 2015.
After these analyses, the team at ACWADAM felt
the need to understand the season-wise trends
over this period, for which the monthly rainfall
records were arranged into four unequal parts
over the 115 yearsFigure 16 (b). The winter
precipitation is apparently constant with a
noteworthy decrease in the January to May
precipitation that includes pre-monsoon rainfall, a
crucial factor in groundwater recharge during the
driest, most stressed groundwater season. Hence,
the pre-monsoon share of annual precipitation
for Pune district shows a clearly declining trend
after the 1970s, indicating a drier summer
period, which, along with the dominance of
negative accumulated rainfall anomaly has
probably led to challenging conditions for natural
recharge to groundwater.
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 34
Figure 16: (a)Rainfall data for Pune district (based on IMD’s hundred-year data set + India Water
Portal (sourced from Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research): Analysed annual rainfall data, with
ten-year moving average trendline and accumulated rainfall anomalies;(b) Seasonal distribution
trends – annual rainfall separated season-wise
B
A
9 https://www.indiawaterportal.org/met_data (Currently, data sets unavailable)
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers
Deccan basalts have been generally recognised
as low-permeability rocks (Adyalkar and
Mani,1971; Dhokarikar, 1984; Singhal, 1997;
Singhal and Gupta, 1998). The rst
comprehensive assessment of the heterogeneity
of these basalts was reported by Deolankar
(1980) and subsequently described in some detail
by Lawrence (1985), Kulkarni et al (2000) and
Duraiswami et al (2012). However, the socio-
economic implications of aquifer heterogeneity in
the Deccan basalts emerged through
ACWADAM’s work in the eld (Patil et al., 2017)
and through the understanding of groundwater
competition, conict and social iniquities resulting
out of aquifer heterogeneity and the rapid
trajectories of groundwater development (Kulkarni
and Vijay Shankar, 2014; Kulkarni and Gokhale,
2021).
To begin with, the development of Pune’s aquifer
system is a consequence of the alternate
sequence of VABs with their horizontal sheet
fractures and the CBs with their vertical fractures.
These two basalt units form different aquifers due
to their alternating sequences and due to how
their fracture geometries combine laterally and
vertically to accord a set of hydraulic continuities
and discontinuities in the sub-surface. The
fractures attribute hydraulic continuities not only
within a single unit or lava ow, but also across
horizontal units giving rise to Deccan basalt
aquifer systems (Kulkarni et al, 2000). Pune’s
aquifers can also be understood well, using this
hydrogeological model. Before coming to a
description of Pune’s aquifer, it is important to
summarise some of the salient features of the
hydrology of Pune city.
Rainfall in Pune city
Pune city is fortunate in many ways. Its location,
nestled in the gentler sloping, monsoonal leeward
side of the Western Ghats, is prone neither to the
heavy rainfall onslaught that the coastal plains
and the ghat regions experience nor to the
vagaries of many of the drought-prone, extreme
rain-shadow locations that lie further east from
the city. Moreover, the headquarters of the Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) is located in
Pune city which has long-term records of rainfall
from within the city. ACWADAM had procured
district-wise hundred-year rainfall data from IMD
some years ago. This data, when plotted for the
period 1901 to 2000 provided interesting insights
to Pune’s year-wise rainfall trend during these
hundred years, with addition of subsequent data
for the next 15 years from various sources in the
public domain, e.g., India Water Portal, Tyndall
9
Center for Climate Change Research . Figure 16
(a) illustrates the 115-year annual rainfall plot for
Pune. The plot includes annual rainfall and the
area plot for accumulated rainfall anomalies
(year-wise deviation from the long-term average
rainfall), the ten-year moving average for the
accumulated rainfall anomaly and a linear trend
for the annual rainfall. A noteworthy feature of
the graph shows how despite the slightly
increasing long-term trend in precipitation, there
are three clear cycles of the accumulated rainfall
anomaly – a negative anomaly dominant period
between 1901 and 1930 followed by a positive
anomaly dominated period from 1930 to 1983
and again a negative anomaly period from 1983
until 2015.
After these analyses, the team at ACWADAM felt
the need to understand the season-wise trends
over this period, for which the monthly rainfall
records were arranged into four unequal parts
over the 115 yearsFigure 16 (b). The winter
precipitation is apparently constant with a
noteworthy decrease in the January to May
precipitation that includes pre-monsoon rainfall, a
crucial factor in groundwater recharge during the
driest, most stressed groundwater season. Hence,
the pre-monsoon share of annual precipitation
for Pune district shows a clearly declining trend
after the 1970s, indicating a drier summer
period, which, along with the dominance of
negative accumulated rainfall anomaly has
probably led to challenging conditions for natural
recharge to groundwater.
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 34
Figure 16: (a)Rainfall data for Pune district (based on IMD’s hundred-year data set + India Water
Portal (sourced from Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research): Analysed annual rainfall data, with
ten-year moving average trendline and accumulated rainfall anomalies;(b) Seasonal distribution
trends – annual rainfall separated season-wise
B
A
9 https://www.indiawaterportal.org/met_data (Currently, data sets unavailable)
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers
Hydrological features
Pune city is a water-blessed city due to its
geographical location and plenty of natural
water assets. Pune lies in the Upper Bhima
Basin (Figure 18), a part of the Bhima River
Basin that is in the head reaches of the Krishna
River Basin of peninsular India. The city is
located in the head reaches of the Bhima Basin,
nestled in the eastern foothills of the Western
Ghat Divide, close to the source regions of
three important rivers the Pavana, Mula and
Mutha which conuence within the limits of
Pune Municipal Corporation. Incidentally, Pune
city is the headquarters of Pune district which
includes several large reservoirs that serve
different purposes, the principal among these
being irrigation and hydropower. Incidentally,
Pune falls in a region that has some of the
highest densities of larger reservoirs in India. All
the headwater reservoirs above the Ujani dam,
represented in Figure 17, lie in Pune district.
The drainage and geology of the Upper Bhima
Basin has also been mapped by ACWADAM
(Rajguru et al, 2018) (Figure 18).
Figure 17: Location of Pune in the Bhima Basin (map modied after Kulkarni et al, 2005)
The Pune Urban Region lies in the southern
portions of the Upper Bhima Basin, represented
as the Ujani dam catchment (Figure 18), at the
conuence of the Mula and Mutha rivers (only
major drainage represented here). There are
thirty-ve distinctly hydrogeologically mappable
basalt units between the elevations of 520 and
1270 m above msl in the basin. Smaller
patches of alluvial deposits are also observed
along areas adjoining certain stream and
portions of the river channels.
The jurisdictional boundaries of Pune city,
represented by PMC was of the order of 269
2
km until early 2017. Eleven villages have been
added in 2017 and twenty-three villages were
further added in 2022 to the PMC limits under
the new Development Plan. This implies that the
jurisdictional area for PMC is now of the order
2
of 521 km , making Pune one of the largest
urban local bodies by area. Even in its older
2
established jurisdictional space of 269 km , it is
interesting to note that smaller rivers like
Ramnadi, Devnadi, Ambil odha and Bhairoba
nala bring waters into the city and conuence
the Mula or the Mutha at different points in the
city within this area. The Pune City Base Map
prepared by PriMove shows 23 basins /
watersheds mapped systematically from some
10
years back (undated), at the scale of 1:25000 .
Figure 19 (a) is the natural drainage map of
Pune city that includes the Mula and Mutha
Rivers as well as the streams and smaller rivers
that conuence these two rivers. A representation
of the third order sub-basins – 55 in number - of
the area under PMC limit are presented in Figure
19 (b). Large number of third order sub-basins in
the area, indicating that the city region has a
captive catchment that indicates ows generated
with precipitation within the city limits and
discharging to the Mula-Mutha river system
within the city limits. The water resources
generated through precipitation over the
municipal limits in these watersheds is of the
3
order of 199 million m , i.e., nearly 7 thousand
million cubic feet (TMC).
10 https://www.pmc.gov.in/sites/default/les/Nala_Basin_Map_Pdf/PUNE_CITY_FINAL_BASE_MAP_25000_SCALE.pdf
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 36 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 37
Hydrological features
Pune city is a water-blessed city due to its
geographical location and plenty of natural
water assets. Pune lies in the Upper Bhima
Basin (Figure 18), a part of the Bhima River
Basin that is in the head reaches of the Krishna
River Basin of peninsular India. The city is
located in the head reaches of the Bhima Basin,
nestled in the eastern foothills of the Western
Ghat Divide, close to the source regions of
three important rivers the Pavana, Mula and
Mutha which conuence within the limits of
Pune Municipal Corporation. Incidentally, Pune
city is the headquarters of Pune district which
includes several large reservoirs that serve
different purposes, the principal among these
being irrigation and hydropower. Incidentally,
Pune falls in a region that has some of the
highest densities of larger reservoirs in India. All
the headwater reservoirs above the Ujani dam,
represented in Figure 17, lie in Pune district.
The drainage and geology of the Upper Bhima
Basin has also been mapped by ACWADAM
(Rajguru et al, 2018) (Figure 18).
Figure 17: Location of Pune in the Bhima Basin (map modied after Kulkarni et al, 2005)
The Pune Urban Region lies in the southern
portions of the Upper Bhima Basin, represented
as the Ujani dam catchment (Figure 18), at the
conuence of the Mula and Mutha rivers (only
major drainage represented here). There are
thirty-ve distinctly hydrogeologically mappable
basalt units between the elevations of 520 and
1270 m above msl in the basin. Smaller
patches of alluvial deposits are also observed
along areas adjoining certain stream and
portions of the river channels.
The jurisdictional boundaries of Pune city,
represented by PMC was of the order of 269
2
km until early 2017. Eleven villages have been
added in 2017 and twenty-three villages were
further added in 2022 to the PMC limits under
the new Development Plan. This implies that the
jurisdictional area for PMC is now of the order
2
of 521 km , making Pune one of the largest
urban local bodies by area. Even in its older
2
established jurisdictional space of 269 km , it is
interesting to note that smaller rivers like
Ramnadi, Devnadi, Ambil odha and Bhairoba
nala bring waters into the city and conuence
the Mula or the Mutha at different points in the
city within this area. The Pune City Base Map
prepared by PriMove shows 23 basins /
watersheds mapped systematically from some
10
years back (undated), at the scale of 1:25000 .
Figure 19 (a) is the natural drainage map of
Pune city that includes the Mula and Mutha
Rivers as well as the streams and smaller rivers
that conuence these two rivers. A representation
of the third order sub-basins – 55 in number - of
the area under PMC limit are presented in Figure
19 (b). Large number of third order sub-basins in
the area, indicating that the city region has a
captive catchment that indicates ows generated
with precipitation within the city limits and
discharging to the Mula-Mutha river system
within the city limits. The water resources
generated through precipitation over the
municipal limits in these watersheds is of the
3
order of 199 million m , i.e., nearly 7 thousand
million cubic feet (TMC).
10 https://www.pmc.gov.in/sites/default/les/Nala_Basin_Map_Pdf/PUNE_CITY_FINAL_BASE_MAP_25000_SCALE.pdf
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 36 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 37
Figure 19: (a) Natural drainage system within PMC boundary and (b) third order
basins within PMC boundary
Figure 18: Pune Urban Region (marked by the square) on a lithological map of the Ujani reservoir catchment (Ujani reservoir is just beyond
the terminal part of the river in the southeastern portion of the map) (map modied after: Rajguru et al, 2018)
Figure 19: (a) Natural drainage system within PMC boundary and (b) third order
basins within PMC boundary
Figure 18: Pune Urban Region (marked by the square) on a lithological map of the Ujani reservoir catchment (Ujani reservoir is just beyond
the terminal part of the river in the southeastern portion of the map) (map modied after: Rajguru et al, 2018)
Table 1: The areas of different watersheds and estimates of water generated in each watershed
(the estimated areas may differ slightly from actual values on the ground)
Conceptualizing Deccan basalt
aquifers
Groundwater occurs in aquifers. An aquifer is a
water-saturated geological formation – rocks or
material derived from rocks (sand, gravel etc.) –
that is capable of storing and transmitting
groundwater in reasonable quantities to springs
and wells. To understand groundwater, it is
essential to study and understand aquifers and
aquifer behaviour in an area. There are two
basic types of aquifers – unconned (also called
phreatic) and conned (Driscoll, 1980; Fetter,
1980). The nature and arrangement of different
rocks and the changes in the porosity and
permeability of these rocks determines the
geometries of these aquifers.
Different ‘types’ of basalt lavas have been used
to understand aquifers in the Deccan Volcanic
Province in India. This is evident from early
classications that referred to weathering,
fracturing/jointing and the compactness of
basalts in the highly variable occurrence of
groundwater resources from the Deccan Volcanic
Province (Deshpande, 1950; Deshpande and
Sengupta, 1956; Narayanpethkar et al, 1993).
Hydrogeological studies in the Deccan basalt,
however, have been dominated by classications
based on the description of lava ows or sub-
units of each ow. Such descriptions have
included the presence or absence of vesicles and
amygdales, zeolite llings, fracture geometries
and the degree of compactness of the basalt.
The most common terminologies that are used to
describe the hydrogeology of Deccan basalt units
include ‘vesicular’, ‘amygdaloidal’, ‘compact’
and ‘massive’ basalts (Adyalkar and Mani, 1971;
Central Ground Water Board, 1982; Dhokarikar,
1984).
The accurate description of the physical character
of various basalts is important in identifying and
characterizing Deccan basalt aquifers (Deolankar,
1980). A conceptual model of alternating
vesicular-amygdaloidal basalt and compact
basalt units is not only useful in characterizing
types of unconned aquifer systems but is also
useful in identifying deeper groundwater systems
in the Deccan Volcanic Province of India (Kulkarni
et al, 2000). Figure 20 is a simplied conceptual
model of the Deccan basalt sequence (a) and the
formation of aquifers resulting from this sequence
(b). The aquifers – unconned when exposed at
the surface and conned when at different
depths from the surface - show a complex
arrangement. The same layer of basalt can form
an unconned aquifer when exposed at the
surface at a location while it may be tapped
through deep bore wells at higher elevations as a
conned aquifer.
Sr. No. Watershed Area of the
2
watershed (km )
Volume of water generated by
3
722 mm of annual precipitation (million m )
1 WS-1 22.70 16.39
2 WS-2 7.42 5.36
3 WS-3 2.75 1.98
4 WS-4 4.44 3.20
5 WS-5 8.26 5.96
6 WS-6 4.11 2.97
7 WS-7 2.27 1.64
8 WS-8 6.38 4.61
9 WS-9 19.03 13.74
10 WS-10 3.18 2.29
11 WS-11 15.15 10.94
12 WS-12 9.81 7.08
13 WS-13 0.75 0.54
14 WS-14 1.02 0.74
15 WS-15 4.71 3.40
16 WS-16 0.66 0.48
17 WS-17 1.42 1.03
18 WS-18 2.73 1.97
19 WS-19 7.06 5.10
20 WS-20 4.13 2.98
21 WS-21 5.23 3.78
22 WS-22 14.07 10.16
23 WS-23 5.06 3.65
24 WS-24 2.07 1.49
25 WS-25 3.85 2.78
26 WS-26 3.83 2.77
27 WS-27 1.73 1.25
28 WS-28 0.62 0.45
29 WS-29 0.51 0.36
30 WS-30 0.68 0.49
31 WS-31 2.56 1.85
32 WS-32 2.57 1.86
33 WS-33 2.31 1.67
34 WS-34 2.82 2.04
35 WS-35 2.02 1.46
36 WS-36 4.20 3.03
37 WS-37 7.70 5.56
38 WS-38 1.46 1.05
39 WS-39 0.78 0.56
40 WS-40 1.66 1.20
41 WS-41 0.92 0.67
42 WS-42 3.04 2.19
43 WS-43 3.74 2.70
44 WS-44 8.02 5.79
45 WS-45 7.75 5.60
46 WS-46 0.99 0.72
47 WS-47 3.01 2.17
48 WS-48 3.45 2.49
49 WS-49 8.46 6.11
50 WS-50 7.53 5.44
51 WS-51 15.90 11.48
52 WS-52 3.48 2.52
53 WS-53 6.55 4.73
54 WS-54 8.22 5.93
55 WS-55 1.13 0.82
Total water generated 199.21
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 40 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 41
Table 1: The areas of different watersheds and estimates of water generated in each watershed
(the estimated areas may differ slightly from actual values on the ground)
Conceptualizing Deccan basalt
aquifers
Groundwater occurs in aquifers. An aquifer is a
water-saturated geological formation – rocks or
material derived from rocks (sand, gravel etc.) –
that is capable of storing and transmitting
groundwater in reasonable quantities to springs
and wells. To understand groundwater, it is
essential to study and understand aquifers and
aquifer behaviour in an area. There are two
basic types of aquifers – unconned (also called
phreatic) and conned (Driscoll, 1980; Fetter,
1980). The nature and arrangement of different
rocks and the changes in the porosity and
permeability of these rocks determines the
geometries of these aquifers.
Different ‘types’ of basalt lavas have been used
to understand aquifers in the Deccan Volcanic
Province in India. This is evident from early
classications that referred to weathering,
fracturing/jointing and the compactness of
basalts in the highly variable occurrence of
groundwater resources from the Deccan Volcanic
Province (Deshpande, 1950; Deshpande and
Sengupta, 1956; Narayanpethkar et al, 1993).
Hydrogeological studies in the Deccan basalt,
however, have been dominated by classications
based on the description of lava ows or sub-
units of each ow. Such descriptions have
included the presence or absence of vesicles and
amygdales, zeolite llings, fracture geometries
and the degree of compactness of the basalt.
The most common terminologies that are used to
describe the hydrogeology of Deccan basalt units
include ‘vesicular’, ‘amygdaloidal’, ‘compact’
and ‘massive’ basalts (Adyalkar and Mani, 1971;
Central Ground Water Board, 1982; Dhokarikar,
1984).
The accurate description of the physical character
of various basalts is important in identifying and
characterizing Deccan basalt aquifers (Deolankar,
1980). A conceptual model of alternating
vesicular-amygdaloidal basalt and compact
basalt units is not only useful in characterizing
types of unconned aquifer systems but is also
useful in identifying deeper groundwater systems
in the Deccan Volcanic Province of India (Kulkarni
et al, 2000). Figure 20 is a simplied conceptual
model of the Deccan basalt sequence (a) and the
formation of aquifers resulting from this sequence
(b). The aquifers – unconned when exposed at
the surface and conned when at different
depths from the surface - show a complex
arrangement. The same layer of basalt can form
an unconned aquifer when exposed at the
surface at a location while it may be tapped
through deep bore wells at higher elevations as a
conned aquifer.
Sr. No. Watershed Area of the
2
watershed (km )
Volume of water generated by
3
722 mm of annual precipitation (million m )
1 WS-1 22.70 16.39
2 WS-2 7.42 5.36
3 WS-3 2.75 1.98
4 WS-4 4.44 3.20
5 WS-5 8.26 5.96
6 WS-6 4.11 2.97
7 WS-7 2.27 1.64
8 WS-8 6.38 4.61
9 WS-9 19.03 13.74
10 WS-10 3.18 2.29
11 WS-11 15.15 10.94
12 WS-12 9.81 7.08
13 WS-13 0.75 0.54
14 WS-14 1.02 0.74
15 WS-15 4.71 3.40
16 WS-16 0.66 0.48
17 WS-17 1.42 1.03
18 WS-18 2.73 1.97
19 WS-19 7.06 5.10
20 WS-20 4.13 2.98
21 WS-21 5.23 3.78
22 WS-22 14.07 10.16
23 WS-23 5.06 3.65
24 WS-24 2.07 1.49
25 WS-25 3.85 2.78
26 WS-26 3.83 2.77
27 WS-27 1.73 1.25
28 WS-28 0.62 0.45
29 WS-29 0.51 0.36
30 WS-30 0.68 0.49
31 WS-31 2.56 1.85
32 WS-32 2.57 1.86
33 WS-33 2.31 1.67
34 WS-34 2.82 2.04
35 WS-35 2.02 1.46
36 WS-36 4.20 3.03
37 WS-37 7.70 5.56
38 WS-38 1.46 1.05
39 WS-39 0.78 0.56
40 WS-40 1.66 1.20
41 WS-41 0.92 0.67
42 WS-42 3.04 2.19
43 WS-43 3.74 2.70
44 WS-44 8.02 5.79
45 WS-45 7.75 5.60
46 WS-46 0.99 0.72
47 WS-47 3.01 2.17
48 WS-48 3.45 2.49
49 WS-49 8.46 6.11
50 WS-50 7.53 5.44
51 WS-51 15.90 11.48
52 WS-52 3.48 2.52
53 WS-53 6.55 4.73
54 WS-54 8.22 5.93
55 WS-55 1.13 0.82
Total water generated 199.21
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 40 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 41
Aquifers of Pune: understanding
their geometries and
characteristics
An aquifer map was prepared for Pune city
based on detailed lithological and
hydrogeological mapping using the conceptual
model of groundwater systems presented by
Kulkarni et al (2000). Pune city is underlain by
nine main unconned aquifer systems - as
represented in the map below (Figure 22). In
addition to this, there are an additional 19
unconned aquifers at the higher elevations
represented by the hillocks and ridges,
particularly in the south and west. This
mapping is a further improvement of the
aquifers mapped for the earlier version of
Pune’s Aquifers (ACWADAM, 2019) based on
a highly resolved data set and an extended
scope due to the inclusion of additional area
that has recently been included in the PMC’s
administrative boundary. The average thickness
of these aquifers ranges between 5 and 17
meters. Figure 23 is a representation of the
sub-surface geology along a cross section
through Pune city. The layers that constitute
aquifers are also indicated.
Nearly all the basalt layers or units (at places in
a certain combination) that constitute these
shallow unconned aquifers also constitute
sufciently porous and permeable sections
when they occur at different depths underneath
the surface, leading to different levels of
connement below the ground. Hence, 20 to
25 of these layers constitute conned aquifers
of different sizes in the city of Pune. Again, in
the absence of detailed, high-resolution
information (beyond the scope of this project),
and the limitations imposed by the lack of data
even when one explored for such data from
different sources, it is difcult to state the real
distribution of conned aquifers underneath
Pune city. However, it can be stated with
certainty that many bore wells, especially in the
lower elevations of Pune city, particularly in the
eastern and southeastern parts, and also deep
bore wells in other parts, actually tap at least
two layers of weathered compound basalts that
are exposed as shallow unconned aquifers
beyond the city’s limits. These basalt layers are
exposed as shallow aquifers in regions as far
downstream as the areas neighboring the
Ujani reservoir.
Despite such a large water endowment for
Pune, it is increasingly becoming apparent that
the use of groundwater in Pune city is neither
insignicant nor has it remained static.
However, in the absence of any concrete
gures on groundwater extraction in Pune, it is
important to estimate the magnitude of
groundwater extraction in Pune and to
understand the resource that supports this
extraction, i.e., Pune’s aquifers.
In more recent discussions, there is increasing
traction about recharging groundwater and
rejuvenating and sustaining groundwater
sources, especially as the realization of a
growing groundwater dependency sets in.
However, it becomes difcult to strategize such
an approach without a fundamental
understanding of the underlying aquifer
system. Even when problems of groundwater
depletion or groundwater contamination
emerge, most solutions are simply ‘knee jerk
reactions’, whether in the form of injecting
rainwater or in the increasing use of lters for
water treatment from such sources.
Figure 20: (a) A conceptual model of a typical layered Deccan basalt sequence showing how the VABs and
the CBs are exposed above the ground in step-like geometry and their near-horizontal disposition below the
ground; (b) Simplied conceptualization of aquifersformed due to the geometry of alternating VABs and CBs,
the largely unjointed / unfractured central portions of the CBs forming the impermeable sections that separate
aquifers in a vertical sequence of basalt units (modied after Kulkarni et al., 2000).
Figure 21: An illustration of a horizontally layered sequence of basalt units that results in the formation of
unconned and conned aquifers in the Deccan Volcanic Province (diagram is not to scale)
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 42 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 43
A B
Aquifers of Pune: understanding
their geometries and
characteristics
An aquifer map was prepared for Pune city
based on detailed lithological and
hydrogeological mapping using the conceptual
model of groundwater systems presented by
Kulkarni et al (2000). Pune city is underlain by
nine main unconned aquifer systems - as
represented in the map below (Figure 22). In
addition to this, there are an additional 19
unconned aquifers at the higher elevations
represented by the hillocks and ridges,
particularly in the south and west. This
mapping is a further improvement of the
aquifers mapped for the earlier version of
Pune’s Aquifers (ACWADAM, 2019) based on
a highly resolved data set and an extended
scope due to the inclusion of additional area
that has recently been included in the PMC’s
administrative boundary. The average thickness
of these aquifers ranges between 5 and 17
meters. Figure 23 is a representation of the
sub-surface geology along a cross section
through Pune city. The layers that constitute
aquifers are also indicated.
Nearly all the basalt layers or units (at places in
a certain combination) that constitute these
shallow unconned aquifers also constitute
sufciently porous and permeable sections
when they occur at different depths underneath
the surface, leading to different levels of
connement below the ground. Hence, 20 to
25 of these layers constitute conned aquifers
of different sizes in the city of Pune. Again, in
the absence of detailed, high-resolution
information (beyond the scope of this project),
and the limitations imposed by the lack of data
even when one explored for such data from
different sources, it is difcult to state the real
distribution of conned aquifers underneath
Pune city. However, it can be stated with
certainty that many bore wells, especially in the
lower elevations of Pune city, particularly in the
eastern and southeastern parts, and also deep
bore wells in other parts, actually tap at least
two layers of weathered compound basalts that
are exposed as shallow unconned aquifers
beyond the city’s limits. These basalt layers are
exposed as shallow aquifers in regions as far
downstream as the areas neighboring the
Ujani reservoir.
Despite such a large water endowment for
Pune, it is increasingly becoming apparent that
the use of groundwater in Pune city is neither
insignicant nor has it remained static.
However, in the absence of any concrete
gures on groundwater extraction in Pune, it is
important to estimate the magnitude of
groundwater extraction in Pune and to
understand the resource that supports this
extraction, i.e., Pune’s aquifers.
In more recent discussions, there is increasing
traction about recharging groundwater and
rejuvenating and sustaining groundwater
sources, especially as the realization of a
growing groundwater dependency sets in.
However, it becomes difcult to strategize such
an approach without a fundamental
understanding of the underlying aquifer
system. Even when problems of groundwater
depletion or groundwater contamination
emerge, most solutions are simply ‘knee jerk
reactions’, whether in the form of injecting
rainwater or in the increasing use of lters for
water treatment from such sources.
Figure 20: (a) A conceptual model of a typical layered Deccan basalt sequence showing how the VABs and
the CBs are exposed above the ground in step-like geometry and their near-horizontal disposition below the
ground; (b) Simplied conceptualization of aquifersformed due to the geometry of alternating VABs and CBs,
the largely unjointed / unfractured central portions of the CBs forming the impermeable sections that separate
aquifers in a vertical sequence of basalt units (modied after Kulkarni et al., 2000).
Figure 21: An illustration of a horizontally layered sequence of basalt units that results in the formation of
unconned and conned aquifers in the Deccan Volcanic Province (diagram is not to scale)
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 42 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 43
A B
Figure 23: Cross section illustrating the vertical disposition of aquifer systems – the aquifers are under unconned conditions wherever they
are exposed or are close to the surface while they form conned conditions where there is a signicantly thick set of
Figure 22: Unconned (Phreatic) aquifers of Pune – their spatial distribution (modied after ACWADAM, 2019)
Figure 23: Cross section illustrating the vertical disposition of aquifer systems – the aquifers are under unconned conditions wherever they
are exposed or are close to the surface while they form conned conditions where there is a signicantly thick set of
Figure 22: Unconned (Phreatic) aquifers of Pune – their spatial distribution (modied after ACWADAM, 2019)
Groundwater levels
Groundwater level measurement forms the basic
building block in understanding groundwater
resources (Brassington, 2007). Wells are used to
measure the groundwater levels as they provide
the best option to look at the distribution of the
“head” in an aquifer. Periodic measurement of
groundwater levels in a representative sample of
wells was carried out over different periods of
time. During the ward-wise survey, groundwater
levels in nearly all the wells were measured
once. Despite many challenges, ACWADAM,
with the help of CEE and Mission Groundwater
(also called Bhujal Abhiyan), succeeded in
establishing a sample, representative monitoring
network on groundwater. Initially in June 2018,
ACWADAM surveyed, selected and geotagged
34 dug wells spread across Pune city. Some
interesting data around groundwater movement
based on water levels across four seasons from
these wells was generated from this dataset.
The geometry of groundwater ow lines is useful
in identifying the recharge and discharge areas
on a water table contour map (after Freeze and
Cherry, 1979; Fetter, 1980). Water table contour
maps had been generated using the Golden
Survey Surfer 11 software. Four water table
contour maps were generated, one for June
2018 (Figure 25a), representing pre-monsoon
water levels and the second for November 2018
(Figure 25b), representing post monsoon water
levels. The two maps show that the post-
monsoon groundwater levels showed a more
resolved geometry of groundwater ow paths
than the pre-monsoon ones (where the
groundwater ow lines were largely linear and
parallel, except for a few locations indicating
convergence as natural discharge zones). The
post-monsoon plots showed the geometries of
convergence (natural groundwater recharge
zones) and divergence (natural discharge zones,
especially around the main-stream or river
channels in the area).
The other two maps were prepared with a larger
set of sample points (wells) to develop more
resolved groundwater table contours and
groundwater ow lines, using data collected in
December 2020 and December 2021. (Figure
26 a and b). It is obvious that the geometries of
groundwater table contours and the ow lines
are similar for both years. There is a clear
indication of certain groundwater recharge
zones, especially where there is higher-ground
(ridges), while clear groundwater discharge
zones are dened at certain locations along the
main-stream or river channels (e.g., at the
conuence of Mula and Mutha rivers, in the
region around the ‘Sangam’). Such discharge
zones not only show springs and seeps along
the banks but also show denser vegetation
along such zones.
The water table contour maps (Figures 25 and
26) reveal some additional features of interest.
These are listed below:
1. Groundwater ow generally follows the
natural lay-of-the-land, i.e., the natural
topography from high-grounds to rivers.
2. The post-monsoon map that represents a
more homogeneous saturation in the
shallow unconned aquifers, clearly indicate
a more resolved pattern of groundwater ow
lines. This indicates some of the natural
groundwater recharge and discharge areas
for Pune city (also represented through maps
in the forthcoming section).
a. One of these lies east of the Dhankawadi
area while the other is in the western part
occupying the ridge that lies between
Kothrud and Pashan, with signicant
coherence to the area occupied by the main
ridge in Pune – the ARAI hill – Vetal tekdi –
Chatushringi – Bavdhan – MIT college ridge.
b. Smaller but signicant recharge areas are
also noticed in the Aundh-Baner-Pashan
ridge line and the Range Hills area.
c. Another indicative groundwater recharge
zone is in the uplands as one moves from
the river towards Viman nagar, close to Pune
airport.
A participatory groundwater inventory in
combination with scientic investigations that
build upon the detailed geological mapping of
Pune city has been going on in different parts of
the city on a continuing basis. The survey and
inventory of around 423 dug wells and nearly
around 200 bore wells over an area of nearly
30000 hectares (ha), representing the PMC
areas of Pune and slightly beyond, was
conducted by ACWADAM with help from the
Center for Environment Education (CEE) during
the previous phase of this programme
(ACWADAM, 2019). This initiative, which
commenced in May 2017, with the help of
student interns of different colleges in
collaboration with CEE, has continued for nearly
2 years now. It is quite challenging to survey
wells in an urban area. People do not
necessarily encourage the surveyor to record
their well / bore hole. Access to a source is often
not as easy as in rural-agrarian regions.
Geotagging all the 623 odd wells that were
observed/inventoried proved difcult. During the
last three years, ACWADAM added the
monitoring of 1850 new wells and bore wells,
concentrated mainly in three municipal wards. A
survey of some perennial natural springs was
also undertaken as part of the survey of
groundwater sources. This survey was
undertaken through projects or dissertations by
student interns from various colleges (mainly
through student interns from Fergusson College).
Hence, 2466 wells – 924 dug wells and 1542
bore wells – and 63 natural springs have been
surveyed under the two phases of this
programme (Figure 24). The gure indicates that
the locations of the wells and springs surveyed is
fairly representative of all areas except some
areas where restricted entry to establishment
limited the access to well / spring measurement.
Figure 24: Surveyed dug wells, bore wells and springs – locations overlaid to
satellite imagery hosted by Esri
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 46 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 47
Groundwater levels
Groundwater level measurement forms the basic
building block in understanding groundwater
resources (Brassington, 2007). Wells are used to
measure the groundwater levels as they provide
the best option to look at the distribution of the
“head” in an aquifer. Periodic measurement of
groundwater levels in a representative sample of
wells was carried out over different periods of
time. During the ward-wise survey, groundwater
levels in nearly all the wells were measured
once. Despite many challenges, ACWADAM,
with the help of CEE and Mission Groundwater
(also called Bhujal Abhiyan), succeeded in
establishing a sample, representative monitoring
network on groundwater. Initially in June 2018,
ACWADAM surveyed, selected and geotagged
34 dug wells spread across Pune city. Some
interesting data around groundwater movement
based on water levels across four seasons from
these wells was generated from this dataset.
The geometry of groundwater ow lines is useful
in identifying the recharge and discharge areas
on a water table contour map (after Freeze and
Cherry, 1979; Fetter, 1980). Water table contour
maps had been generated using the Golden
Survey Surfer 11 software. Four water table
contour maps were generated, one for June
2018 (Figure 25a), representing pre-monsoon
water levels and the second for November 2018
(Figure 25b), representing post monsoon water
levels. The two maps show that the post-
monsoon groundwater levels showed a more
resolved geometry of groundwater ow paths
than the pre-monsoon ones (where the
groundwater ow lines were largely linear and
parallel, except for a few locations indicating
convergence as natural discharge zones). The
post-monsoon plots showed the geometries of
convergence (natural groundwater recharge
zones) and divergence (natural discharge zones,
especially around the main-stream or river
channels in the area).
The other two maps were prepared with a larger
set of sample points (wells) to develop more
resolved groundwater table contours and
groundwater ow lines, using data collected in
December 2020 and December 2021. (Figure
26 a and b). It is obvious that the geometries of
groundwater table contours and the ow lines
are similar for both years. There is a clear
indication of certain groundwater recharge
zones, especially where there is higher-ground
(ridges), while clear groundwater discharge
zones are dened at certain locations along the
main-stream or river channels (e.g., at the
conuence of Mula and Mutha rivers, in the
region around the ‘Sangam’). Such discharge
zones not only show springs and seeps along
the banks but also show denser vegetation
along such zones.
The water table contour maps (Figures 25 and
26) reveal some additional features of interest.
These are listed below:
1. Groundwater ow generally follows the
natural lay-of-the-land, i.e., the natural
topography from high-grounds to rivers.
2. The post-monsoon map that represents a
more homogeneous saturation in the
shallow unconned aquifers, clearly indicate
a more resolved pattern of groundwater ow
lines. This indicates some of the natural
groundwater recharge and discharge areas
for Pune city (also represented through maps
in the forthcoming section).
a. One of these lies east of the Dhankawadi
area while the other is in the western part
occupying the ridge that lies between
Kothrud and Pashan, with signicant
coherence to the area occupied by the main
ridge in Pune – the ARAI hill – Vetal tekdi –
Chatushringi – Bavdhan – MIT college ridge.
b. Smaller but signicant recharge areas are
also noticed in the Aundh-Baner-Pashan
ridge line and the Range Hills area.
c. Another indicative groundwater recharge
zone is in the uplands as one moves from
the river towards Viman nagar, close to Pune
airport.
A participatory groundwater inventory in
combination with scientic investigations that
build upon the detailed geological mapping of
Pune city has been going on in different parts of
the city on a continuing basis. The survey and
inventory of around 423 dug wells and nearly
around 200 bore wells over an area of nearly
30000 hectares (ha), representing the PMC
areas of Pune and slightly beyond, was
conducted by ACWADAM with help from the
Center for Environment Education (CEE) during
the previous phase of this programme
(ACWADAM, 2019). This initiative, which
commenced in May 2017, with the help of
student interns of different colleges in
collaboration with CEE, has continued for nearly
2 years now. It is quite challenging to survey
wells in an urban area. People do not
necessarily encourage the surveyor to record
their well / bore hole. Access to a source is often
not as easy as in rural-agrarian regions.
Geotagging all the 623 odd wells that were
observed/inventoried proved difcult. During the
last three years, ACWADAM added the
monitoring of 1850 new wells and bore wells,
concentrated mainly in three municipal wards. A
survey of some perennial natural springs was
also undertaken as part of the survey of
groundwater sources. This survey was
undertaken through projects or dissertations by
student interns from various colleges (mainly
through student interns from Fergusson College).
Hence, 2466 wells – 924 dug wells and 1542
bore wells – and 63 natural springs have been
surveyed under the two phases of this
programme (Figure 24). The gure indicates that
the locations of the wells and springs surveyed is
fairly representative of all areas except some
areas where restricted entry to establishment
limited the access to well / spring measurement.
Figure 24: Surveyed dug wells, bore wells and springs – locations overlaid to
satellite imagery hosted by Esri
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 46 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 47
Figure 25: Groundwater ow lines for June 2018 (a) and November 2018
(b) overlaid on Google Earth imagery
Figure 26: Groundwater ow lines for December 2020 (a) and December 2021
(b) overlaid to Google Earth imagery
a
b
a
b
Figure 25: Groundwater ow lines for June 2018 (a) and November 2018
(b) overlaid on Google Earth imagery
Figure 26: Groundwater ow lines for December 2020 (a) and December 2021
(b) overlaid to Google Earth imagery
a
b
a
b
ACWADAM undertook an exercise of high-
frequency monitoring of groundwater levels in a
few dug wells and bore wells in and around
Pune city. This was done to understand various
aspects such as the annual, seasonal, and even
day-to-day uctuations in groundwater levels
across different aquifers. The sensor-based
logging of groundwater levels began in
February 2019, by installing automated sensors
(HoBo brand). More sensors were deployed to
strategically study more locations. The other
objective of the sensor study is to understand
aquifer properties, aquifer behavior and
comment on supply-demand balances in
different aquifers as observed by well water
level behaviour. Sensors have been installed on
16 dug wells and 2 bore wells, with data
acquisition from many of these over a period
ranging from 6 months to 36 months. Sensors
have been installed on both pumping wells and
abandoned ones. ACWADAM has already
published a synthesized abstract of sensor-
based groundwater level data for ten wells in
Pune (ACWADAM, 2021).
Figure 27: A hydrograph of automated sensor based selected groundwater levels in representative
wells from three main aquifers of Pune city – longest records over two and a half years
Springs
Springwater plays an important role in
sustaining life, livelihoods and ecosystems in
mountain regions such as the Himalayas,
where springs are depleting (Kulkarni et al.,
2021). Springs play an important role in
providing water for ecosystem services, such as
providing the base ow in streams and rivers,
while supporting vegetation and wildlife
(Ghimire et al.,2014; Cantonati et al., 2006).
Rural and urban communities are also
increasingly dependent on springs to meet their
drinking, domestic, and agricultural water
needs in many other regions outside the
Himalayas. One such region is the Western
Ghats of Maharashtra.
An aquifer is discussed widely in terms of
groundwater pumping, groundwater depletion
and groundwater recharge. However, an
aquifer also serves the function of ‘discharging’
groundwater naturally. The lion’s share of the
world’s groundwater ux ends up in streams
and springs (Margat and Van der Gun, 2013).
A natural discharge area for groundwater is
physically evident in the form of a spring, seeps
or even wetlands (Fetter, 1980). The
discharged groundwater ows into the stream
and river channels as groundwater discharge.
Such a component of the river channel ow
(i.e., the groundwater contribution to the
11
channel ow) is called the ‘base ow’ of the
river. The recharge and discharge functions are
also important in understanding the relation
between groundwater and ecosystems (CGIAR
Research Program on WLE, 2015).
However, the presence and usage of spring
water in urban centers such as Pune is largely
ignored, perhaps being hidden under the more
‘visible’ water, i.e., rivers, ponds, lakes and
even wells. While the use of wells and bore
wells to supplement civic supplies is a
commonly accepted phenomenon, the use of
spring-water as part of Pune’s water supply has
largely gone unnoticed, whether in the form of
its usage or its contribution to the base ow in
its river system. This is primarily because
spring-water has been outside the public
discourse on water, in general, and
groundwater, in particular,in India, until the
large-scale experiment of spring-revival was
taken up in many regions of the Himalaya (Niti
Aayog, 2018). This study also brings out the
fact that Punekars are not averse to using
spring water to fulll the gap between the
municipal water supply and the growing
demand, across the city.
ACWADAM was prompted by Mr. Shailendra
Patel (in the photograph below), a passionate
spring conservationist and a resident from
Bavdhan and Mr. Anil Pawar a Bhugaon
resident, to study and survey springs in Pune,
beginning with the spring in Bavdhan. The
spring survey started in August 2018. Upon
request from Bhugaon residents, ACWADAM
mapped around seven springs in the Bhugaon -
Bhukum area, the uppermost catchments of
Ramnadi a tributary of the Mula river that ows
into Pune city. Subsequently, the Pune spring
inventory has yielded data on more than 60
springs so far. While doing so, spring discharge
and in-situ water quality of various springs were
recorded, wherever easily feasible.
Bacteriological contamination with H2S strip-
bottles was also recorded for many of these
springs. The following map shows the locations
of some of these springs on Google Earth
imagery (Figure 28). Some springs are outside
the current municipalboundaries and have not
been included in the map.
11 Base ow: Base ow is the portion of stream ow that is not the direct runoff from precipitation. It is water discharged from
the underground aquifer in the form of springs and seeps that ows out into the stream and river channel for prolonged
periods.
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 50 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 51
ACWADAM undertook an exercise of high-
frequency monitoring of groundwater levels in a
few dug wells and bore wells in and around
Pune city. This was done to understand various
aspects such as the annual, seasonal, and even
day-to-day uctuations in groundwater levels
across different aquifers. The sensor-based
logging of groundwater levels began in
February 2019, by installing automated sensors
(HoBo brand). More sensors were deployed to
strategically study more locations. The other
objective of the sensor study is to understand
aquifer properties, aquifer behavior and
comment on supply-demand balances in
different aquifers as observed by well water
level behaviour. Sensors have been installed on
16 dug wells and 2 bore wells, with data
acquisition from many of these over a period
ranging from 6 months to 36 months. Sensors
have been installed on both pumping wells and
abandoned ones. ACWADAM has already
published a synthesized abstract of sensor-
based groundwater level data for ten wells in
Pune (ACWADAM, 2021).
Figure 27: A hydrograph of automated sensor based selected groundwater levels in representative
wells from three main aquifers of Pune city – longest records over two and a half years
Springs
Springwater plays an important role in
sustaining life, livelihoods and ecosystems in
mountain regions such as the Himalayas,
where springs are depleting (Kulkarni et al.,
2021). Springs play an important role in
providing water for ecosystem services, such as
providing the base ow in streams and rivers,
while supporting vegetation and wildlife
(Ghimire et al.,2014; Cantonati et al., 2006).
Rural and urban communities are also
increasingly dependent on springs to meet their
drinking, domestic, and agricultural water
needs in many other regions outside the
Himalayas. One such region is the Western
Ghats of Maharashtra.
An aquifer is discussed widely in terms of
groundwater pumping, groundwater depletion
and groundwater recharge. However, an
aquifer also serves the function of ‘discharging’
groundwater naturally. The lion’s share of the
world’s groundwater ux ends up in streams
and springs (Margat and Van der Gun, 2013).
A natural discharge area for groundwater is
physically evident in the form of a spring, seeps
or even wetlands (Fetter, 1980). The
discharged groundwater ows into the stream
and river channels as groundwater discharge.
Such a component of the river channel ow
(i.e., the groundwater contribution to the
11
channel ow) is called the ‘base ow’ of the
river. The recharge and discharge functions are
also important in understanding the relation
between groundwater and ecosystems (CGIAR
Research Program on WLE, 2015).
However, the presence and usage of spring
water in urban centers such as Pune is largely
ignored, perhaps being hidden under the more
‘visible’ water, i.e., rivers, ponds, lakes and
even wells. While the use of wells and bore
wells to supplement civic supplies is a
commonly accepted phenomenon, the use of
spring-water as part of Pune’s water supply has
largely gone unnoticed, whether in the form of
its usage or its contribution to the base ow in
its river system. This is primarily because
spring-water has been outside the public
discourse on water, in general, and
groundwater, in particular,in India, until the
large-scale experiment of spring-revival was
taken up in many regions of the Himalaya (Niti
Aayog, 2018). This study also brings out the
fact that Punekars are not averse to using
spring water to fulll the gap between the
municipal water supply and the growing
demand, across the city.
ACWADAM was prompted by Mr. Shailendra
Patel (in the photograph below), a passionate
spring conservationist and a resident from
Bavdhan and Mr. Anil Pawar a Bhugaon
resident, to study and survey springs in Pune,
beginning with the spring in Bavdhan. The
spring survey started in August 2018. Upon
request from Bhugaon residents, ACWADAM
mapped around seven springs in the Bhugaon -
Bhukum area, the uppermost catchments of
Ramnadi a tributary of the Mula river that ows
into Pune city. Subsequently, the Pune spring
inventory has yielded data on more than 60
springs so far. While doing so, spring discharge
and in-situ water quality of various springs were
recorded, wherever easily feasible.
Bacteriological contamination with H2S strip-
bottles was also recorded for many of these
springs. The following map shows the locations
of some of these springs on Google Earth
imagery (Figure 28). Some springs are outside
the current municipalboundaries and have not
been included in the map.
11 Base ow: Base ow is the portion of stream ow that is not the direct runoff from precipitation. It is water discharged from
the underground aquifer in the form of springs and seeps that ows out into the stream and river channel for prolonged
periods.
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 50 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 51
Moreover, the main springs that were
discharging groundwater to the natural
drainage (streams and rivers) were also
mapped (Figure 29a). There are twenty-one
springs at different points along the main
channels of the Mula, Mutha and the Mula-
Mutha stretches of the two rivers that ow
through the city. These locations were studied,
and some interesting aspects were found. For
instance, how the springs in the Mutha stretch
(e.g., at Vithalwadi) constitute a relatively
freshwater discharge to the river, leading to a
somewhat unique ecosystem in the form of ‘an
in-channel’ groundwater discharge zone that is
rich in biodiversity (pers. comm. Jeevitnadi,
various years). It is not surprising to nd a
strong correlation between the groundwater
discharge zones and aquifers (Figure 29b) and
the natural drainage system.
Out of the 63 springs that were mapped, 47
are perennial springs and 16 are seasonal
springs. Forty springs were tested for biological
contamination, with twenty-four springs testing
positive (presence of biological contaminants
beyond the specied limit). The cumulative
groundwater discharge of the 50 springs was
estimated to be of the order of about 0.6
3
million m , a discharge that allows us to
estimate the overall base-ows in the system,
that could be of the order of about one million
3
m per year.
Figure 28: A sample of springs in Pune mapped and recorded by ACWADAM
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 52 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 53
Photograph 6: High discharge, perennial, contact spring in Bavdhan
Moreover, the main springs that were
discharging groundwater to the natural
drainage (streams and rivers) were also
mapped (Figure 29a). There are twenty-one
springs at different points along the main
channels of the Mula, Mutha and the Mula-
Mutha stretches of the two rivers that ow
through the city. These locations were studied,
and some interesting aspects were found. For
instance, how the springs in the Mutha stretch
(e.g., at Vithalwadi) constitute a relatively
freshwater discharge to the river, leading to a
somewhat unique ecosystem in the form of ‘an
in-channel’ groundwater discharge zone that is
rich in biodiversity (pers. comm. Jeevitnadi,
various years). It is not surprising to nd a
strong correlation between the groundwater
discharge zones and aquifers (Figure 29b) and
the natural drainage system.
Out of the 63 springs that were mapped, 47
are perennial springs and 16 are seasonal
springs. Forty springs were tested for biological
contamination, with twenty-four springs testing
positive (presence of biological contaminants
beyond the specied limit). The cumulative
groundwater discharge of the 50 springs was
estimated to be of the order of about 0.6
3
million m , a discharge that allows us to
estimate the overall base-ows in the system,
that could be of the order of about one million
3
m per year.
Figure 28: A sample of springs in Pune mapped and recorded by ACWADAM
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 52 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 53
Photograph 6: High discharge, perennial, contact spring in Bavdhan
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 54 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 55
Figure 29: (a) Springs along the courses of stream and river channels within PMC boundary (b) Location of
springs overlaid to the natural drainage and the aquifer-wise groundwater discharge zones for Pune city,
showing a close correlation
Sr. No. Spring location Biological
contamination
Average
discharge (LPY)
1 Khatpewadi spring, upper side of pond 946080
2 Bhukum Rameshwar mandir (temple) spring 2522880
3 Bhukum downstream of Rameshwar mandir
(temple), near well 1576800
4 Bhukum spring near Umbar tree in the farm 2680560
5 Bavdhan spring near Urbania Pebbles 1103760
6 Bavdhan spring near graveyard 1261440
7 Bavdhan spring 52980480 No
8 Wakeshwar temple spring 19867680
9 Someshwar wadi temple Spring 15137280 No
10 Kothrud Spring, Near Shivtirtha Nagar 4730400
11 Baner Spring near Aloma County 1576800
12 Baner Spring near Aloma County 630720
13 Spring-1, Vitthal mandir (temple), Singhagarh road 24598080 No
14 Spring-2, Vitthal mandir (temple), Singhagarh road 27436320 Yes
15 Omkareshwar spring 61179840 Yes
16 Warje spring, Sneha Paradise - C Wing 3784320 Yes
17 Spring-1, Tukai Hill, near water treatment plant 378432
18 Spring-2, Tukai Hill, inside mandir (temple) 630720
19 Spring-1, Aundh ghat spring near Rukmini Vitthal
mandir (temple) 2712096 Yes
20 Spring-2, Aundh ghat spring near Rukmini
Vitthal mandir (temple) 1955232 Yes
21 Spring-3, Aundh ghat spring near
Vitthal mandir (seepages) 1072224 Yes
22 Nimhan Mala Twin Nest Society Basement spring 41627520
23 Woodland Society, basement spring,
Dahanukar colony 567648
24 Road cutting opposite to Pashan lake on Highway 567648
25 Nimbaji Nagar 5045760 Yes
26 Nimbaji Nagar 5361120 Yes
27 Nanded city Water Treatment Plant 5676480 Yes
28 Nanded city 4730400 Yes
29 Nanded city 5045760 Yes
30 Nanded city 5991840 Yes
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 54 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 55
Figure 29: (a) Springs along the courses of stream and river channels within PMC boundary (b) Location of
springs overlaid to the natural drainage and the aquifer-wise groundwater discharge zones for Pune city,
showing a close correlation
Sr. No. Spring location Biological
contamination
Average
discharge (LPY)
1 Khatpewadi spring, upper side of pond 946080
2 Bhukum Rameshwar mandir (temple) spring 2522880
3 Bhukum downstream of Rameshwar mandir
(temple), near well 1576800
4 Bhukum spring near Umbar tree in the farm 2680560
5 Bavdhan spring near Urbania Pebbles 1103760
6 Bavdhan spring near graveyard 1261440
7 Bavdhan spring 52980480 No
8 Wakeshwar temple spring 19867680
9 Someshwar wadi temple Spring 15137280 No
10 Kothrud Spring, Near Shivtirtha Nagar 4730400
11 Baner Spring near Aloma County 1576800
12 Baner Spring near Aloma County 630720
13 Spring-1, Vitthal mandir (temple), Singhagarh road 24598080 No
14 Spring-2, Vitthal mandir (temple), Singhagarh road 27436320 Yes
15 Omkareshwar spring 61179840 Yes
16 Warje spring, Sneha Paradise - C Wing 3784320 Yes
17 Spring-1, Tukai Hill, near water treatment plant 378432
18 Spring-2, Tukai Hill, inside mandir (temple) 630720
19 Spring-1, Aundh ghat spring near Rukmini Vitthal
mandir (temple) 2712096 Yes
20 Spring-2, Aundh ghat spring near Rukmini
Vitthal mandir (temple) 1955232 Yes
21 Spring-3, Aundh ghat spring near
Vitthal mandir (seepages) 1072224 Yes
22 Nimhan Mala Twin Nest Society Basement spring 41627520
23 Woodland Society, basement spring,
Dahanukar colony 567648
24 Road cutting opposite to Pashan lake on Highway 567648
25 Nimbaji Nagar 5045760 Yes
26 Nimbaji Nagar 5361120 Yes
27 Nanded city Water Treatment Plant 5676480 Yes
28 Nanded city 4730400 Yes
29 Nanded city 5045760 Yes
30 Nanded city 5991840 Yes
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 56 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 57
Groundwater Quality
The unitary nature of groundwater means the
interchange between rainwater, surface water in
rivers, lakes, ponds, and the groundwater that is
used from wells and springs. All kinds of water
bodies are showing signs of reduced storage
capacities and deteriorating water quality,
impacting various quarters of lives and
livelihoods. Groundwater contamination is
affecting drinking water security and the state of
our environment in innumerable ways. Changes
in land use, waste disposal practices, over-
extraction of groundwater, poor sanitation
practices, disposal of industrial efuents and
poor mining-site management, all adversely
affect groundwater quality. Salinity ingress along
India’s long coastline due to over-extraction of
groundwater from coastal aquifers is imminent
if not already present. Urban groundwater is not
spared from these consequences, although
contamination of groundwater in urban India
often goes unnoticed in the absence of sufcient
data.
The reduction of inltration facilitation surfaces
and the leakage from water supply mains,
drainage lines and stormwater discharge drains
create a complex picture of a changed water
cycle in urban areas (Lerner, 2004; Foster et al.,
2010). The hidden tradeoff between increasing
groundwater extraction, reduced due to natural
inltration and the induced recharge from
leaking water supply, drainage and stormwater
pipes often leads to a ‘zero-sum game’, where
groundwater levels are not obviously falling like
those in adjacent rural areas. Groundwater
quality and changes therein, therefore, becomes
a good indicator of the impact of ‘leakages’ in
urban centers. Groundwater quality can also be
used as a tool to map or differentiate aquifers.
Generally, different aquifers in a region will
show differences in groundwater quality.
The scope of the study by ACWADAM until the
current phase, was a mapping of Pune’s
aquifers and some representative pilot
measurements on wells and springs. Water level
measurement can be an ongoing process
requiring limited resources, but groundwater
quality estimation is somewhat more resource
intensive. This study was able to undertake
limited laboratory testing of groundwater quality
apart from the in-situ measurement of basic
water quality parameters done during well-
water levels and spring discharge
measurements. The laboratory analyses were
carried out at Polytest Laboratory, a State and
Centre accredited laboratory functioning on the
basis of ISO standards.
The results of the groundwater quality lab
analyses were plotted using the Piper Trilinear
diagram and the Wilcox diagram, available
through AQUACHEM, the standard software for
plotting water quality data, available at
ACWADAM. The Piper Diagram is based on a
plot where the milli-equivalent percentages of
the major cations and anions are plotted in
separate triangles. These plotted points in the
triangular elds are projected further into the
central diamond eld, which provides the
overall character of the water. Piper diagrams
are created using the analytical data obtained
from the hydrogeochemical analysis of
groundwater samples. In general, sample points
can be classied into six elds, based on the
Piper plot:
1. Ca-HCO3 type
2. Na-Cltype
3. Ca-Mg-Cltype
4. Ca-Na-HCO3 type
5. Ca-Cltype
6. Na-HCO3 type
31 Nanded city 6307200 Yes
32 Nanded city 6622560 Yes
33 Nanded city 4919616 Yes
34 Nanded city 5960304 Yes
35 Nanded potholes 6937920 Yes
36 Nanasaheb Peshwa Samadhi spring 38158560 No
37 COEP to Yerawada 18921600 Yes
38 COEP to Yerawada 12614400 Yes
39 Yerawada to KP 16398720
40 Yerawada to KP 25228800
41 Aga Khan bridge to Wadgaonsheri 3784320
42 Aga Khan bridge to Wadgaonsheri 1892160
43 Bhaktisagar Smashanbhumi 1103760
44 Vithalwadi_pipe1 37722312 No
45 Vithalwadi_pipe2 2522880 No
46 Bavdhan spring 44150400 No
47 Bamgudechal Someshwar temple 5571360 No
48 Kinara spring 53674272 Yes
49 Sainagar spring 2 6974712 No
50 Dattawadi spring 25849008 No
Total 628691184
Table 2: Discharge of the springs and the status of biological contamination
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 56 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 57
Groundwater Quality
The unitary nature of groundwater means the
interchange between rainwater, surface water in
rivers, lakes, ponds, and the groundwater that is
used from wells and springs. All kinds of water
bodies are showing signs of reduced storage
capacities and deteriorating water quality,
impacting various quarters of lives and
livelihoods. Groundwater contamination is
affecting drinking water security and the state of
our environment in innumerable ways. Changes
in land use, waste disposal practices, over-
extraction of groundwater, poor sanitation
practices, disposal of industrial efuents and
poor mining-site management, all adversely
affect groundwater quality. Salinity ingress along
India’s long coastline due to over-extraction of
groundwater from coastal aquifers is imminent
if not already present. Urban groundwater is not
spared from these consequences, although
contamination of groundwater in urban India
often goes unnoticed in the absence of sufcient
data.
The reduction of inltration facilitation surfaces
and the leakage from water supply mains,
drainage lines and stormwater discharge drains
create a complex picture of a changed water
cycle in urban areas (Lerner, 2004; Foster et al.,
2010). The hidden tradeoff between increasing
groundwater extraction, reduced due to natural
inltration and the induced recharge from
leaking water supply, drainage and stormwater
pipes often leads to a ‘zero-sum game’, where
groundwater levels are not obviously falling like
those in adjacent rural areas. Groundwater
quality and changes therein, therefore, becomes
a good indicator of the impact of ‘leakages’ in
urban centers. Groundwater quality can also be
used as a tool to map or differentiate aquifers.
Generally, different aquifers in a region will
show differences in groundwater quality.
The scope of the study by ACWADAM until the
current phase, was a mapping of Pune’s
aquifers and some representative pilot
measurements on wells and springs. Water level
measurement can be an ongoing process
requiring limited resources, but groundwater
quality estimation is somewhat more resource
intensive. This study was able to undertake
limited laboratory testing of groundwater quality
apart from the in-situ measurement of basic
water quality parameters done during well-
water levels and spring discharge
measurements. The laboratory analyses were
carried out at Polytest Laboratory, a State and
Centre accredited laboratory functioning on the
basis of ISO standards.
The results of the groundwater quality lab
analyses were plotted using the Piper Trilinear
diagram and the Wilcox diagram, available
through AQUACHEM, the standard software for
plotting water quality data, available at
ACWADAM. The Piper Diagram is based on a
plot where the milli-equivalent percentages of
the major cations and anions are plotted in
separate triangles. These plotted points in the
triangular elds are projected further into the
central diamond eld, which provides the
overall character of the water. Piper diagrams
are created using the analytical data obtained
from the hydrogeochemical analysis of
groundwater samples. In general, sample points
can be classied into six elds, based on the
Piper plot:
1. Ca-HCO3 type
2. Na-Cltype
3. Ca-Mg-Cltype
4. Ca-Na-HCO3 type
5. Ca-Cltype
6. Na-HCO3 type
31 Nanded city 6307200 Yes
32 Nanded city 6622560 Yes
33 Nanded city 4919616 Yes
34 Nanded city 5960304 Yes
35 Nanded potholes 6937920 Yes
36 Nanasaheb Peshwa Samadhi spring 38158560 No
37 COEP to Yerawada 18921600 Yes
38 COEP to Yerawada 12614400 Yes
39 Yerawada to KP 16398720
40 Yerawada to KP 25228800
41 Aga Khan bridge to Wadgaonsheri 3784320
42 Aga Khan bridge to Wadgaonsheri 1892160
43 Bhaktisagar Smashanbhumi 1103760
44 Vithalwadi_pipe1 37722312 No
45 Vithalwadi_pipe2 2522880 No
46 Bavdhan spring 44150400 No
47 Bamgudechal Someshwar temple 5571360 No
48 Kinara spring 53674272 Yes
49 Sainagar spring 2 6974712 No
50 Dattawadi spring 25849008 No
Total 628691184
Table 2: Discharge of the springs and the status of biological contamination
The Wilcox diagram is used to analyse the
sodium and salinity hazards in different water
samples. The diagram reveals how samples fall
into different elds of the sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR) – the proportion of sodium (Na) to
calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) – versus the
salinity levels expressed through the electrical
conductivity values for the sample of water.
Water quality sampling and analysis was done
for 16 samples during the two seasons of 2019
and for 32 samples during the summer of 2022
(Figure 30). These samples were collected from
shallow dug wells, Springs and the rivers from
different parts of Pune. The sampling locations
for 2019 and 2022 varied although a few
common locations were considered. The post
monsoon water samples (Jan 2019) show a Ca-
Mg-HCO3 signature (Figure 31a). The samples
were found to be slightly alkaline with pH more
than 8 in 13 samples. Nine samples showed
higher electrical conductivity of more than 1000
µS/cm. EC was found to be above permissible
limits in Aundh (2100 µS/cm), Pashan (1286
µS/cm) and Mohammadwadi (1070 µS/cm)
wells. The analyses for January 2019 show
concentration of Ca, Mg and Mn above
permissible limits but within desirable limits due
to which, most of the samples show ‘carbonate
hardness’.
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 58 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 59
Figure 30: (a) Water quality sampling locations in Pune during the two seasons of 2019.
(b) Water quality sampling locations in Pune during the summer season of 2022
a
b
Photograph 8: Water quality sampling from a spring near Nanded city
The Wilcox diagram is used to analyse the
sodium and salinity hazards in different water
samples. The diagram reveals how samples fall
into different elds of the sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR) – the proportion of sodium (Na) to
calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) – versus the
salinity levels expressed through the electrical
conductivity values for the sample of water.
Water quality sampling and analysis was done
for 16 samples during the two seasons of 2019
and for 32 samples during the summer of 2022
(Figure 30). These samples were collected from
shallow dug wells, Springs and the rivers from
different parts of Pune. The sampling locations
for 2019 and 2022 varied although a few
common locations were considered. The post
monsoon water samples (Jan 2019) show a Ca-
Mg-HCO3 signature (Figure 31a). The samples
were found to be slightly alkaline with pH more
than 8 in 13 samples. Nine samples showed
higher electrical conductivity of more than 1000
µS/cm. EC was found to be above permissible
limits in Aundh (2100 µS/cm), Pashan (1286
µS/cm) and Mohammadwadi (1070 µS/cm)
wells. The analyses for January 2019 show
concentration of Ca, Mg and Mn above
permissible limits but within desirable limits due
to which, most of the samples show ‘carbonate
hardness’.
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 58 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 59
Figure 30: (a) Water quality sampling locations in Pune during the two seasons of 2019.
(b) Water quality sampling locations in Pune during the summer season of 2022
a
b
Photograph 8: Water quality sampling from a spring near Nanded city
The pre-monsoon analysis for June 2019 shows
a clearer Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3 signature (Figure
31b). There is an overall improvement in the
quality of water. The pH of these samples is
slightly alkaline with pH values around 7.5.
There is an improvement in the electrical
conductivity in all samples. The concentration of
Ca, Mg and Mn in all samples except the well
in Koregaon Park, show improvement. In this
well, high concentration of Mn (0.4 mg/l) and
Chlorides (344 mg/l) was recorded. This could
be due to some anthropogenic sources of
contamination. All the other samples show soft
to moderate hardness. Samples in June were
drawn after a good spell of the rst rains.
Hence, the scattering of samples from January
2019 in the Piper Plot is reduced in June, with a
shift towards Ca-Mg eld, possibly on account
of the rst ush of recharge from rainfall
(evident also in the sensor-based groundwater
level hydrographs presented before) during the
pre and early monsoon spells, indicating a
rapid rainfall to recharge progression.
The Wilcox plot for the same samples for the
two sampling periods show differing salinity
ranges, with a large proportion of samples
falling on the threshold of the medium to high
salinity elds. A few samples show variations
with salinity levels going up while others show
reduced salinity values during the month of
June 2019 as compared to those for January
2019. The alkali hazard remains low for all
samples in both the sampling seasons (Figure
32 a and b).
A round of water quality sampling – focusing
on samples for shallow groundwater (aquifer-
wise), along with samples from springs and the
river – was carried out during the summer of
2022. The samples were analysed at Polytest
Laboratory. The interpretation of the laboratory
results was done through the Piper and Wilcox
plots (Figure 33).
Most samples fall in the Ca-HCO3 eld (Figure
33 a). Many of the samples were from sources
of groundwater that tap Aquifer 4. While the
samples are skewed towards the Ca and HCO3
side, some samples show a larger proportion of
Mg in the samples. Most samples show medium
to high salinity levels according to the Wilcox
classication although all of the samples fall in
the low sodium hazard eld (Figure 33 b).
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 60 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 61
Figure 31: Piper trilinear plots for samples from representative groundwater sources for
(a) January 2019 and (b) June 2019
a
b
The pre-monsoon analysis for June 2019 shows
a clearer Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3 signature (Figure
31b). There is an overall improvement in the
quality of water. The pH of these samples is
slightly alkaline with pH values around 7.5.
There is an improvement in the electrical
conductivity in all samples. The concentration of
Ca, Mg and Mn in all samples except the well
in Koregaon Park, show improvement. In this
well, high concentration of Mn (0.4 mg/l) and
Chlorides (344 mg/l) was recorded. This could
be due to some anthropogenic sources of
contamination. All the other samples show soft
to moderate hardness. Samples in June were
drawn after a good spell of the rst rains.
Hence, the scattering of samples from January
2019 in the Piper Plot is reduced in June, with a
shift towards Ca-Mg eld, possibly on account
of the rst ush of recharge from rainfall
(evident also in the sensor-based groundwater
level hydrographs presented before) during the
pre and early monsoon spells, indicating a
rapid rainfall to recharge progression.
The Wilcox plot for the same samples for the
two sampling periods show differing salinity
ranges, with a large proportion of samples
falling on the threshold of the medium to high
salinity elds. A few samples show variations
with salinity levels going up while others show
reduced salinity values during the month of
June 2019 as compared to those for January
2019. The alkali hazard remains low for all
samples in both the sampling seasons (Figure
32 a and b).
A round of water quality sampling – focusing
on samples for shallow groundwater (aquifer-
wise), along with samples from springs and the
river – was carried out during the summer of
2022. The samples were analysed at Polytest
Laboratory. The interpretation of the laboratory
results was done through the Piper and Wilcox
plots (Figure 33).
Most samples fall in the Ca-HCO3 eld (Figure
33 a). Many of the samples were from sources
of groundwater that tap Aquifer 4. While the
samples are skewed towards the Ca and HCO3
side, some samples show a larger proportion of
Mg in the samples. Most samples show medium
to high salinity levels according to the Wilcox
classication although all of the samples fall in
the low sodium hazard eld (Figure 33 b).
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 60 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 61
Figure 31: Piper trilinear plots for samples from representative groundwater sources for
(a) January 2019 and (b) June 2019
a
b
Figure 33: (a) Piper trilinear plot for groundwater samples for June 2022;
(b) Wilcox plot for the same samples for June 2022
Figure 32: Wilcox plots for sodium and salinity hazard for samples collected in
(a) January 2019 and (b) June 2019
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Figure 33: (a) Piper trilinear plot for groundwater samples for June 2022;
(b) Wilcox plot for the same samples for June 2022
Figure 32: Wilcox plots for sodium and salinity hazard for samples collected in
(a) January 2019 and (b) June 2019
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Ward-wise survey of groundwater
sources
As a city expands, growing outwards from the
nucleus (often the old city or the core of the
township), the normal assumption is that the
central / old parts of the city have assured
municipal supplies. It is obvious that such supply,
usually from surface water sources within or
outside the city has been strongly established for
a long period of time. The outer suburbs and
peri-urban areas of such a growing city has less
assured municipal supplies and have to often
augment their demands from informal supplies
that are largely groundwater fed. It was with this
assumption that ACWADAM ventured to test out
the hypothesis in three core-city wards of Pune
Municipal Corporation. Pune city after
accommodating the newer villages since the year
2017 within its boundary, is now spread over an
2
area of 521 km . Pune city is divided into 41
electoral wards according to PMC’s 2017
electoral boundary, out of which three municipal
wards were considered for a detailed
groundwater survey, with the focus on developing
a hundred percent inventory of groundwater
sources, a quick measurement of groundwater
levels and in-situ groundwater quality in a limited
set of sources and a systematic survey of the
nature, patterns and quantities of groundwater
pumped from each surveyed source. The city
survey maps were procured from PMC. Door to
door survey in each house from the ward was
conducted by the student interns under the
guidance of ACWADAM’s team. The survey was
carried out in January 2020. Twenty interns from
Fergusson college, Nowrosjee Wadia College
and Poona College participated in this survey in
great earnest.
The surveyed wards (Figure 34) were:
1. Kasbapeth-Somvarpeth ward occupying 0.91
2
km area
2
2. Rastapeth-Ravivarpeth spread over 0.9 km
3. Shanivarpeth-Sadashivpeth occupying an
2
area of 1.75 km
Figure 34: The three surveyed wards of the core city
Sources of groundwater tapped by different types
of residential and commercial establishments
(bungalows to large housing societies to
community dwellings including ‘gaothans’) were
inventoried from 9344 survey numbers. There
are 1016 bore wells, 264 dug wells and 32
hand pumps in the three wards. (Figure 35). Dug
wells and energised bore wells dominate the
Shaniwarpeth-Sadashivpeth ward, while hand-
pump tted bore wells (represented as hand-
pumps) prevail in the Rastapeth-Ravivarpeth
ward (Figure 36).
Figure 35: Surveyed dug wells (a), bore wells (b) and hand-pumps (c) in the three municipal wards
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 64 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 65
Ward-wise survey of groundwater
sources
As a city expands, growing outwards from the
nucleus (often the old city or the core of the
township), the normal assumption is that the
central / old parts of the city have assured
municipal supplies. It is obvious that such supply,
usually from surface water sources within or
outside the city has been strongly established for
a long period of time. The outer suburbs and
peri-urban areas of such a growing city has less
assured municipal supplies and have to often
augment their demands from informal supplies
that are largely groundwater fed. It was with this
assumption that ACWADAM ventured to test out
the hypothesis in three core-city wards of Pune
Municipal Corporation. Pune city after
accommodating the newer villages since the year
2017 within its boundary, is now spread over an
2
area of 521 km . Pune city is divided into 41
electoral wards according to PMC’s 2017
electoral boundary, out of which three municipal
wards were considered for a detailed
groundwater survey, with the focus on developing
a hundred percent inventory of groundwater
sources, a quick measurement of groundwater
levels and in-situ groundwater quality in a limited
set of sources and a systematic survey of the
nature, patterns and quantities of groundwater
pumped from each surveyed source. The city
survey maps were procured from PMC. Door to
door survey in each house from the ward was
conducted by the student interns under the
guidance of ACWADAM’s team. The survey was
carried out in January 2020. Twenty interns from
Fergusson college, Nowrosjee Wadia College
and Poona College participated in this survey in
great earnest.
The surveyed wards (Figure 34) were:
1. Kasbapeth-Somvarpeth ward occupying 0.91
2
km area
2
2. Rastapeth-Ravivarpeth spread over 0.9 km
3. Shanivarpeth-Sadashivpeth occupying an
2
area of 1.75 km
Figure 34: The three surveyed wards of the core city
Sources of groundwater tapped by different types
of residential and commercial establishments
(bungalows to large housing societies to
community dwellings including ‘gaothans’) were
inventoried from 9344 survey numbers. There
are 1016 bore wells, 264 dug wells and 32
hand pumps in the three wards. (Figure 35). Dug
wells and energised bore wells dominate the
Shaniwarpeth-Sadashivpeth ward, while hand-
pump tted bore wells (represented as hand-
pumps) prevail in the Rastapeth-Ravivarpeth
ward (Figure 36).
Figure 35: Surveyed dug wells (a), bore wells (b) and hand-pumps (c) in the three municipal wards
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 64 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 65
These three wards from the core city area also
show a high density of ground water sources.
Rastapeth-Ravivarpeth shows a density of 4.1
groundwater sources (wells) per hectare,
Shanivarpeth-Sadashivpeth has 4.3
groundwater sources per hectare and
Kasbapeth-Somvarpeth shows a density of 2.1
groundwater sources per hectare (Table 3). Not
surprisingly, the annual groundwater extraction
rates (the rates of extraction and the volumes of
extraction are quite variable across sources even
in a single ward) are highest in the
Shanivarpeth-Sadashivpeth areas, with an
3
annual extraction of over 1.2 million m , while
each of other two wards show groundwater
3
extraction of the order of over half a million m
each, every year (Table 4). The cumulative
annual groundwater extraction from the three
wards where most dug wells tap aquifer 27,
with some bore wells also tapping aquifer 28, is
3
nearly 2.5 million m .
Figure 36: Distribution of groundwater sources across the three municipal wards
The study of Pune’s aquifers is progressing even
while this report is being nalized. It may be
stated here that this report too, like the previous
edition, is ‘work in progress’, with the potential
for updating information, data and inferential
aspects as new results and experiences reveal
deeper insights on the aquifers in Pune city.
What is clearly emerging from the study hitherto
is the fact that Pune is underlain by a complex
aquifer system from which there is a signicant
amount of annual groundwater extraction.
There is a need to develop a focused system of
groundwater management and governance
keeping the hydrogeological and socio-
economic factors surrounding groundwater
resources in Pune city.
Ward Name Density of groundwater
sources per hectare of land
2
Area (km )
Rasta Peth-Ravivar Peth 0.9 4.1
Sadashiv Peth-Shaniwar Peth 1.75 4.3
Kasba Peth-Somwar Peth 0.91 2.1
Table 3: Density of groundwater sources in each ward
Ward Name Total Draft
3
(m )
Total groundwater
draft (Liters)
Rasta Peth-Ravivar Peth 63,47,80,575.00 6,34,780.575
Sadashiv Peth-Shaniwar Peth 1,26,68,00,580.00 12,66,800.58
Kasba Peth-Somwar Peth 57,87,67,680.00 578,767.68
Total groundwater draft (annual) 248,03,48,835.00 2480,348.835
Table 4: Annual groundwater extraction from the three municipal wards
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 66 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 67
These three wards from the core city area also
show a high density of ground water sources.
Rastapeth-Ravivarpeth shows a density of 4.1
groundwater sources (wells) per hectare,
Shanivarpeth-Sadashivpeth has 4.3
groundwater sources per hectare and
Kasbapeth-Somvarpeth shows a density of 2.1
groundwater sources per hectare (Table 3). Not
surprisingly, the annual groundwater extraction
rates (the rates of extraction and the volumes of
extraction are quite variable across sources even
in a single ward) are highest in the
Shanivarpeth-Sadashivpeth areas, with an
3
annual extraction of over 1.2 million m , while
each of other two wards show groundwater
3
extraction of the order of over half a million m
each, every year (Table 4). The cumulative
annual groundwater extraction from the three
wards where most dug wells tap aquifer 27,
with some bore wells also tapping aquifer 28, is
3
nearly 2.5 million m .
Figure 36: Distribution of groundwater sources across the three municipal wards
The study of Pune’s aquifers is progressing even
while this report is being nalized. It may be
stated here that this report too, like the previous
edition, is ‘work in progress’, with the potential
for updating information, data and inferential
aspects as new results and experiences reveal
deeper insights on the aquifers in Pune city.
What is clearly emerging from the study hitherto
is the fact that Pune is underlain by a complex
aquifer system from which there is a signicant
amount of annual groundwater extraction.
There is a need to develop a focused system of
groundwater management and governance
keeping the hydrogeological and socio-
economic factors surrounding groundwater
resources in Pune city.
Ward Name Density of groundwater
sources per hectare of land
2
Area (km )
Rasta Peth-Ravivar Peth 0.9 4.1
Sadashiv Peth-Shaniwar Peth 1.75 4.3
Kasba Peth-Somwar Peth 0.91 2.1
Table 3: Density of groundwater sources in each ward
Ward Name Total Draft
3
(m )
Total groundwater
draft (Liters)
Rasta Peth-Ravivar Peth 63,47,80,575.00 6,34,780.575
Sadashiv Peth-Shaniwar Peth 1,26,68,00,580.00 12,66,800.58
Kasba Peth-Somwar Peth 57,87,67,680.00 578,767.68
Total groundwater draft (annual) 248,03,48,835.00 2480,348.835
Table 4: Annual groundwater extraction from the three municipal wards
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 66 Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 67
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 69
CHAPTER 04
A Framework For Groundwater
Management In Pune City
Photograph 7: Mula-Mutheshwar Spring – A perennial spring at Yerawada
Pune’s Groundwater Viewed Through Its Aquifers 69
CHAPTER 04
A Framework For Groundwater
Management In Pune City
Photograph 7: Mula-Mutheshwar Spring – A perennial spring at Yerawada
Aquifers are a Common Pool Resource (CPR).
An aquifer represents a ‘resource system’, while
the groundwater it contains can be described
as ‘resource units’ (after: Ostrom, 1990).
Aquifers do not follow strict administrative or
other human-induced boundaries. Further,
aquifers are largely invisible. An aquifer is
spread out underneath several ‘parcels’ of land
and hence, it underlies portions of land owned
and used by many. Moreover, access to
groundwater is difcult to restrict. Groundwater
is therefore, both extractable and reducible.
Each unit extracted by one user is no longer
available to other users. What makes
management of groundwater especially tricky
is that it is a highly uid resource. Unlike
surface water that can be stored in a dam to
allocate and distribute, groundwater cannot be
articially stocked up as a stored asset in a
place, at least not in its natural state. Moreover,
groundwater ows are not necessarily as well-
dened as the natural drainage in a watershed
or river basin, although the general ow
directions of groundwater can be estimated
after a systematic study. All the above factors
make it difcult to establish and enforce private
and exclusive rights to groundwater. Beyond a
point, especially in times of increased scarcity,
groundwater usage transcends land
boundaries and generates negative
consequences such as falling water tables,
interference between wells and even sea-water
ingress in coastal areas. Many of these
consequences are a result of the implicit
competition not only between various users,
but also between different types of uses
(Kulkarni and Vijay Shankar, 2014).
Pune’s groundwater footprint
Understanding the demand for and supply of
groundwater seems more effective when seen
in the light of the quality and quantity of
groundwater ‘availability’ in aquifers.
Moreover, it is important to understand the
precise nature of the groundwater footprint in
urban water management. Understanding such
a groundwater footprint is perhaps the rst step
in gauging groundwater sustainability for
sustained, efcient and equitable urban water
supplies. As one knows, urbanisation brings
about a signicant change in the water cycle
components of a growing town or city (after
Foster et al, 2010). In a city like Pune, located
on top of a basalt aquifer system, which shows
a high heterogeneity in the accumulation and
movement of groundwater, it becomes
important to estimate how much groundwater
is pumped from these aquifers annually.
Table 5 below provides a synopsis of the ‘water
supply metrics’ of Pune (ACWADAM, 2019). It
indicates how sewage generated because of
water usage across the city has trebled over a
period of three decades. Table also shows an
estimate of groundwater extraction computed
from the difference between the actual sewage
generated in Pune city and the sewage
estimates from ofcial PMC water supplies
(surface water) for the city in the year 2011.
Based a backward calculation using the
estimate of sewage as a percentage of water
supply (66%) one can infer that the
groundwater extraction estimates for Pune city
in the year 2011 was 2.39 TMC. This implies
that groundwater extraction today would surely
be greater than this value
Table 5: Indicative estimates of groundwater extraction as a difference between actual sewage generated
and estimates of sewage from formal, municipal water supplies (for 2011) – numbers are approximate and
may actually deviate from these estimates. The core purpose of this exercise was to generate a rst order
estimate of groundwater withdrawals for Pune city, in the absence of any other data
Inventorying all the dug wells and bore wells in
Pune city is a tedious task. ACWADAM’s focused
work in some pockets of Pune city (until 2019)
enabled the estimation of the density of
groundwater sources and the groundwater
extraction from these sources for Pune city. This
was done through a simple algorithm, based on
information collected from the ground,
especially data that emerged through the
partnership with CEE and Mission Groundwater.
The inventory was informative on two counts.
First, it provided information about capacities of
pumps and average discharges per minute from
such pumps (some discharges were actually
measured) installed on bore wells. The second
estimate was in the form of the number of bore
wells in Pune city, again drawn from a
qualitative data set plus a detailed survey of
bore wells in a few sample locations.
Table 6 provides two estimates of the number of
bore wells in Pune city. These estimates emerged
from the inventory – one estimate of 125000
bore wells (4 to 5 bore wells per hectare or
urban space) and the other a more conservative
estimate of 80000 bore wells (3 bore wells per
hectare of urban space) – in Pune city. In the
peri-urban areas that form fringes of the current
city limits, there is a much larger density of bore
wells used in water supplies. However, this
higher density was not considered as it was
thought pertinent to obtain as conservative a
value for groundwater extraction, as any, to
begin with. The resultant values of 5.23 TMC
and 3.34 TMC allow us to infer that Pune’s
groundwater extraction today is nearly 4 TMC,
at very conservative estimates. This implies a
groundwater extraction only from bore wells,
that is equivalent of about a quarter of the
formal municipal supplies.
1. Supply @ 228 lpcd corrected to 26% losses 6.8 TMC
(in water supplies)
2. Sewage generated at 66% of actual supply 4.5 TMC
(from above)
3. Estimated/actual sewage generation 6.08 TMC
4. Estimated additional sewage generation 1.58 TMC or
3
due to groundwater usage 44740616 m or 166 mm
5. Estimated extraction of groundwater from
the additional estimate of sewage due to 2.39 TMC or 67788813
3
groundwater usage m or 264 mm
(Applying the index of 66% as in point 2)
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 70 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 71
Aquifers are a Common Pool Resource (CPR).
An aquifer represents a ‘resource system’, while
the groundwater it contains can be described
as ‘resource units’ (after: Ostrom, 1990).
Aquifers do not follow strict administrative or
other human-induced boundaries. Further,
aquifers are largely invisible. An aquifer is
spread out underneath several ‘parcels’ of land
and hence, it underlies portions of land owned
and used by many. Moreover, access to
groundwater is difcult to restrict. Groundwater
is therefore, both extractable and reducible.
Each unit extracted by one user is no longer
available to other users. What makes
management of groundwater especially tricky
is that it is a highly uid resource. Unlike
surface water that can be stored in a dam to
allocate and distribute, groundwater cannot be
articially stocked up as a stored asset in a
place, at least not in its natural state. Moreover,
groundwater ows are not necessarily as well-
dened as the natural drainage in a watershed
or river basin, although the general ow
directions of groundwater can be estimated
after a systematic study. All the above factors
make it difcult to establish and enforce private
and exclusive rights to groundwater. Beyond a
point, especially in times of increased scarcity,
groundwater usage transcends land
boundaries and generates negative
consequences such as falling water tables,
interference between wells and even sea-water
ingress in coastal areas. Many of these
consequences are a result of the implicit
competition not only between various users,
but also between different types of uses
(Kulkarni and Vijay Shankar, 2014).
Pune’s groundwater footprint
Understanding the demand for and supply of
groundwater seems more effective when seen
in the light of the quality and quantity of
groundwater ‘availability’ in aquifers.
Moreover, it is important to understand the
precise nature of the groundwater footprint in
urban water management. Understanding such
a groundwater footprint is perhaps the rst step
in gauging groundwater sustainability for
sustained, efcient and equitable urban water
supplies. As one knows, urbanisation brings
about a signicant change in the water cycle
components of a growing town or city (after
Foster et al, 2010). In a city like Pune, located
on top of a basalt aquifer system, which shows
a high heterogeneity in the accumulation and
movement of groundwater, it becomes
important to estimate how much groundwater
is pumped from these aquifers annually.
Table 5 below provides a synopsis of the ‘water
supply metrics’ of Pune (ACWADAM, 2019). It
indicates how sewage generated because of
water usage across the city has trebled over a
period of three decades. Table also shows an
estimate of groundwater extraction computed
from the difference between the actual sewage
generated in Pune city and the sewage
estimates from ofcial PMC water supplies
(surface water) for the city in the year 2011.
Based a backward calculation using the
estimate of sewage as a percentage of water
supply (66%) one can infer that the
groundwater extraction estimates for Pune city
in the year 2011 was 2.39 TMC. This implies
that groundwater extraction today would surely
be greater than this value
Table 5: Indicative estimates of groundwater extraction as a difference between actual sewage generated
and estimates of sewage from formal, municipal water supplies (for 2011) – numbers are approximate and
may actually deviate from these estimates. The core purpose of this exercise was to generate a rst order
estimate of groundwater withdrawals for Pune city, in the absence of any other data
Inventorying all the dug wells and bore wells in
Pune city is a tedious task. ACWADAM’s focused
work in some pockets of Pune city (until 2019)
enabled the estimation of the density of
groundwater sources and the groundwater
extraction from these sources for Pune city. This
was done through a simple algorithm, based on
information collected from the ground,
especially data that emerged through the
partnership with CEE and Mission Groundwater.
The inventory was informative on two counts.
First, it provided information about capacities of
pumps and average discharges per minute from
such pumps (some discharges were actually
measured) installed on bore wells. The second
estimate was in the form of the number of bore
wells in Pune city, again drawn from a
qualitative data set plus a detailed survey of
bore wells in a few sample locations.
Table 6 provides two estimates of the number of
bore wells in Pune city. These estimates emerged
from the inventory – one estimate of 125000
bore wells (4 to 5 bore wells per hectare or
urban space) and the other a more conservative
estimate of 80000 bore wells (3 bore wells per
hectare of urban space) – in Pune city. In the
peri-urban areas that form fringes of the current
city limits, there is a much larger density of bore
wells used in water supplies. However, this
higher density was not considered as it was
thought pertinent to obtain as conservative a
value for groundwater extraction, as any, to
begin with. The resultant values of 5.23 TMC
and 3.34 TMC allow us to infer that Pune’s
groundwater extraction today is nearly 4 TMC,
at very conservative estimates. This implies a
groundwater extraction only from bore wells,
that is equivalent of about a quarter of the
formal municipal supplies.
1. Supply @ 228 lpcd corrected to 26% losses 6.8 TMC
(in water supplies)
2. Sewage generated at 66% of actual supply 4.5 TMC
(from above)
3. Estimated/actual sewage generation 6.08 TMC
4. Estimated additional sewage generation 1.58 TMC or
3
due to groundwater usage 44740616 m or 166 mm
5. Estimated extraction of groundwater from
the additional estimate of sewage due to 2.39 TMC or 67788813
3
groundwater usage m or 264 mm
(Applying the index of 66% as in point 2)
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 70 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 71
Table 6: Current estimates of groundwater extraction from bore wells in Pune city
Even if we completely neglect the pumping from
dug wells or say that it is only a fourth of what
is pumped from bore wells, we arrive at an
estimate of 5 TMC for groundwater extraction in
the city. This implies a groundwater footprint of
over 354 mm even considering a larger area of
Pune city’s urban sprawl of the order of 400
2
km , a value that implies a need for
groundwater recharge that is equivalent to
about 46% of the long-term average annual
precipitation for Pune city.
Data from the three ‘core-city’ wards provide
an insight to the overall groundwater extraction
footprint for Pune (Table 6). The core city area
estimates suggest that each ward from the city’s
central areas (corresponding to the old
township of Pune) is of the order of one million
3 3
m (Mm ) every year. Estimates from peri-urban
areas of Pune city through sample surveys
reveal that the ward-wise ranges for such areas
(where groundwater usage is greater than in
3
the core city areas) vary between 3 and 6 Mm
per year. Hence, a conservative average for a
3
range between 0.5 and 6 Mm per year can be
3
set as 2.5 Mm per year for each of the 41
wards (wards according to PMC’s 2017
electoral boundary). This yields a value of just
3
over 100 Mm per year for the PMC limits.
Incidentally, PMC’s estimate (pers. comm.,
various years)of 300 million litres per day (MLD)
of groundwater usage (as the gap lling
between allocated and actual supplies), yields a
3 3
value of 109 Mm per year. Hence, 100 Mm
per year of groundwater usage in the PMC
limits (as per PMC’s 2017 boundary) can be
considered a reliable estimate and is in
agreement with what the PMC itself specied.
This is equivalent to 3.53 TMC.
A synopsis of values obtained by various
methods is provided in Table 7. The
computations yield somewhat variable values,
with the estimates provide a range of 2.3 to 5
TMC, implying that a value of 3.5 TMC is closer
to the actual annual groundwater extraction for
Pune city. The exact quantities are only possible
through data that will come out through a
thorough and precise inventory of groundwater
sources and metering of such sources
Table 7: Synopsis of estimates for groundwater extraction in Pune Municipal City limits
A range of estimates for annual groundwater
extraction in Pune city help us confront multiple
dimensions of Pune’s water metrics. Firstly, the
current demand for city water supply stands at
1600 MLD, which implies an annual gure of
about 20 TMC. Of this, the groundwater
footprint seems a mere 20%, possibly because
Pune is perhaps one of the better ‘dam-water
endowed’ and ‘dam water supplied’ cities in
India. But that is precisely the point! Despite
such a large surface-water endowment in its
public water supply system, Pune’s groundwater
extraction is not small by any means. The
annual groundwater extraction, when
distributed over the PMC area, yields a range of
250 to 550 mm, implying that the annual
groundwater extraction ranges from 32 to 71%
as a proportion of the average annual rainfall
(a gure of 770 mm is considered for this
computation). This range itself is worrisome
because natural recharge rates for the basalt
aquifers in Pune city are usually considered to
be of a lesser percentage (of rainfall), perhaps
in the range of 5 to 15%, implying a trend of
unsustainable extraction or an underestimation
of the groundwater recharge to Pune’s aquifers.
Understanding Pune’s rainfall
variability
On the one hand, Pune’s aquifer system is
diverse. On the other, one observes a clear
pattern of variation in precipitation across Pune.
Integrating both is important, particularly in
understanding groundwater level behavior and
groundwater recharge especially during the
monsoon. Mr. Abhijit Gandhi, who has been
experimenting with rainfall measurement for
many years, initiated ‘Rain Enthusiasts’, a group
of volunteers, who measure rainfall on a daily
basis across the city of Pune. There were about
20 rain gauging points when the initiative
began in 2019. There are more than fty now,
with a few of these outside the city limits, even
as far out as Raigad district and Nashik city.
While the earlier rain gauges were designed
locally, ACWADAM provided about fty
standard rain gauges to the enthusiasts in
2021. The rainfall data for 2021 and 2022 is
obtained from these standard rain gauges. Mr.
Gandhi compiles and collates the data for the
group and shares in daily on ‘WhatsApp’. Table
8 shows a sample compilation of daily and
monthly data from these rain gauge stations.
1 ACWADAM (2019) – backward 109 3.84 405
estimation from sewage data
2 PMC’s estimates based on gap 67 2.39 249
between allocated and actual supply
3 Extrapolation of ward-level, sample 100 3.53 371
data (2020-21) gathered during the
current study
4 Bore well sampling estimates – 94 to 147 3.34 to 5.23 349 to 546
measured pumping and observed
pumping patterns (Table 5)
3
(GW = groundwater; Mm = million cubic metres; TMC = thousand million cubic feet)
Sr.
No. Source
Annual GW
3
extraction in Mm
Annual GW
extraction in TMC
Annual footprint
of GW extraction
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 72 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 73
Pump
capacity
(HP)
Pump output
3
(m /hr.)
minimum
value based
on sample
measurements
Average
no. of
daily
pumping
hours
Groundwater
abstraction
3
(m /hr.)
Pumping
days
Total
Groundwater
abstraction/
3
borewell (m )
No. of
BWs
in
Pune
city
Total
Groundwater
abstraction
3
(m )
Total
Groundwater
abstraction
(TMC)
2 4.8 2.74 13.2 90 1184 125000 147960000 5.23
2 4.8 2.74 13.2 90 1184 80000 94694400 3.34
Table 6: Current estimates of groundwater extraction from bore wells in Pune city
Even if we completely neglect the pumping from
dug wells or say that it is only a fourth of what
is pumped from bore wells, we arrive at an
estimate of 5 TMC for groundwater extraction in
the city. This implies a groundwater footprint of
over 354 mm even considering a larger area of
Pune city’s urban sprawl of the order of 400
2
km , a value that implies a need for
groundwater recharge that is equivalent to
about 46% of the long-term average annual
precipitation for Pune city.
Data from the three ‘core-city’ wards provide
an insight to the overall groundwater extraction
footprint for Pune (Table 6). The core city area
estimates suggest that each ward from the city’s
central areas (corresponding to the old
township of Pune) is of the order of one million
3 3
m (Mm ) every year. Estimates from peri-urban
areas of Pune city through sample surveys
reveal that the ward-wise ranges for such areas
(where groundwater usage is greater than in
3
the core city areas) vary between 3 and 6 Mm
per year. Hence, a conservative average for a
3
range between 0.5 and 6 Mm per year can be
3
set as 2.5 Mm per year for each of the 41
wards (wards according to PMC’s 2017
electoral boundary). This yields a value of just
3
over 100 Mm per year for the PMC limits.
Incidentally, PMC’s estimate (pers. comm.,
various years)of 300 million litres per day (MLD)
of groundwater usage (as the gap lling
between allocated and actual supplies), yields a
3 3
value of 109 Mm per year. Hence, 100 Mm
per year of groundwater usage in the PMC
limits (as per PMC’s 2017 boundary) can be
considered a reliable estimate and is in
agreement with what the PMC itself specied.
This is equivalent to 3.53 TMC.
A synopsis of values obtained by various
methods is provided in Table 7. The
computations yield somewhat variable values,
with the estimates provide a range of 2.3 to 5
TMC, implying that a value of 3.5 TMC is closer
to the actual annual groundwater extraction for
Pune city. The exact quantities are only possible
through data that will come out through a
thorough and precise inventory of groundwater
sources and metering of such sources
Table 7: Synopsis of estimates for groundwater extraction in Pune Municipal City limits
A range of estimates for annual groundwater
extraction in Pune city help us confront multiple
dimensions of Pune’s water metrics. Firstly, the
current demand for city water supply stands at
1600 MLD, which implies an annual gure of
about 20 TMC. Of this, the groundwater
footprint seems a mere 20%, possibly because
Pune is perhaps one of the better ‘dam-water
endowed’ and ‘dam water supplied’ cities in
India. But that is precisely the point! Despite
such a large surface-water endowment in its
public water supply system, Pune’s groundwater
extraction is not small by any means. The
annual groundwater extraction, when
distributed over the PMC area, yields a range of
250 to 550 mm, implying that the annual
groundwater extraction ranges from 32 to 71%
as a proportion of the average annual rainfall
(a gure of 770 mm is considered for this
computation). This range itself is worrisome
because natural recharge rates for the basalt
aquifers in Pune city are usually considered to
be of a lesser percentage (of rainfall), perhaps
in the range of 5 to 15%, implying a trend of
unsustainable extraction or an underestimation
of the groundwater recharge to Pune’s aquifers.
Understanding Pune’s rainfall
variability
On the one hand, Pune’s aquifer system is
diverse. On the other, one observes a clear
pattern of variation in precipitation across Pune.
Integrating both is important, particularly in
understanding groundwater level behavior and
groundwater recharge especially during the
monsoon. Mr. Abhijit Gandhi, who has been
experimenting with rainfall measurement for
many years, initiated ‘Rain Enthusiasts’, a group
of volunteers, who measure rainfall on a daily
basis across the city of Pune. There were about
20 rain gauging points when the initiative
began in 2019. There are more than fty now,
with a few of these outside the city limits, even
as far out as Raigad district and Nashik city.
While the earlier rain gauges were designed
locally, ACWADAM provided about fty
standard rain gauges to the enthusiasts in
2021. The rainfall data for 2021 and 2022 is
obtained from these standard rain gauges. Mr.
Gandhi compiles and collates the data for the
group and shares in daily on ‘WhatsApp’. Table
8 shows a sample compilation of daily and
monthly data from these rain gauge stations.
1 ACWADAM (2019) – backward 109 3.84 405
estimation from sewage data
2 PMC’s estimates based on gap 67 2.39 249
between allocated and actual supply
3 Extrapolation of ward-level, sample 100 3.53 371
data (2020-21) gathered during the
current study
4 Bore well sampling estimates – 94 to 147 3.34 to 5.23 349 to 546
measured pumping and observed
pumping patterns (Table 5)
3
(GW = groundwater; Mm = million cubic metres; TMC = thousand million cubic feet)
Sr.
No. Source
Annual GW
3
extraction in Mm
Annual GW
extraction in TMC
Annual footprint
of GW extraction
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 72 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 73
Pump
capacity
(HP)
Pump output
3
(m /hr.)
minimum
value based
on sample
measurements
Average
no. of
daily
pumping
hours
Groundwater
abstraction
3
(m /hr.)
Pumping
days
Total
Groundwater
abstraction/
3
borewell (m )
No. of
BWs
in
Pune
city
Total
Groundwater
abstraction
3
(m )
Total
Groundwater
abstraction
(TMC)
2 4.8 2.74 13.2 90 1184 125000 147960000 5.23
2 4.8 2.74 13.2 90 1184 80000 94694400 3.34
Table 8: Daily rainfall sheets (compiled) for 7 July and (a), A monthly
compilation of the data is shown in (b) and (c)
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 74 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 75
The daily rainfall gures also allow for a
compilation of the variable patterns of rainfall
distribution on a day-to-day basis. It is
interesting to note how the ‘modal’ values of
rainfall change on a regular basis. A small
sample is presented in Table 7. A typical daily
maximum (of 25 to 30 mm), during the rainy
season of 2020 is found in the southwest on
7th June 2020, in the east on 14th July 2020,
in the southwest and west on 4th August and in
the north and central parts on the 10thof
September 2020 (Figure 37 – a, b, c and d
respectively).
Figure 37: Isohyets based on the rain gauge measurements from ‘Rain Enthusiasts’ for (a) 7th June;
(b) 14th July; (c) 4th August and (d) 10th September during the rainy months of 2020
ab
cd
Table 8: Daily rainfall sheets (compiled) for 7 July and (a), A monthly
compilation of the data is shown in (b) and (c)
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 74 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 75
The daily rainfall gures also allow for a
compilation of the variable patterns of rainfall
distribution on a day-to-day basis. It is
interesting to note how the ‘modal’ values of
rainfall change on a regular basis. A small
sample is presented in Table 7. A typical daily
maximum (of 25 to 30 mm), during the rainy
season of 2020 is found in the southwest on
7th June 2020, in the east on 14th July 2020,
in the southwest and west on 4th August and in
the north and central parts on the 10thof
September 2020 (Figure 37 – a, b, c and d
respectively).
Figure 37: Isohyets based on the rain gauge measurements from ‘Rain Enthusiasts’ for (a) 7th June;
(b) 14th July; (c) 4th August and (d) 10th September during the rainy months of 2020
ab
cd
A more localized and systematic measurement
of rainfall has meant a major improvement in
the interpretation of groundwater level
hydrographs. The local variability in rainfall
affects the recharge cycles of different aquifers
and the rise in groundwater levels in wells in
different areas of the city. As an example, six
hydrographs have been provided below
showing how the local rainfall values show a
strong correlation in the hydrograph response
for wells tapping different aquifers. The
hydrographs also indicate how the patterns of
pumping, groundwater recharge and daily
uctuations vary from area to area. A few
salient observations from these hydrographs are
listed below:
• Dug wells, due to their large pumping
footprint show greater groundwater level
uctuations than bore wells; bore wells are
also tted with lower capacity pumps, as a
general observation
• Almost all wells – dug wells and bore wells
– show some pumping during the non-
monsoon period as can be observed
through the comparatively minor and
sometimes major daily groundwater level
uctuations
• Most groundwater levels in the non-
monsoon period are not static levels but
represent either pumped water levels or
residual drawdown levels (partial
recuperation values)
• The Gandhi Bhawan bore well (f) shows a
classic response of the groundwater system
as the uctuations are a clear indication of
cycles of recharge (the bore well is in the
recharge zone for shallow aquifer 24 / 25)
and daily pumping (drawdown) and
recuperation patterns
• The seasonal (static water levels), therefore,
are best represented by dug wells and bore
wells that are not pumped or are pumped
only at long intervals, e.g., Dahanukar
Colony bore well (not pumped) and the
Shaniwar Peth dug well.
• Despite signicant pumping, the overall
groundwater uctuation between the
shallowest (monsoon) and the deepest (peak
summer) groundwater levels, on an average
would not be more than 7 to 8
Figure 38: Groundwater level hydrographs corrected to the nearest rain gauge station of the Rainfall Enthusiasts
Group for better correlation. The sample hydrographs have been grouped into (a) A dug well and a couple of bore
wells from the Dahanukar colony – Gandhi Bhawan area; (b) Dug wells from the Deccan Gymkhana and Peth
Areas; ©, (d), (e) and (f) are single well hydrographs for Shaniwar Peth, Pashan, Gandhi Bhawan (dug well)
and Gandhi Bhawan (bore well) respectively
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 76 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 77
A more localized and systematic measurement
of rainfall has meant a major improvement in
the interpretation of groundwater level
hydrographs. The local variability in rainfall
affects the recharge cycles of different aquifers
and the rise in groundwater levels in wells in
different areas of the city. As an example, six
hydrographs have been provided below
showing how the local rainfall values show a
strong correlation in the hydrograph response
for wells tapping different aquifers. The
hydrographs also indicate how the patterns of
pumping, groundwater recharge and daily
uctuations vary from area to area. A few
salient observations from these hydrographs are
listed below:
• Dug wells, due to their large pumping
footprint show greater groundwater level
uctuations than bore wells; bore wells are
also tted with lower capacity pumps, as a
general observation
• Almost all wells – dug wells and bore wells
– show some pumping during the non-
monsoon period as can be observed
through the comparatively minor and
sometimes major daily groundwater level
uctuations
• Most groundwater levels in the non-
monsoon period are not static levels but
represent either pumped water levels or
residual drawdown levels (partial
recuperation values)
• The Gandhi Bhawan bore well (f) shows a
classic response of the groundwater system
as the uctuations are a clear indication of
cycles of recharge (the bore well is in the
recharge zone for shallow aquifer 24 / 25)
and daily pumping (drawdown) and
recuperation patterns
• The seasonal (static water levels), therefore,
are best represented by dug wells and bore
wells that are not pumped or are pumped
only at long intervals, e.g., Dahanukar
Colony bore well (not pumped) and the
Shaniwar Peth dug well.
• Despite signicant pumping, the overall
groundwater uctuation between the
shallowest (monsoon) and the deepest (peak
summer) groundwater levels, on an average
would not be more than 7 to 8
Figure 38: Groundwater level hydrographs corrected to the nearest rain gauge station of the Rainfall Enthusiasts
Group for better correlation. The sample hydrographs have been grouped into (a) A dug well and a couple of bore
wells from the Dahanukar colony – Gandhi Bhawan area; (b) Dug wells from the Deccan Gymkhana and Peth
Areas; ©, (d), (e) and (f) are single well hydrographs for Shaniwar Peth, Pashan, Gandhi Bhawan (dug well)
and Gandhi Bhawan (bore well) respectively
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 76 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 77
It has proved challenging to conduct systematic
aquifer performance tests for the aquifer system
in Pune city, under the current study. Even single
well tests have not been possible due to
practical challenges imposed on many fronts.
At the same time, long-term groundwater levels
through the automated water level sensors are
providing deep insights into the drawdown and
recuperation patterns of some of the wells.
Drawing upon limited but critical analysis of
periods of these hydrographs that can be
considered as pumping and recuperation, the
following values of aquifer transmissivity and
storativity have been calculated.
2
• Aquifer transmissivity = 20 to 500 m /day
• Aquifer storativity = 0.006 to 0.07
These values are in consonance with the values
of aquifer properties generated by Deolankar
(1977), particularly for aquifers 28, 27 and
parts of 26. The ranges of values provided by
Deolankar (1977) for T and S are:
2
• Transmissivity - 40 to 120 m /day
• Storativity – 0.01 to 0.07 (with an average
of 0.025)
Similarly, hydrographs for the monitored wells,
as mentioned earlier (Figure 38) indicate an
average uctuation of about 6 m (from
measured values across two years – 2020 and
2021). Considering an annual groundwater
3
extraction value of 100 million m , i.e., 3.5
TMC, the storativity (S) for Pune’s aquifer
system (mainly for aquifers 28, 27, 26, 25 and
24) is 0.062. The value is obtained using the
equation:
S = (Q/gwl)/(area), where
Q = Annual groundwater discharge (extraction)
3
in m
(Here, base ow is not considered as it will be
much smaller in magnitude when compared to
pumping)
rrgwl = Groundwater level decline during an
annual cycle, in m
2
area = area of Pune city in m
At the same time, it may be relevant to consider
that the induced recharge from leaking mains,
sewers and other such sources may add to the
groundwater storage during various periods of
the year, implying that the groundwater level
uctuation under normal circumstances (zero
leakage conditions) will be greater than those
in the measured system. Hence, a more
rational value for aquifer storativity is 0.04,
considering an induced, additional recharge to
the aquifer system from leaking infrastructure (a
value of 40% leakage is assumed).
Moving towards a groundwater
balance for Pune city
It becomes necessary to develop a protocol for
managing the groundwater resources of Pune
city. Such management must begin through a
systematic projection about how Pune’s aquifers
can be managed. The following sections
highlight the process of arriving at a protocol
for Urban Aquifer Management, a protocol
that, rst and foremost, must be based on
people’s participation in the science, decisions
and actions that dene groundwater
management. Urban aquifer management can
be divided into four broad components:
(1) A decision – support system that is based
on information and data from systematic
mapping and measurement of aquifer
systems and their various dimensions
(2) Strategic conservation of water, based on
hydrology and hydrogeology; this should
include using Managed Aquifer Recharge
(MAR) as a means of planning public
recharge programmes
(3) Enabling a system that provides inputs to
the efcient use of sources
(4) Demand management of groundwater
through self-regulatory mechanisms.
A comprehensive study of Pune’s groundwater
was rst conducted in the 1970s as part of his
12
Ph.D. research (Deolankar, 1977 ); the salient
results from that research are summarized in
Table 9. Managing (ground)water is not
possible without quantied estimates of a water
balance. Water balances are the foundations
on which water budgeting can be effectively
achieved. Given the fact that Pune’s water
supplies are dominated by water allocated from
its upstream dams, which themselves are
dependent upon their catchment areas, it would
be useful to develop a template for a dynamic
water balance for Pune. While it is beyond the
scope of this report to do so, an attempt will be
made in the next year or so to develop
preliminary estimates for the same. However, a
template for Pune’s water balance (will need to
be ner tuned as precise data is generated and
made available) is presented below, with a few
indicative estimates, particularly on the surface
water and groundwater availability from within
the geographical boundaries of the PMC (Table
10). What is most interesting is the comparative
values from the 1970s developed by Deolankar
(1977) and for the period 2019-20 developed
as part of the current report. Comparing values
from the two sets of estimates provides us with
a few interesting pointers:
(1) The similarities in the aquifer characteristics
from the two estimates – Transmissivity and
Storativity of the shallow unconned
aquifers are not only of the same order of
magnitude but fall within comparable
ranges.
(2) Groundwater extraction during the 1970s
was also a signicant component of water
usage in Pune city as it is now.
(3) There was signicant induced recharge from
the Mutha right bank canal and from city
efuent discharges in the 1970s, which has
reduced now, although there will still be a
signicant leakage from leaking mains and
sewers, the precise determination of which is
difcult to make in the absence of precise
measurements; however, the presence of
biological contamination in 31 out of 32
samples provides an idea that such
leakages cannot be completely ruled out.
(4) The annual groundwater recharge value
3
from the 1977 estimate – 9 Mm - when
converted to the depth of water over the
2
studied area of 120 km is 75 mm. In the
current scenario, through similar
calculations, the groundwater recharge is
an equivalent of 167 mm. Obviously, this
difference is on account of the extraction of
groundwater having increased signicantly,
leading to an increased value of ‘potential
recharge’, which in most normal rainfall
years is met both from rainfall recharge and
induced recharge from leakage.
The magnitude of groundwater extraction in
Pune is of a similar order of magnitude of the
overland ow or stream ow generated in Pune
city (Table 10). In other words, groundwater
storage in Pune’s aquifer system represents a
potential ‘captive’ stock underneath the Pune
Municipal Corporation’s administrative units.
Viewed together, it is imperative to develop a
systematic water management plan for the
surface water resources generated in the
watersheds from within the city limit and
groundwater stocks available within Pune’s
aquifer system to improve the water security of
this rapidly growing urban center.
12 Professor S. B. Deolankar who went on to become a leading teacher of the subject of groundwater at Pune University
(subsequently Savitribai Phule Pune University) is also ACWADAM’s co-founder and its chairman, since its inception.
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 78 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 79
It has proved challenging to conduct systematic
aquifer performance tests for the aquifer system
in Pune city, under the current study. Even single
well tests have not been possible due to
practical challenges imposed on many fronts.
At the same time, long-term groundwater levels
through the automated water level sensors are
providing deep insights into the drawdown and
recuperation patterns of some of the wells.
Drawing upon limited but critical analysis of
periods of these hydrographs that can be
considered as pumping and recuperation, the
following values of aquifer transmissivity and
storativity have been calculated.
2
• Aquifer transmissivity = 20 to 500 m /day
• Aquifer storativity = 0.006 to 0.07
These values are in consonance with the values
of aquifer properties generated by Deolankar
(1977), particularly for aquifers 28, 27 and
parts of 26. The ranges of values provided by
Deolankar (1977) for T and S are:
2
• Transmissivity - 40 to 120 m /day
• Storativity – 0.01 to 0.07 (with an average
of 0.025)
Similarly, hydrographs for the monitored wells,
as mentioned earlier (Figure 38) indicate an
average uctuation of about 6 m (from
measured values across two years – 2020 and
2021). Considering an annual groundwater
3
extraction value of 100 million m , i.e., 3.5
TMC, the storativity (S) for Pune’s aquifer
system (mainly for aquifers 28, 27, 26, 25 and
24) is 0.062. The value is obtained using the
equation:
S = (Q/gwl)/(area), where
Q = Annual groundwater discharge (extraction)
3
in m
(Here, base ow is not considered as it will be
much smaller in magnitude when compared to
pumping)
rrgwl = Groundwater level decline during an
annual cycle, in m
2
area = area of Pune city in m
At the same time, it may be relevant to consider
that the induced recharge from leaking mains,
sewers and other such sources may add to the
groundwater storage during various periods of
the year, implying that the groundwater level
uctuation under normal circumstances (zero
leakage conditions) will be greater than those
in the measured system. Hence, a more
rational value for aquifer storativity is 0.04,
considering an induced, additional recharge to
the aquifer system from leaking infrastructure (a
value of 40% leakage is assumed).
Moving towards a groundwater
balance for Pune city
It becomes necessary to develop a protocol for
managing the groundwater resources of Pune
city. Such management must begin through a
systematic projection about how Pune’s aquifers
can be managed. The following sections
highlight the process of arriving at a protocol
for Urban Aquifer Management, a protocol
that, rst and foremost, must be based on
people’s participation in the science, decisions
and actions that dene groundwater
management. Urban aquifer management can
be divided into four broad components:
(1) A decision – support system that is based
on information and data from systematic
mapping and measurement of aquifer
systems and their various dimensions
(2) Strategic conservation of water, based on
hydrology and hydrogeology; this should
include using Managed Aquifer Recharge
(MAR) as a means of planning public
recharge programmes
(3) Enabling a system that provides inputs to
the efcient use of sources
(4) Demand management of groundwater
through self-regulatory mechanisms.
A comprehensive study of Pune’s groundwater
was rst conducted in the 1970s as part of his
12
Ph.D. research (Deolankar, 1977 ); the salient
results from that research are summarized in
Table 9. Managing (ground)water is not
possible without quantied estimates of a water
balance. Water balances are the foundations
on which water budgeting can be effectively
achieved. Given the fact that Pune’s water
supplies are dominated by water allocated from
its upstream dams, which themselves are
dependent upon their catchment areas, it would
be useful to develop a template for a dynamic
water balance for Pune. While it is beyond the
scope of this report to do so, an attempt will be
made in the next year or so to develop
preliminary estimates for the same. However, a
template for Pune’s water balance (will need to
be ner tuned as precise data is generated and
made available) is presented below, with a few
indicative estimates, particularly on the surface
water and groundwater availability from within
the geographical boundaries of the PMC (Table
10). What is most interesting is the comparative
values from the 1970s developed by Deolankar
(1977) and for the period 2019-20 developed
as part of the current report. Comparing values
from the two sets of estimates provides us with
a few interesting pointers:
(1) The similarities in the aquifer characteristics
from the two estimates – Transmissivity and
Storativity of the shallow unconned
aquifers are not only of the same order of
magnitude but fall within comparable
ranges.
(2) Groundwater extraction during the 1970s
was also a signicant component of water
usage in Pune city as it is now.
(3) There was signicant induced recharge from
the Mutha right bank canal and from city
efuent discharges in the 1970s, which has
reduced now, although there will still be a
signicant leakage from leaking mains and
sewers, the precise determination of which is
difcult to make in the absence of precise
measurements; however, the presence of
biological contamination in 31 out of 32
samples provides an idea that such
leakages cannot be completely ruled out.
(4) The annual groundwater recharge value
3
from the 1977 estimate – 9 Mm - when
converted to the depth of water over the
2
studied area of 120 km is 75 mm. In the
current scenario, through similar
calculations, the groundwater recharge is
an equivalent of 167 mm. Obviously, this
difference is on account of the extraction of
groundwater having increased signicantly,
leading to an increased value of ‘potential
recharge’, which in most normal rainfall
years is met both from rainfall recharge and
induced recharge from leakage.
The magnitude of groundwater extraction in
Pune is of a similar order of magnitude of the
overland ow or stream ow generated in Pune
city (Table 10). In other words, groundwater
storage in Pune’s aquifer system represents a
potential ‘captive’ stock underneath the Pune
Municipal Corporation’s administrative units.
Viewed together, it is imperative to develop a
systematic water management plan for the
surface water resources generated in the
watersheds from within the city limit and
groundwater stocks available within Pune’s
aquifer system to improve the water security of
this rapidly growing urban center.
12 Professor S. B. Deolankar who went on to become a leading teacher of the subject of groundwater at Pune University
(subsequently Savitribai Phule Pune University) is also ACWADAM’s co-founder and its chairman, since its inception.
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 78 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 79
Well
No.
2
Transmissivity (T) in m /day
Storage co-efcient (S)
in Fraction
Hard rock well parameter
Kumarswamy method
Aquifer
material
198 40 21 33 22 42 32 0.014 0.03 0.02 190 31 Fractured
basalt
210 N.A. N.A. 109 N.A. 121 115 0.0131 0.02 0.015 920 17 Weathered
basalt
103 26 N.A. N.A. N.A. 22 24 N.A. N.A. N.A. 90 5.5 Alluvium
192 42 25 38 32 16 27 0.01 N.A. 0.01 75 43 Fractured
basalt
88 29 20 39 18 22 24 0.029 0.0105 0.019 90 10 Alluvium
148 74 57 80 64 110 76 0.05 0.2 0.125 455 3.7 Alluvium
199 249 134 217 167 N.A. 190 0.05 N.A. 0.05 2800 23.5 Weathered
basalt
163 - - - - 60 60 0.01 0.01 0.01 1960 8 Fractured
basalt
205 - - - - 60 60 0.04 0.04 0.04 - - Alluvium
149 - - - - 32 32 - - - - - Weathered
basalt
Dhankawdi - - - - 175 175 - - - - - Weathered
basalt
Hadapsar - - - - 27 27 - - - - - Fractured
basalt
Bibwewadi - - - - 80 80 - - - - - Weathered
basalt
Table 9: A summary of groundwater for Pune city (after Deolankar, 1977)
Cooper
Jacob Pump
discharge
Using
Zhdankus
method
Papado-
pulos
Cooper
Theis
recovery
Adyalkar
and Mani
Average T
values
Papado-
pulos
Cooper
Walton Average S Rate of
inow into
the well in
3
m /ow
Maximum
recouperatio
n time in
hours
Table 10: Endogenous (local water resource) and exogenous water –
a partially lled template for comparison
(a) Endogenous water: water that is an integral part of the area within the
Pune Municipal Corporation limits
(b) Exogenous water: water being supplied / owing through Pune city
from outside Pune Municipal Corporation limits
3
Values in mm or Mm Values in TMC
2
Area (in km ) 26
Annual rainfall (in mm) 770
Rainfall-generated input from within 207.13 7.314727071
the PMC limits
Overland ow (within PMC limits)
(As 75% of annual rainfall) 155.3475 5.486045303
Stream ow (within PMC limits)
(@60% of annual precipitation) 124.278 4.388836243
Actual annual evapotranspiration To be estimated To be estimated
Change in surface storages in water bodies To be estimated To be estimated
Inltration To be estimated To be estimated
Soil moisture To be estimated To be estimated
Groundwater recharge based on 47.075 1.662437971
groundwater level uctuation
Annual groundwater extraction 100 3.531466746
Annual base ow (as natural discharge
of groundwater to the natural drainage, To be estimated To be estimated
i.e., streams and rivers)
Khadakwasla releases (annual) To be included To be included
Piped water supply to PMC 481 to 594 17 to 21
for meeting urban needs
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 81
Well
No.
2
Transmissivity (T) in m /day
Storage co-efcient (S)
in Fraction
Hard rock well parameter
Kumarswamy method
Aquifer
material
198 40 21 33 22 42 32 0.014 0.03 0.02 190 31 Fractured
basalt
210 N.A. N.A. 109 N.A. 121 115 0.0131 0.02 0.015 920 17 Weathered
basalt
103 26 N.A. N.A. N.A. 22 24 N.A. N.A. N.A. 90 5.5 Alluvium
192 42 25 38 32 16 27 0.01 N.A. 0.01 75 43 Fractured
basalt
88 29 20 39 18 22 24 0.029 0.0105 0.019 90 10 Alluvium
148 74 57 80 64 110 76 0.05 0.2 0.125 455 3.7 Alluvium
199 249 134 217 167 N.A. 190 0.05 N.A. 0.05 2800 23.5 Weathered
basalt
163 - - - - 60 60 0.01 0.01 0.01 1960 8 Fractured
basalt
205 - - - - 60 60 0.04 0.04 0.04 - - Alluvium
149 - - - - 32 32 - - - - - Weathered
basalt
Dhankawdi - - - - 175 175 - - - - - Weathered
basalt
Hadapsar - - - - 27 27 - - - - - Fractured
basalt
Bibwewadi - - - - 80 80 - - - - - Weathered
basalt
Table 9: A summary of groundwater for Pune city (after Deolankar, 1977)
Cooper
Jacob Pump
discharge
Using
Zhdankus
method
Papado-
pulos
Cooper
Theis
recovery
Adyalkar
and Mani
Average T
values
Papado-
pulos
Cooper
Walton Average S Rate of
inow into
the well in
3
m /ow
Maximum
recouperatio
n time in
hours
Table 10: Endogenous (local water resource) and exogenous water –
a partially lled template for comparison
(a) Endogenous water: water that is an integral part of the area within the
Pune Municipal Corporation limits
(b) Exogenous water: water being supplied / owing through Pune city
from outside Pune Municipal Corporation limits
3
Values in mm or Mm Values in TMC
2
Area (in km ) 26
Annual rainfall (in mm) 770
Rainfall-generated input from within 207.13 7.314727071
the PMC limits
Overland ow (within PMC limits)
(As 75% of annual rainfall) 155.3475 5.486045303
Stream ow (within PMC limits)
(@60% of annual precipitation) 124.278 4.388836243
Actual annual evapotranspiration To be estimated To be estimated
Change in surface storages in water bodies To be estimated To be estimated
Inltration To be estimated To be estimated
Soil moisture To be estimated To be estimated
Groundwater recharge based on 47.075 1.662437971
groundwater level uctuation
Annual groundwater extraction 100 3.531466746
Annual base ow (as natural discharge
of groundwater to the natural drainage, To be estimated To be estimated
i.e., streams and rivers)
Khadakwasla releases (annual) To be included To be included
Piped water supply to PMC 481 to 594 17 to 21
for meeting urban needs
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 81
Groundwater recharge: A
strategy of Managed Aquifer
Recharge (MAR) for Pune city
One of the key elements of any urban
groundwater management approach is that of
augmenting groundwater recharge. Given the
problem of building upon natural recharge
zones, systematic strategies of groundwater
recharge must be put in place in cities like
Pune.
Groundwater recharge is not as straightforward
as it seems. It is not about simply pushing
surface water into the sub-surface by any
means! One of the common myths about
groundwater recharge is the belief that it is just
about putting any water into the ground to raise
groundwater levels. The best description of
groundwater recharge is provided as the
denition of Managed Aquifer Recharge:
“Managed aquifer recharge (MAR), also called
groundwater replenishment, water banking and
articial recharge, is the purposeful recharge of
water to aquifers for subsequent recovery or
environmental benet. It embraces methods
such as riverbank ltration, stream bed weirs,
inltration ponds and injection wells, and uses
natural water sources and appropriately treated
urban stormwater, sewage, and other waste
waters to increase groundwater storage, protect
and improve water quality, and secure drought
and emergency supplies. Its growing scientic
base supports its rapidly increasing use as a
vital management tool in the sustainable use of
13
the world’s water resources” .
The importance of groundwater recharge in
India has also prompted global experts to
provide guidance on executing a systematic
process of MAR in India (Dillon et al, 2014).
The successful application of MAR requires
(Gale et al, 2005):
(1) A source of water
(2) Space in the aquifer to store the water
(3) Mechanisms to recover water for benecial
use
Pyne (1995) provides a detailed synthesis of
groundwater recharge as part of the process of
aquifer storage and recovery. He stresses the
importance of hydrogeological factors in
planning any recharge programme. The
following are some of the key aspects that are
recommended as part of the feasibility
evaluation of any recharge programme
(modied after Pyne, 1995):
• Stratigraphy, including geological cross
sections
• Lithological details of aquifers and aquitards
(conning layers)
• Geological structure (fractures, bedding
planes, discontinuities)
• Extent, thickness, and depth of each aquifer
• Hydraulic characteristics (transmissivity,
storativity etc.)
• Well inventory
• Well yields
• Groundwater quality of recharge and native
(inherent) waters
• Recharge and discharge boundaries
• Water table or potentiometric surfaces
• Groundwater extraction data
• Potential contamination sources
The current study followed key elements from
globally established literature and rst identied
the most conducive recharge areas for Pune’s
aquifer systems, based on the detailed
geological mapping, aquifer conceptualisation
and the groundwater level study. The
groundwater ow lines were prepared based on
the groundwater level data for two seasons, pre
and post monsoon season. This data was
further used to sharpen the location of the
natural groundwater recharge zones along the
contours of the land where the tops of the main
ve aquifers were mapped (Figure 42).
Recharge areas of Pune’s aquifers are
illustrated in the following maps. These
Table 11: Estimates of potential aquifer storage in Pune’s aquifers (at full saturation)
Aquifer 2
Area (km )
Aquifer
Thickness
(m)
Effective
thickness at
70% of the
mapped
thickness
(m)
Potential aquifer
storage within
effective aquifer
thickness over
exposed area
and with specic
yield of 0.04
3
(m )
Potential
aquifer
storage in
3
Mm
Aquifer-1 0.017702 11 7.7 5452.216 0.005452216
Aquifer-2 0.01563 4 2.8 1750.56 0.00175056
Aquifer-3 0.046032 4 2.8 5155.584 0.005155584
Aquifer-4 0.098444 6 4.2 16538.592 0.016538592
Aquifer-5 0.38046 15 10.5 159793.2 0.1597932
Aquifer-6 0.169617 4 2.8 18997.104 0.018997104
Aquifer-7 0.93388 10 7 261486.4 0.2614864
Aquifer-8 0.510768 5 3.5 71507.52 0.07150752
Aquifer-9 1.163836 16 11.2 521398.528 0.521398528
Aquifer-10 0.341471 4 2.8 38244.752 0.038244752
Aquifer-11 1.725934 12 8.4 579913.824 0.579913824
Aquifer-12 3.629949 15 10.5 1524578.58 1.52457858
Aquifer-13 3.471792 11 7.7 1069311.936 1.069311936
Aquifer-14 2.267463 6 4.2 380933.784 0.380933784
Aquifer-15 3.739664 6 4.2 628263.552 0.628263552
Aquifer-16 6.150521 11 7.7 1894360.468 1.894360468
Aquifer-17 3.269729 6 4.2 549314.472 0.549314472
Aquifer-18 3.318817 4 2.8 371707.504 0.371707504
Aquifer-19 5.054365 4 2.8 566088.88 0.56608888
Aquifer-20 15.24415 9 6.3 3841527.06 3.84152706
Aquifer-21 24.44948 14 9.8 9584197.728 9.584197728
Aquifer-22 5.789601 3 2.1 486326.484 0.486326484
Aquifer-23 15.47121 6 4.2 2599164.12 2.59916412
Aquifer-24 28.49562 7 4.9 5585142.108 5.585142108
Aquifer-25 65.48433 12 8.4 22002735.55 22.00273555
Aquifer-26 30.57433 5 3.5 4280407.46 4.28040746
Aquifer-27 24.33296 4 2.8 2725291.52 2.72529152
Aquifer-28 11.97585 5 3.5 1676619.56 1.67661956
Total storage 61.44620905
13 https://recharge.iah.org
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 82 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 83
Groundwater recharge: A
strategy of Managed Aquifer
Recharge (MAR) for Pune city
One of the key elements of any urban
groundwater management approach is that of
augmenting groundwater recharge. Given the
problem of building upon natural recharge
zones, systematic strategies of groundwater
recharge must be put in place in cities like
Pune.
Groundwater recharge is not as straightforward
as it seems. It is not about simply pushing
surface water into the sub-surface by any
means! One of the common myths about
groundwater recharge is the belief that it is just
about putting any water into the ground to raise
groundwater levels. The best description of
groundwater recharge is provided as the
denition of Managed Aquifer Recharge:
“Managed aquifer recharge (MAR), also called
groundwater replenishment, water banking and
articial recharge, is the purposeful recharge of
water to aquifers for subsequent recovery or
environmental benet. It embraces methods
such as riverbank ltration, stream bed weirs,
inltration ponds and injection wells, and uses
natural water sources and appropriately treated
urban stormwater, sewage, and other waste
waters to increase groundwater storage, protect
and improve water quality, and secure drought
and emergency supplies. Its growing scientic
base supports its rapidly increasing use as a
vital management tool in the sustainable use of
13
the world’s water resources” .
The importance of groundwater recharge in
India has also prompted global experts to
provide guidance on executing a systematic
process of MAR in India (Dillon et al, 2014).
The successful application of MAR requires
(Gale et al, 2005):
(1) A source of water
(2) Space in the aquifer to store the water
(3) Mechanisms to recover water for benecial
use
Pyne (1995) provides a detailed synthesis of
groundwater recharge as part of the process of
aquifer storage and recovery. He stresses the
importance of hydrogeological factors in
planning any recharge programme. The
following are some of the key aspects that are
recommended as part of the feasibility
evaluation of any recharge programme
(modied after Pyne, 1995):
• Stratigraphy, including geological cross
sections
• Lithological details of aquifers and aquitards
(conning layers)
• Geological structure (fractures, bedding
planes, discontinuities)
• Extent, thickness, and depth of each aquifer
• Hydraulic characteristics (transmissivity,
storativity etc.)
• Well inventory
• Well yields
• Groundwater quality of recharge and native
(inherent) waters
• Recharge and discharge boundaries
• Water table or potentiometric surfaces
• Groundwater extraction data
• Potential contamination sources
The current study followed key elements from
globally established literature and rst identied
the most conducive recharge areas for Pune’s
aquifer systems, based on the detailed
geological mapping, aquifer conceptualisation
and the groundwater level study. The
groundwater ow lines were prepared based on
the groundwater level data for two seasons, pre
and post monsoon season. This data was
further used to sharpen the location of the
natural groundwater recharge zones along the
contours of the land where the tops of the main
ve aquifers were mapped (Figure 42).
Recharge areas of Pune’s aquifers are
illustrated in the following maps. These
Table 11: Estimates of potential aquifer storage in Pune’s aquifers (at full saturation)
Aquifer 2
Area (km )
Aquifer
Thickness
(m)
Effective
thickness at
70% of the
mapped
thickness
(m)
Potential aquifer
storage within
effective aquifer
thickness over
exposed area
and with specic
yield of 0.04
3
(m )
Potential
aquifer
storage in
3
Mm
Aquifer-1 0.017702 11 7.7 5452.216 0.005452216
Aquifer-2 0.01563 4 2.8 1750.56 0.00175056
Aquifer-3 0.046032 4 2.8 5155.584 0.005155584
Aquifer-4 0.098444 6 4.2 16538.592 0.016538592
Aquifer-5 0.38046 15 10.5 159793.2 0.1597932
Aquifer-6 0.169617 4 2.8 18997.104 0.018997104
Aquifer-7 0.93388 10 7 261486.4 0.2614864
Aquifer-8 0.510768 5 3.5 71507.52 0.07150752
Aquifer-9 1.163836 16 11.2 521398.528 0.521398528
Aquifer-10 0.341471 4 2.8 38244.752 0.038244752
Aquifer-11 1.725934 12 8.4 579913.824 0.579913824
Aquifer-12 3.629949 15 10.5 1524578.58 1.52457858
Aquifer-13 3.471792 11 7.7 1069311.936 1.069311936
Aquifer-14 2.267463 6 4.2 380933.784 0.380933784
Aquifer-15 3.739664 6 4.2 628263.552 0.628263552
Aquifer-16 6.150521 11 7.7 1894360.468 1.894360468
Aquifer-17 3.269729 6 4.2 549314.472 0.549314472
Aquifer-18 3.318817 4 2.8 371707.504 0.371707504
Aquifer-19 5.054365 4 2.8 566088.88 0.56608888
Aquifer-20 15.24415 9 6.3 3841527.06 3.84152706
Aquifer-21 24.44948 14 9.8 9584197.728 9.584197728
Aquifer-22 5.789601 3 2.1 486326.484 0.486326484
Aquifer-23 15.47121 6 4.2 2599164.12 2.59916412
Aquifer-24 28.49562 7 4.9 5585142.108 5.585142108
Aquifer-25 65.48433 12 8.4 22002735.55 22.00273555
Aquifer-26 30.57433 5 3.5 4280407.46 4.28040746
Aquifer-27 24.33296 4 2.8 2725291.52 2.72529152
Aquifer-28 11.97585 5 3.5 1676619.56 1.67661956
Total storage 61.44620905
13 https://recharge.iah.org
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 82 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 83
roof-top rainwater into bore wells, it is
necessary to undertake the following steps as a
systematic protocol:
• (conduct) slug-injection tests
• water quality analyses
• proper assessment of bore well intake
capacities for different aquifers in an area
• designing the structure (through
contaminant proong measures), keeping
in mind water quality concerns, during the
injection process
Such guidelines will provide the necessary
caution and care so that undesired
consequences from haphazard and knee-jerk
approaches to engineered groundwater
recharge can be avoided.
recharge zones must be protected to ensure the
groundwater security of the Pune in terms of
both groundwater quantity and the
groundwater quality. The MAR strategy for Pune
city must involve three distinct components:
1. Protection and restoration of existing natural
recharge zones
2. Public recharge systems at scale, aligned to
the recharge zones identied in this report
3. Integrating strategic point source recharge
with rainwater harvesting at more
decentralised locations
Protection of the existing natural recharge zones
along with their restoration using public recharge
systems at a large scale are of utmost
importance to ensure sustainable groundwater
3
availability of the order of at least about 50 Mm
annually. If not undertaken systematically, the
fundamental groundwater availability for Pune
city will be hugely challenged and the city will
reach levels of exploitation that cannot be easily
addressed in the short and medium future.
Protecting the recharge zones would primarily
mean a no-compromise protection of the
catchments of the three main watershed clusters:
1. Kothrud – Vetal hill – Chatushringi – Pashan
– Bavdhan range
2. Vishrantwadi – Vimannagar highland zone
3. Dhankawadi – Yewale wadi – Katraj ranges
These regions are of utmost importance
because they are the part of recharge zones for
the main aquifer system in Pune and, they are
the catchment areas for the main watersheds
from where lower order streams originate.
These regions also act as the recharge zones
for various springs that occur in many parts of
Pune and are used for a variety of purposes.
Taken together, these areas also host the
aquifers inside the hill ranges of the city, with a
total potential groundwater storage of more
3
than 5.5 Mm . The demarcated areas and the
larger stream channels (especially where the
stream channels intersect the tops of aquifers,
and they are structurally controlled) form
potential recharge areas for the underlying
aquifers and ‘public recharge systems’ must be
concentrated in such areas. Such public
recharge areas can be used to systematically
implement watershed management measures
for integrating conservation efforts with the
purpose of MAR. Whether it is in the form of
recharge to the unconned aquifer through
methods of induced diffuse recharge – check
dams, revival of old drainage line structures,
large scale soil-water conservation structures
such as contour bunding and trenching,
afforestation etc. – or more systematic point-
source recharge through injection wells and
bore wells that channel runoff through lter pits
and screens, it is necessary to identify such
areas, implement recharge measures and
protect such areas from any other physical
interference such as construction of roads,
buildings or any other interference into the
aquifers and aquifer recharge areas.
For techniques such as spreading water
through check dams and percolation ponds, it
is necessary to keep in mind some important
aspects such as:
• Location of the structure – ideally where a
natural recharge zone intersects the stream
channel
• The catchment area of the structure – this is
necessary to estimating the amount of
water generated and whether the
catchment has potential contamination
sources
• The infrastructure in the catchment and the
nature of surfaces that generate the surface
runoff of catchment water
Integrated rainwater harvesting with bore well
and/or dug well recharge at community scales
is also an option. However, a set of scientic
guidelines to undertake such measures is
necessary before indulging mandated
rainwater harvesting induced articial
recharge. Setting up these guidelines becomes
necessary. For instance, before channeling
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 84 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 85
roof-top rainwater into bore wells, it is
necessary to undertake the following steps as a
systematic protocol:
• (conduct) slug-injection tests
• water quality analyses
• proper assessment of bore well intake
capacities for different aquifers in an area
• designing the structure (through
contaminant proong measures), keeping
in mind water quality concerns, during the
injection process
Such guidelines will provide the necessary
caution and care so that undesired
consequences from haphazard and knee-jerk
approaches to engineered groundwater
recharge can be avoided.
recharge zones must be protected to ensure the
groundwater security of the Pune in terms of
both groundwater quantity and the
groundwater quality. The MAR strategy for Pune
city must involve three distinct components:
1. Protection and restoration of existing natural
recharge zones
2. Public recharge systems at scale, aligned to
the recharge zones identied in this report
3. Integrating strategic point source recharge
with rainwater harvesting at more
decentralised locations
Protection of the existing natural recharge zones
along with their restoration using public recharge
systems at a large scale are of utmost
importance to ensure sustainable groundwater
3
availability of the order of at least about 50 Mm
annually. If not undertaken systematically, the
fundamental groundwater availability for Pune
city will be hugely challenged and the city will
reach levels of exploitation that cannot be easily
addressed in the short and medium future.
Protecting the recharge zones would primarily
mean a no-compromise protection of the
catchments of the three main watershed clusters:
1. Kothrud – Vetal hill – Chatushringi – Pashan
– Bavdhan range
2. Vishrantwadi – Vimannagar highland zone
3. Dhankawadi – Yewale wadi – Katraj ranges
These regions are of utmost importance
because they are the part of recharge zones for
the main aquifer system in Pune and, they are
the catchment areas for the main watersheds
from where lower order streams originate.
These regions also act as the recharge zones
for various springs that occur in many parts of
Pune and are used for a variety of purposes.
Taken together, these areas also host the
aquifers inside the hill ranges of the city, with a
total potential groundwater storage of more
3
than 5.5 Mm . The demarcated areas and the
larger stream channels (especially where the
stream channels intersect the tops of aquifers,
and they are structurally controlled) form
potential recharge areas for the underlying
aquifers and ‘public recharge systems’ must be
concentrated in such areas. Such public
recharge areas can be used to systematically
implement watershed management measures
for integrating conservation efforts with the
purpose of MAR. Whether it is in the form of
recharge to the unconned aquifer through
methods of induced diffuse recharge – check
dams, revival of old drainage line structures,
large scale soil-water conservation structures
such as contour bunding and trenching,
afforestation etc. – or more systematic point-
source recharge through injection wells and
bore wells that channel runoff through lter pits
and screens, it is necessary to identify such
areas, implement recharge measures and
protect such areas from any other physical
interference such as construction of roads,
buildings or any other interference into the
aquifers and aquifer recharge areas.
For techniques such as spreading water
through check dams and percolation ponds, it
is necessary to keep in mind some important
aspects such as:
• Location of the structure – ideally where a
natural recharge zone intersects the stream
channel
• The catchment area of the structure – this is
necessary to estimating the amount of
water generated and whether the
catchment has potential contamination
sources
• The infrastructure in the catchment and the
nature of surfaces that generate the surface
runoff of catchment water
Integrated rainwater harvesting with bore well
and/or dug well recharge at community scales
is also an option. However, a set of scientic
guidelines to undertake such measures is
necessary before indulging mandated
rainwater harvesting induced articial
recharge. Setting up these guidelines becomes
necessary. For instance, before channeling
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 84 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 85
Figure 40: Overlay of potential recharge areas on drainage map of Pune
Figure 39: Natural recharge areas for Pune’s aquifer system overlaid to a satellite image
Figure 40: Overlay of potential recharge areas on drainage map of Pune
Figure 39: Natural recharge areas for Pune’s aquifer system overlaid to a satellite image
The land-use and land-cover on
Pune’s aquifer recharge zones
While ACWADAM is working on classication
of the land-cover on the recharge sites for the
updated system of aquifers mapped in this
report, we have, for the sake of demonstration
selected 5 major aquifers for Pune city to
illustrate the variety of land-cover and land-use
elements on their respective recharge areas. A
broad classication of these elements was
developed as part of the earlier study
(ACWADAM, 2019). The classication is
provided in (Figure 42) Nearly half the area is
covered by Housing Societies, i.e., apartment
blocks that are typically multistoried and often
with more than one building. Some of these
are large, gated communities whose urban
water footprint is as large as 1000 mm / year.
The other half is a mixed set, ranging from
open plots, including parks and gardens, open
spaces and private residences, commercial
infrastructure and institutions (mostly
educational) and government establishments.
Educational institutions and government
establishments are spread over large
landscapes, making them potential arenas to
take up MAR at scale. The guidelines on MAR
can be customised to the nature of land-cover,
in order to optimise groundwater recharge at
scale. Such efforts will ensure full-proof
modalities of systematic groundwater recharge,
as these can be easily supervised and
monitored by experts rather than monitoring
individual recharge sites.
Figure 42: Distribution of land-cover elements on the aquifer recharge areas for Pune city
Two glaring estimates regarding Pune’s
groundwater paradox represents how
groundwater is perceived in Urban India. At
3
least one million m of shallow groundwater
storage has been permanently lost as
basements and foundations replaced the upper
portions of shallow, weathered basalt aquifers,
based on very conservative estimates of
buildings and their foundations in Pune.
Moreover, an additional volume (not quantied
yet) is pumped out into wastewater / stormwater
drains from the basements of such
constructions, as high-water tables in different
seasons or spring discharge imply dewatering
of aquifers into foundations and basement
parking lots. Precious groundwater that is
wasted away despite an impending water crisis
that stares the city in its face every summer may
be brought into mainstream water supplies by
understanding more of the dewatering scenario
in Pune city. Similarly, cutting through productive
aquifers must be considered during any
infrastructure building activity and care must be
taken to avoid dewatering of such aquifers at
the intersection with engineered structures.
Figure 41: Shallow aquifer – foundation and basement disruption
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 88 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 89
The land-use and land-cover on
Pune’s aquifer recharge zones
While ACWADAM is working on classication
of the land-cover on the recharge sites for the
updated system of aquifers mapped in this
report, we have, for the sake of demonstration
selected 5 major aquifers for Pune city to
illustrate the variety of land-cover and land-use
elements on their respective recharge areas. A
broad classication of these elements was
developed as part of the earlier study
(ACWADAM, 2019). The classication is
provided in (Figure 42) Nearly half the area is
covered by Housing Societies, i.e., apartment
blocks that are typically multistoried and often
with more than one building. Some of these
are large, gated communities whose urban
water footprint is as large as 1000 mm / year.
The other half is a mixed set, ranging from
open plots, including parks and gardens, open
spaces and private residences, commercial
infrastructure and institutions (mostly
educational) and government establishments.
Educational institutions and government
establishments are spread over large
landscapes, making them potential arenas to
take up MAR at scale. The guidelines on MAR
can be customised to the nature of land-cover,
in order to optimise groundwater recharge at
scale. Such efforts will ensure full-proof
modalities of systematic groundwater recharge,
as these can be easily supervised and
monitored by experts rather than monitoring
individual recharge sites.
Figure 42: Distribution of land-cover elements on the aquifer recharge areas for Pune city
Two glaring estimates regarding Pune’s
groundwater paradox represents how
groundwater is perceived in Urban India. At
3
least one million m of shallow groundwater
storage has been permanently lost as
basements and foundations replaced the upper
portions of shallow, weathered basalt aquifers,
based on very conservative estimates of
buildings and their foundations in Pune.
Moreover, an additional volume (not quantied
yet) is pumped out into wastewater / stormwater
drains from the basements of such
constructions, as high-water tables in different
seasons or spring discharge imply dewatering
of aquifers into foundations and basement
parking lots. Precious groundwater that is
wasted away despite an impending water crisis
that stares the city in its face every summer may
be brought into mainstream water supplies by
understanding more of the dewatering scenario
in Pune city. Similarly, cutting through productive
aquifers must be considered during any
infrastructure building activity and care must be
taken to avoid dewatering of such aquifers at
the intersection with engineered structures.
Figure 41: Shallow aquifer – foundation and basement disruption
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 88 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 89
Figure 44: Land-cover for recharge area of (a) aquifer 1, (b) aquifer 2,
(c) aquifer 3, (d) aquifer 4, and (e) aquifer 5
It is interesting to note the variability in the land
use and landcover from the recharge areas of
the ve aquifers. Figure 43 illustrates the
coverage of aquifer-recharge areas according
to the different land-cover elements identied in
Pune city. Figure 44, on the other hand,
illustrate classication of recharge areas on the
basis of land-cover types and aquifer recharge
area wise classication of the land-cover. For
instance, recharge zones for aquifer 1 and
aquifer 5 have a different distribution of land-
cover elements as compared to the recharge
zones for aquifers 2, 3 and 4.
Hillsides and hillslopes are the important
elements of the recharge area of aquifer 5
while, streams and river channels constitute the
important element of recharge zones for aquifer
1. It is imperative to protect these hillsides,
hillslopes, streams and river channels from the
Pune city also from the groundwater
perspective.
Figure 43: Recharge areas for the 5 aquifers based on the land-cover elements in Pune city
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 90 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 91
Figure 44: Land-cover for recharge area of (a) aquifer 1, (b) aquifer 2,
(c) aquifer 3, (d) aquifer 4, and (e) aquifer 5
It is interesting to note the variability in the land
use and landcover from the recharge areas of
the ve aquifers. Figure 43 illustrates the
coverage of aquifer-recharge areas according
to the different land-cover elements identied in
Pune city. Figure 44, on the other hand,
illustrate classication of recharge areas on the
basis of land-cover types and aquifer recharge
area wise classication of the land-cover. For
instance, recharge zones for aquifer 1 and
aquifer 5 have a different distribution of land-
cover elements as compared to the recharge
zones for aquifers 2, 3 and 4.
Hillsides and hillslopes are the important
elements of the recharge area of aquifer 5
while, streams and river channels constitute the
important element of recharge zones for aquifer
1. It is imperative to protect these hillsides,
hillslopes, streams and river channels from the
Pune city also from the groundwater
perspective.
Figure 43: Recharge areas for the 5 aquifers based on the land-cover elements in Pune city
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 90 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 91
Protecting water bodies in Pune
city: their relevance to
groundwater recharge and
discharge
More recently, i.e., in April-May 2022,
ACWADAM with the help of PMC identied
water bodies from the areas that have been
recently included under the PMC jurisdiction,
through the new Development Plan (D.P.). A
quick synthesis of the role of these water bodies
was undertaken. Two sets of approaches were
proposed depending upon the status of the
water bodies – whether they fall in recharge
areas or in groundwater discharge zones (or
somewhere between the two).
(1) Waterbodies that are falling in the recharge
areas of the mapped aquifers need special
attention. These must be restored,
rejuvenated, and protected because they
facilitate considerable amount of water as
percolation into aquifers. Special attention
must be given to maintain the quality of
water in these water bodies and their
catchments and to preserve the groundwater
quality of the entire aquifer. These
waterbodies will need to be desilted
regularly, because ne silt, accompanied by
black coloured clay (similar to black cotton
soils) often lies at the base of these water
bodies and is usually impervious in nature.
Such silt obstructs inltration through the
base and anks, precluding groundwater
recharge, particularly to productive shallow
aquifers beneath. The catchment area of
these waterbodies must be treated to prevent
soil erosion, and hence, to reduce the
siltation in the waterbodies. Priority shall be
given to pervious materials while planning
the landscape activities surrounding the
waterbodies that are falling in the recharge
areas. Since they do not hold water for long
periods of time, these waterbodies are
always under the combined threat of
encroachment, waste dumping and sewage
discharge. Measures to prevent such activities
must be undertaken.
(2) Waterbodies falling in the discharge areas
retain water for longer periods of time, often
perennially, and hence, these waterbodies
are signicant in terms of acting as a source
for drinking and domestic needs during the
dry season. They can also support
ecosystems and provide and aesthetic
perspective, particularly if their surroundings
are conserved and retained in a natural
state. It is not surprising to nd a signicant
amount of groundwater discharging to the
streams just upstream of such waterbodies
falling in the discharge zones. Often, such
base ows upstream and even downstream
create a hydrologic continuity that hosts a set
of typical ecosystems. Such waterbodies have
a pivotal role in supporting biodiversity,
providing recreation and leisure and improve
liveability apart from building resilience in
the cities. These structures must be protected,
and eco-friendly recreational measures must
be planned around these structures.
One aspect of integrating systematic MAR
with infrastructure planning within the city
limits is that of developing a strategic
recharge of aquifers in line with road and
stormwater drainage networks. While
ACWADAM has begun working on this in
close co-operation with Bhujal Abhiyan and
PMC, we are providing a base map (to be
further rened) using an overlay of natural
groundwater recharge areas to the road
network map of Pune city (Figure 45).
Figure 45: Overlay of the natural recharge areas for the six main aquifers to
the road network map for Pune city
No. Location Latitude Longitude Elevation
Status – whether in
discharge or recharge areas
1 Dhayari Gavatale 18.4406 73.80785 597 Discharge area
2 Dhayari stone quarry 18.4286 73.80685 643 Recharge area
3 Undri tank 18.4473 73.92434 634 Discharge area
4 Uruli Devachi tank 18.4511 73.94821 604 Recharge area
5 Harantale, Lohegaon 18.6061 73.94185 588 Recharge area
6 Lohegaon tank 18.6128 73.93410 589 Recharge area
7 Jambhulwadi tank 18.4345 73.8409 655 Discharge area
Table 12: The locations of the water bodies and their hydrogeological status
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 92 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 93
Protecting water bodies in Pune
city: their relevance to
groundwater recharge and
discharge
More recently, i.e., in April-May 2022,
ACWADAM with the help of PMC identied
water bodies from the areas that have been
recently included under the PMC jurisdiction,
through the new Development Plan (D.P.). A
quick synthesis of the role of these water bodies
was undertaken. Two sets of approaches were
proposed depending upon the status of the
water bodies – whether they fall in recharge
areas or in groundwater discharge zones (or
somewhere between the two).
(1) Waterbodies that are falling in the recharge
areas of the mapped aquifers need special
attention. These must be restored,
rejuvenated, and protected because they
facilitate considerable amount of water as
percolation into aquifers. Special attention
must be given to maintain the quality of
water in these water bodies and their
catchments and to preserve the groundwater
quality of the entire aquifer. These
waterbodies will need to be desilted
regularly, because ne silt, accompanied by
black coloured clay (similar to black cotton
soils) often lies at the base of these water
bodies and is usually impervious in nature.
Such silt obstructs inltration through the
base and anks, precluding groundwater
recharge, particularly to productive shallow
aquifers beneath. The catchment area of
these waterbodies must be treated to prevent
soil erosion, and hence, to reduce the
siltation in the waterbodies. Priority shall be
given to pervious materials while planning
the landscape activities surrounding the
waterbodies that are falling in the recharge
areas. Since they do not hold water for long
periods of time, these waterbodies are
always under the combined threat of
encroachment, waste dumping and sewage
discharge. Measures to prevent such activities
must be undertaken.
(2) Waterbodies falling in the discharge areas
retain water for longer periods of time, often
perennially, and hence, these waterbodies
are signicant in terms of acting as a source
for drinking and domestic needs during the
dry season. They can also support
ecosystems and provide and aesthetic
perspective, particularly if their surroundings
are conserved and retained in a natural
state. It is not surprising to nd a signicant
amount of groundwater discharging to the
streams just upstream of such waterbodies
falling in the discharge zones. Often, such
base ows upstream and even downstream
create a hydrologic continuity that hosts a set
of typical ecosystems. Such waterbodies have
a pivotal role in supporting biodiversity,
providing recreation and leisure and improve
liveability apart from building resilience in
the cities. These structures must be protected,
and eco-friendly recreational measures must
be planned around these structures.
One aspect of integrating systematic MAR
with infrastructure planning within the city
limits is that of developing a strategic
recharge of aquifers in line with road and
stormwater drainage networks. While
ACWADAM has begun working on this in
close co-operation with Bhujal Abhiyan and
PMC, we are providing a base map (to be
further rened) using an overlay of natural
groundwater recharge areas to the road
network map of Pune city (Figure 45).
Figure 45: Overlay of the natural recharge areas for the six main aquifers to
the road network map for Pune city
No. Location Latitude Longitude Elevation
Status – whether in
discharge or recharge areas
1 Dhayari Gavatale 18.4406 73.80785 597 Discharge area
2 Dhayari stone quarry 18.4286 73.80685 643 Recharge area
3 Undri tank 18.4473 73.92434 634 Discharge area
4 Uruli Devachi tank 18.4511 73.94821 604 Recharge area
5 Harantale, Lohegaon 18.6061 73.94185 588 Recharge area
6 Lohegaon tank 18.6128 73.93410 589 Recharge area
7 Jambhulwadi tank 18.4345 73.8409 655 Discharge area
Table 12: The locations of the water bodies and their hydrogeological status
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 92 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 93
Protection of natural discharge
through the protection of springs
Springs are points on the surface of the earth
through which groundwater emerges and ows.
This water is then used as the main source of
supplies for drinking and domestic purposes in
many areas. When a spring emerges on top of
a mountain or on a slope it is obvious and often
cared for, utilized for various purposes, and nds
some value in anthropogenic activities. However,
groundwater discharges into stream and river
channels are not as obvious and tend to be
ignored, very often under the blanket
assumption that water ow in a stream or a river
channel is mostly recharging the underground
aquifers along the entire section of the stream or
river. This is not always so! Aquifers discharge
groundwater to stream channels in the form of
seeps and springs along natural groundwater
discharge zones, depending upon the interface
between aquifers and stream or river channels.
As a matter of fact, such groundwater discharge
that augments the direct rainfall-runoff in a river,
constitutes the base ow component of river ow
and plays a vital role in keeping the river ‘alive’,
while providing replenishment to many riverine
ecosystems. Base ows have a signicant
bearing on the Environment Flow (e-ow) of a
river.
In Pune city, several springs discharge
groundwater in the channels of Mula and
Mutha as well as along their tributaries like
Ramnadi, Devnadi, and Bhairoba Nala. Many
such springs are heritage springs and are
associated with places of worship such as the
Vitthal Mandir at Vitthalwadi. Due to rapid
urbanization, the training of river channels, and
encroachments, many such discharge points
along the river stretches and in many other
places in the city along the small and larger
tributaries of Mutha and Mula, stand disturbed
blocking off the natural groundwater discharge
from owing into the river, thereby affecting the
base ow of the rivers and possibly the e-ows
generated from within the city limits. Many
freshwater springs also discharge groundwater
near discharging sewage (treated / untreated)
leading to a mixing of fresh groundwater with
contaminated water. This further reduces the
value of groundwater discharge in the overall
vision for managing Pune’s water resources.
Protecting, restoring, and reviving such natural
groundwater discharge zones is of utmost
importance and must form a signicant aspect
of the management of Pune’s aquifers.
A generalised overlay of natural groundwater
discharge zones (based on the aquifer
boundaries) is provided in Figure 47. Ideally, a
detailed groundwater contour map for Pune city
will need to be generated for providing the
exact number of discharge points, especially at
the intersection of such zones with the natural
drainage of Pune city. Currently, this is outside
the scope of this report and hence, the current
map can be used for developing a protection
and restoration strategy for such zones. Most
discharge zones along the two main river
channels – Mula and Mutha correspond to
those of aquifer 2. However, there are
numerous groundwater discharge zones
corresponding to the remaining aquifers,
especially aquifers 3, 4, 5, and 6 along all the
main channels of the tributaries that represent
watersheds that form part of the PMC area and
some that are partly in areas in the immediate
neighborhood of the administrative boundaries
of the PMC. All these discharge zones are of
high value and must be brought under
protection and restoration strategies. Such
strategies must be undertaken in close
consultation with organisations and agencies
engaged in riverine ecosystem protection and
restoration on one hand and with communities
that depend upon livelihoods from the river
(especially the sherfolk) and who equally value
these spring-fed, in-channel ecosystems as part
of their traditional heritage (Jeevitnadi et al.,
2021; pers. comm. Jeevitnadi).
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 95
Figure 46: Map showing the location of the water bodies with regard to the different aquifers in Pune
Protection of natural discharge
through the protection of springs
Springs are points on the surface of the earth
through which groundwater emerges and ows.
This water is then used as the main source of
supplies for drinking and domestic purposes in
many areas. When a spring emerges on top of
a mountain or on a slope it is obvious and often
cared for, utilized for various purposes, and nds
some value in anthropogenic activities. However,
groundwater discharges into stream and river
channels are not as obvious and tend to be
ignored, very often under the blanket
assumption that water ow in a stream or a river
channel is mostly recharging the underground
aquifers along the entire section of the stream or
river. This is not always so! Aquifers discharge
groundwater to stream channels in the form of
seeps and springs along natural groundwater
discharge zones, depending upon the interface
between aquifers and stream or river channels.
As a matter of fact, such groundwater discharge
that augments the direct rainfall-runoff in a river,
constitutes the base ow component of river ow
and plays a vital role in keeping the river ‘alive’,
while providing replenishment to many riverine
ecosystems. Base ows have a signicant
bearing on the Environment Flow (e-ow) of a
river.
In Pune city, several springs discharge
groundwater in the channels of Mula and
Mutha as well as along their tributaries like
Ramnadi, Devnadi, and Bhairoba Nala. Many
such springs are heritage springs and are
associated with places of worship such as the
Vitthal Mandir at Vitthalwadi. Due to rapid
urbanization, the training of river channels, and
encroachments, many such discharge points
along the river stretches and in many other
places in the city along the small and larger
tributaries of Mutha and Mula, stand disturbed
blocking off the natural groundwater discharge
from owing into the river, thereby affecting the
base ow of the rivers and possibly the e-ows
generated from within the city limits. Many
freshwater springs also discharge groundwater
near discharging sewage (treated / untreated)
leading to a mixing of fresh groundwater with
contaminated water. This further reduces the
value of groundwater discharge in the overall
vision for managing Pune’s water resources.
Protecting, restoring, and reviving such natural
groundwater discharge zones is of utmost
importance and must form a signicant aspect
of the management of Pune’s aquifers.
A generalised overlay of natural groundwater
discharge zones (based on the aquifer
boundaries) is provided in Figure 47. Ideally, a
detailed groundwater contour map for Pune city
will need to be generated for providing the
exact number of discharge points, especially at
the intersection of such zones with the natural
drainage of Pune city. Currently, this is outside
the scope of this report and hence, the current
map can be used for developing a protection
and restoration strategy for such zones. Most
discharge zones along the two main river
channels – Mula and Mutha correspond to
those of aquifer 2. However, there are
numerous groundwater discharge zones
corresponding to the remaining aquifers,
especially aquifers 3, 4, 5, and 6 along all the
main channels of the tributaries that represent
watersheds that form part of the PMC area and
some that are partly in areas in the immediate
neighborhood of the administrative boundaries
of the PMC. All these discharge zones are of
high value and must be brought under
protection and restoration strategies. Such
strategies must be undertaken in close
consultation with organisations and agencies
engaged in riverine ecosystem protection and
restoration on one hand and with communities
that depend upon livelihoods from the river
(especially the sherfolk) and who equally value
these spring-fed, in-channel ecosystems as part
of their traditional heritage (Jeevitnadi et al.,
2021; pers. comm. Jeevitnadi).
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 95
Figure 46: Map showing the location of the water bodies with regard to the different aquifers in Pune
Restoring urban groundwater: a
mission-mode programme on
reviving the shallow unconned
aquifers in Urban India
Groundwater occurs in ‘aquifers’, water-
saturated rock formations that allow the
accumulation and movement of groundwater
below the surface of the earth. Springs and
wells tap aquifers because these aquifers can
store and transmit groundwater in reasonable
quantities. Hence, different geological
formations constitute aquifers under certain sets
of conditions.
Rocks and material derived from rocks (like
gravel, sand, and silt) constitute aquifers.
Geology is not only important in understanding
aquifers but also represents a large spectrum of
earth history that has led to the formation of
different aquifers today. The history of India’s
rocks spans a period that is equivalent to the
earth’s history of about 4.5 billion years. Hence,
we can also consider how different aquifers
across India not only vary because of their
physical structure - mainly because of the
geometry of openings in which groundwater is
stored and through which it moves - but also
because each aquifer represents a historical
piece in the evolution of the earth.
Broadly speaking, aquifers fall into two main
categories. First, the shallow (unconned)
aquifers that result from the porous and
permeable layer of earth just beneath the
surface. This is usually in the form of either
weathered and fractured rock formations or in
the form of sand sized and coarser sediments
found at or near the surface of the ground. A
soil cover often caps these two broad types of
rock formations that constitute the shallow
unconned aquifers. Second, the deeper
(conned) aquifers that result from porous and
permeable layers at various depths beneath the
surface of the earth (excluding the near-surface
layer that constitutes the shallow unconned
aquifer). The conned aquifers bear
groundwater under ‘hydrostatic’ pressure – due
to the pressure of the overburden on the aquifer
- that drives the rise of water upward in a bore
hole or in a tube well drilled into such conned
aquifers.
Dug wells have been commonly used to tap
unconned aquifers across India. While they
have different names like kuan, kuin, baawi,
vihir, naula (spring-well) or baori / baodi, barav
etc., the large diameter dug well has been in
existence in large parts of India for many a
century and possibly for several millennia.
Looking at the numbers of old wells in India
and the current estimates of several million
across the country, one can easily call India a
‘dug well civilisation’. The concept of a dug well
is not difcult to imagine and interpret. Meant to
tap the shallow sub-surface, a dug well is used
to source and access water from the shallow
unconned aquifers. While in some places, such
aquifers provide groundwater at rapid rates, the
dug well has a provision for storing water that
slowly seeps into the well from the aquifer and
for extracting this stored groundwater for
various uses. Hence, the concept of an interim
storage of groundwater from the aquifer is built
into the large diameter dug well. Moreover, the
dug well is also tied to the concept of the
shallow unconned aquifer being more readily,
easily and quickly recharged due to its proximity
to the surface of the ground over which it rains
or snows. Hence, freshening of groundwater in
the shallow aquifer with less likelihood of higher
dissolved content also made the ‘dug well –
shallow aquifer combination’ sustainable for
such prolonged periods in history. Easily
rechargeable, easily extractible, less prone to
chemical contamination and the concept of
interim storage provided huge advantages to
enabling easy community access to
groundwater across nearly all regions of India.
While India became food secure through large
scale access to groundwater by farmers, the
groundwater story also began to unfold in
Figure 47: Overlay of potential discharge areas (as represented by the base of aquifer) on drainage network of Pune
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 96 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 97
Restoring urban groundwater: a
mission-mode programme on
reviving the shallow unconned
aquifers in Urban India
Groundwater occurs in ‘aquifers’, water-
saturated rock formations that allow the
accumulation and movement of groundwater
below the surface of the earth. Springs and
wells tap aquifers because these aquifers can
store and transmit groundwater in reasonable
quantities. Hence, different geological
formations constitute aquifers under certain sets
of conditions.
Rocks and material derived from rocks (like
gravel, sand, and silt) constitute aquifers.
Geology is not only important in understanding
aquifers but also represents a large spectrum of
earth history that has led to the formation of
different aquifers today. The history of India’s
rocks spans a period that is equivalent to the
earth’s history of about 4.5 billion years. Hence,
we can also consider how different aquifers
across India not only vary because of their
physical structure - mainly because of the
geometry of openings in which groundwater is
stored and through which it moves - but also
because each aquifer represents a historical
piece in the evolution of the earth.
Broadly speaking, aquifers fall into two main
categories. First, the shallow (unconned)
aquifers that result from the porous and
permeable layer of earth just beneath the
surface. This is usually in the form of either
weathered and fractured rock formations or in
the form of sand sized and coarser sediments
found at or near the surface of the ground. A
soil cover often caps these two broad types of
rock formations that constitute the shallow
unconned aquifers. Second, the deeper
(conned) aquifers that result from porous and
permeable layers at various depths beneath the
surface of the earth (excluding the near-surface
layer that constitutes the shallow unconned
aquifer). The conned aquifers bear
groundwater under ‘hydrostatic’ pressure – due
to the pressure of the overburden on the aquifer
- that drives the rise of water upward in a bore
hole or in a tube well drilled into such conned
aquifers.
Dug wells have been commonly used to tap
unconned aquifers across India. While they
have different names like kuan, kuin, baawi,
vihir, naula (spring-well) or baori / baodi, barav
etc., the large diameter dug well has been in
existence in large parts of India for many a
century and possibly for several millennia.
Looking at the numbers of old wells in India
and the current estimates of several million
across the country, one can easily call India a
‘dug well civilisation’. The concept of a dug well
is not difcult to imagine and interpret. Meant to
tap the shallow sub-surface, a dug well is used
to source and access water from the shallow
unconned aquifers. While in some places, such
aquifers provide groundwater at rapid rates, the
dug well has a provision for storing water that
slowly seeps into the well from the aquifer and
for extracting this stored groundwater for
various uses. Hence, the concept of an interim
storage of groundwater from the aquifer is built
into the large diameter dug well. Moreover, the
dug well is also tied to the concept of the
shallow unconned aquifer being more readily,
easily and quickly recharged due to its proximity
to the surface of the ground over which it rains
or snows. Hence, freshening of groundwater in
the shallow aquifer with less likelihood of higher
dissolved content also made the ‘dug well –
shallow aquifer combination’ sustainable for
such prolonged periods in history. Easily
rechargeable, easily extractible, less prone to
chemical contamination and the concept of
interim storage provided huge advantages to
enabling easy community access to
groundwater across nearly all regions of India.
While India became food secure through large
scale access to groundwater by farmers, the
groundwater story also began to unfold in
Figure 47: Overlay of potential discharge areas (as represented by the base of aquifer) on drainage network of Pune
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 96 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 97
2. Primary data:
a. Rainfall data if any data is locally being
gathered
b. Aquifer-information (could also be further
analysed and synthesized from existing
secondary data)
c. Groundwater levels – monitored from sample
locations – install sensors in key locations
d. Groundwater quality – in-situ or limited
analyses from a certied laboratory
e. Heritage wells, dug wells (in use) and
information on the shallow unconned
aquifer(s)
f. Springs, if any, both in the natural drainage
or in the uplands in the city limits
g. A narrative from local stakeholders on the
history of wells and a local story on
groundwater
h. Existing water bodies such as tanks, ponds,
wetlands
i. Existing drainage line structures – weirs,
check dams etc.
3. Identication of natural recharge areas (for
the shallow unconned aquifer(s)
a. Overlay of such areas/zones on Google
Earth
b. Onto streams and river networks
c. Onto road network
d. Location of water bodies – either in
recharge or in discharge zones, as
analysed
4. Shortlisting of potential sites for
interventions, preferably (but not restricted
to) the following potential types of sites,
keeping the principles of Managed Aquifer
Recharge (MAR) in mind:
a. Dug wells – for restoration, revival or
recharge - should be community wells
(owned by the Urban local body (ULB) will be
preferred)
b. Restoration of existing water bodies,
particularly those lying in the natural
recharge areas of local aquifers – these
could include old percolation tanks, ponds
etc. If permissible, shallow injection bore
holes with proper design should be taken up
in such structures
c. Existing check dams, weirs along the natural
drainage lines should be restored and
revived, particularly those that fall in the
natural recharge zones identied
d. Injection wells / bore holes that are designed
keeping local conditions in mind, particularly
the shallow aquifer depths, intake rates and
aquifer storage capacities – these could be
prioritized in open ‘public’ spaces such as
municipal parks and gardens, ridge anks
and other such areas where sufcient
catchments are available
e. Rooftop rainwater harvesting cum recharge
well systems – in natural recharge zones
where large institutional campuses / areas
are available (apart from where such
initiatives already exist)
f. Federated housing colonies in natural
recharge zones – with co-investments for
shallow groundwater recharge
5. Design of structures through a DPR
a. Identication and detailed studies at about
10 potential sites
b. Design, preferably including costing for each
one of these
c. Preparation of a detailed project report (DPR)
to be submitted to the ULB based on which
the ULB should prepare a formal DPR for
implementation
6. Strategic monitoring and impact assessment
during and post implementation
a. Measurement of groundwater levels and
quality as indices for shallow aquifer impact
b. An approximate water balance of the site
c. Socio-economic impacts from the
intervention
urban India. Sourcing, access, and distribution
to groundwater resources was propelled by
technologies like the hand pump along with the
borehole drilling rig on one side (1970s and
80s) and the advent of the diesel pump rst and
then by the submersible pumps. Submersible
pumps, especially during the 1980s onward,
enabled groundwater users to drill deep wells
and pump water from virtually any depth below
the ground. Groundwater sources, in the form
of wells, enabled people in both rural and
urban areas to gain access to groundwater,
especially in situations where formal supplies
from public sources such as dams fell short of
the growing demand.
Today, at least 80-90 per cent of rural
settlements in India depend entirely on
groundwater for their domestic needs. Further,
about 65 per cent of India’s irrigation, on an
average, is based on groundwater, while nearly
half of urban water usage is groundwater
based. Therefore, India’s groundwater
dependency is quite remarkable. With about 40
million wells, it presents a unique situation of a
large and growing dependency on groundwater
on one hand and increasing challenges in
groundwater management on the other. Nearly
3 to 4 million springs continue to support
mountain communities often forming the only
sources of water supplies to communities in the
mountains. Depletion and contamination of
dwindling resources in some areas, impact on
the environment and growing competition and
conict are some key problems that have
emerged from this century long history of the
groundwater boom.
Hence, the last hundred years, and particularly
the last seventy years have witnessed a big shift
from the earlier history of groundwater use,
particularly in India. The post nineteenth century
pattern of groundwater usage signicantly
involved:
• Increased number of groundwater sources –
mainly through different types of wells
• Technologies to tap aquifers at different
depths, implying increased access to
groundwater from great depths, especially
as shallower sources turned dry
• Individualization and privatization of sources
and access to groundwater, moving away
from the concept of community managed
sources
• Pumps with capacity to extract large
volumes of groundwater over short periods
of time, leading to exploitation of
groundwater resources
• Groundwater quality deterioration due to
exploitation of groundwater and the
movement of contaminants from the surface
into the aquifers below
ACWADAM in partnership with Biome
Environmental Trust and through National
Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) as the co-
ordinating agency has developed a template of
activities under the Urban Shallow Aquifer
Revival Pilot under the Ministry of Housing and
Urban Affairs (MoHUA) guidelines. This project is
being piloted in 10 cities across India, including
Pune. It would be useful to keep the same
template in mind while implementing the
restoration and revival of the shallow aquifers in
Pune city. The list of activities is provided below:
1. Secondary data:
a. City development plans
b. Municipality-level information on water
supply, demand, and sourcing (especially
information on groundwater sources, access
and extraction)
c. State groundwater department data on well
water levels, groundwater quality and trends
(if any)
d. Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) –
aquifer mapping report (if available), data
on groundwater levels, long-term trends and
taluka level assessment (most recent)
e. Rainfall data – India Meteorological
Department (IMD) / other sources
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 98 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 99
2. Primary data:
a. Rainfall data if any data is locally being
gathered
b. Aquifer-information (could also be further
analysed and synthesized from existing
secondary data)
c. Groundwater levels – monitored from sample
locations – install sensors in key locations
d. Groundwater quality – in-situ or limited
analyses from a certied laboratory
e. Heritage wells, dug wells (in use) and
information on the shallow unconned
aquifer(s)
f. Springs, if any, both in the natural drainage
or in the uplands in the city limits
g. A narrative from local stakeholders on the
history of wells and a local story on
groundwater
h. Existing water bodies such as tanks, ponds,
wetlands
i. Existing drainage line structures – weirs,
check dams etc.
3. Identication of natural recharge areas (for
the shallow unconned aquifer(s)
a. Overlay of such areas/zones on Google
Earth
b. Onto streams and river networks
c. Onto road network
d. Location of water bodies – either in
recharge or in discharge zones, as
analysed
4. Shortlisting of potential sites for
interventions, preferably (but not restricted
to) the following potential types of sites,
keeping the principles of Managed Aquifer
Recharge (MAR) in mind:
a. Dug wells – for restoration, revival or
recharge - should be community wells
(owned by the Urban local body (ULB) will be
preferred)
b. Restoration of existing water bodies,
particularly those lying in the natural
recharge areas of local aquifers – these
could include old percolation tanks, ponds
etc. If permissible, shallow injection bore
holes with proper design should be taken up
in such structures
c. Existing check dams, weirs along the natural
drainage lines should be restored and
revived, particularly those that fall in the
natural recharge zones identied
d. Injection wells / bore holes that are designed
keeping local conditions in mind, particularly
the shallow aquifer depths, intake rates and
aquifer storage capacities – these could be
prioritized in open ‘public’ spaces such as
municipal parks and gardens, ridge anks
and other such areas where sufcient
catchments are available
e. Rooftop rainwater harvesting cum recharge
well systems – in natural recharge zones
where large institutional campuses / areas
are available (apart from where such
initiatives already exist)
f. Federated housing colonies in natural
recharge zones – with co-investments for
shallow groundwater recharge
5. Design of structures through a DPR
a. Identication and detailed studies at about
10 potential sites
b. Design, preferably including costing for each
one of these
c. Preparation of a detailed project report (DPR)
to be submitted to the ULB based on which
the ULB should prepare a formal DPR for
implementation
6. Strategic monitoring and impact assessment
during and post implementation
a. Measurement of groundwater levels and
quality as indices for shallow aquifer impact
b. An approximate water balance of the site
c. Socio-economic impacts from the
intervention
urban India. Sourcing, access, and distribution
to groundwater resources was propelled by
technologies like the hand pump along with the
borehole drilling rig on one side (1970s and
80s) and the advent of the diesel pump rst and
then by the submersible pumps. Submersible
pumps, especially during the 1980s onward,
enabled groundwater users to drill deep wells
and pump water from virtually any depth below
the ground. Groundwater sources, in the form
of wells, enabled people in both rural and
urban areas to gain access to groundwater,
especially in situations where formal supplies
from public sources such as dams fell short of
the growing demand.
Today, at least 80-90 per cent of rural
settlements in India depend entirely on
groundwater for their domestic needs. Further,
about 65 per cent of India’s irrigation, on an
average, is based on groundwater, while nearly
half of urban water usage is groundwater
based. Therefore, India’s groundwater
dependency is quite remarkable. With about 40
million wells, it presents a unique situation of a
large and growing dependency on groundwater
on one hand and increasing challenges in
groundwater management on the other. Nearly
3 to 4 million springs continue to support
mountain communities often forming the only
sources of water supplies to communities in the
mountains. Depletion and contamination of
dwindling resources in some areas, impact on
the environment and growing competition and
conict are some key problems that have
emerged from this century long history of the
groundwater boom.
Hence, the last hundred years, and particularly
the last seventy years have witnessed a big shift
from the earlier history of groundwater use,
particularly in India. The post nineteenth century
pattern of groundwater usage signicantly
involved:
• Increased number of groundwater sources –
mainly through different types of wells
• Technologies to tap aquifers at different
depths, implying increased access to
groundwater from great depths, especially
as shallower sources turned dry
• Individualization and privatization of sources
and access to groundwater, moving away
from the concept of community managed
sources
• Pumps with capacity to extract large
volumes of groundwater over short periods
of time, leading to exploitation of
groundwater resources
• Groundwater quality deterioration due to
exploitation of groundwater and the
movement of contaminants from the surface
into the aquifers below
ACWADAM in partnership with Biome
Environmental Trust and through National
Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) as the co-
ordinating agency has developed a template of
activities under the Urban Shallow Aquifer
Revival Pilot under the Ministry of Housing and
Urban Affairs (MoHUA) guidelines. This project is
being piloted in 10 cities across India, including
Pune. It would be useful to keep the same
template in mind while implementing the
restoration and revival of the shallow aquifers in
Pune city. The list of activities is provided below:
1. Secondary data:
a. City development plans
b. Municipality-level information on water
supply, demand, and sourcing (especially
information on groundwater sources, access
and extraction)
c. State groundwater department data on well
water levels, groundwater quality and trends
(if any)
d. Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) –
aquifer mapping report (if available), data
on groundwater levels, long-term trends and
taluka level assessment (most recent)
e. Rainfall data – India Meteorological
Department (IMD) / other sources
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 98 A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 99
Managing demand, monitoring
quality and protecting aquifers
for sustainable urban water
management
Urban growth will not only drive up the demand
for water in India’s growing townships and cities
but possibly also in the agricultural sector as the
demand for food in such cities will grow in leaps
and bounds. Groundwater resources are limited
in their storage, particularly underneath growing
cities. With limits imposed on natural recharge,
it is important to manage the demand for
groundwater and ensure that it does not grow
beyond limits that are unsustainable. To manage
groundwater demand, it is important to place a
few expectations in place. Although not
exhaustive, work needs to be done on the
following aspects of demand management of
urban groundwater:
• Regulating groundwater pumping, keeping
in mind the properties of the aquifers
• Registration of sources, not so from the point
of ‘water vigilantism’ but from the point of
view of inventorying sources and quantifying
groundwater withdrawal on an annual basis
• Possibly metering and monitoring of sources
with large groundwater extraction footprints
• Developing a database on urban
groundwater usage and aquifer-related
information
This study has attempted to highlight the crucial
issue of groundwater contamination although a
comprehensive assessment of the groundwater
quality in Pune’s aquifers was outside the scope
of the current study. This study estimates that
nearly quarter of the total number of
groundwater sources in the city lie abandoned
solely because of the poor groundwater quality
in these sources – dug wells, bore wells and
even springs. Unless a fool proof system of
sewage treatment and a system of mutual
exclusivity of storm water and wastewater are
achieved, the aquifers in Pune will remain
susceptible to groundwater contamination.
Further, specic attention is required to the
question of protecting recharge areas in and
around growing townships in peri urban areas
of Pune. In this light, strategies of augmenting
recharge and potential impacts on groundwater
quality, mainly because of anthropogenic
contamination and the compounded impacts of
a changing climate (evident in the form of
changing weather scenarios) must form key
components of a groundwater management
approach in Pune city. Protection and
conservation strategies and inputs to thinking on
urban water regulation, which is being
recognised as an imperative in the planning
and execution of urban water management in
India, with the overarching vulnerabilities of
domestic water to climate change are signicant
in this regard.
Lastly, the paradox of reduced aquifer material
(due to basement excavations for parking and
other large infrastructure that cuts into aquifer
space) and the subsequent ooding of many
such basements also requires policy attention. A
crude estimate of the loss of shallow aquifer
material (weathered and fractured basalt) due to
the foundation excavation of high-rises and
basement parking reveals that at least an
3
equivalent of about 3 Mm or 1 TMC of
groundwater storage has been permanently
affected by impact of such structures. This
implies that not only the potential groundwater
storage from the shallow aquifers comes under
strain but the recharge capacity of about 1 TMC
is permanently lost due to these deep
excavations and removal of precious aquifer
material. Other factors such as the impact of
river-side interventions on bank ltration
potential and the reduced ood mitigation
impacts have been discussed in detail in a
report on Pune City Floods (Jeevitnadi et al.,
2020). A more detailed understanding of this
dimension is necessary in developing a robust
groundwater governance system for Pune city.
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 100
CHAPTER 05
Developing Pune’s Groundwater
Governance Framework
Managing demand, monitoring
quality and protecting aquifers
for sustainable urban water
management
Urban growth will not only drive up the demand
for water in India’s growing townships and cities
but possibly also in the agricultural sector as the
demand for food in such cities will grow in leaps
and bounds. Groundwater resources are limited
in their storage, particularly underneath growing
cities. With limits imposed on natural recharge,
it is important to manage the demand for
groundwater and ensure that it does not grow
beyond limits that are unsustainable. To manage
groundwater demand, it is important to place a
few expectations in place. Although not
exhaustive, work needs to be done on the
following aspects of demand management of
urban groundwater:
• Regulating groundwater pumping, keeping
in mind the properties of the aquifers
• Registration of sources, not so from the point
of ‘water vigilantism’ but from the point of
view of inventorying sources and quantifying
groundwater withdrawal on an annual basis
• Possibly metering and monitoring of sources
with large groundwater extraction footprints
• Developing a database on urban
groundwater usage and aquifer-related
information
This study has attempted to highlight the crucial
issue of groundwater contamination although a
comprehensive assessment of the groundwater
quality in Pune’s aquifers was outside the scope
of the current study. This study estimates that
nearly quarter of the total number of
groundwater sources in the city lie abandoned
solely because of the poor groundwater quality
in these sources – dug wells, bore wells and
even springs. Unless a fool proof system of
sewage treatment and a system of mutual
exclusivity of storm water and wastewater are
achieved, the aquifers in Pune will remain
susceptible to groundwater contamination.
Further, specic attention is required to the
question of protecting recharge areas in and
around growing townships in peri urban areas
of Pune. In this light, strategies of augmenting
recharge and potential impacts on groundwater
quality, mainly because of anthropogenic
contamination and the compounded impacts of
a changing climate (evident in the form of
changing weather scenarios) must form key
components of a groundwater management
approach in Pune city. Protection and
conservation strategies and inputs to thinking on
urban water regulation, which is being
recognised as an imperative in the planning
and execution of urban water management in
India, with the overarching vulnerabilities of
domestic water to climate change are signicant
in this regard.
Lastly, the paradox of reduced aquifer material
(due to basement excavations for parking and
other large infrastructure that cuts into aquifer
space) and the subsequent ooding of many
such basements also requires policy attention. A
crude estimate of the loss of shallow aquifer
material (weathered and fractured basalt) due to
the foundation excavation of high-rises and
basement parking reveals that at least an
3
equivalent of about 3 Mm or 1 TMC of
groundwater storage has been permanently
affected by impact of such structures. This
implies that not only the potential groundwater
storage from the shallow aquifers comes under
strain but the recharge capacity of about 1 TMC
is permanently lost due to these deep
excavations and removal of precious aquifer
material. Other factors such as the impact of
river-side interventions on bank ltration
potential and the reduced ood mitigation
impacts have been discussed in detail in a
report on Pune City Floods (Jeevitnadi et al.,
2020). A more detailed understanding of this
dimension is necessary in developing a robust
groundwater governance system for Pune city.
A Framework For Groundwater Management In Pune City 100
CHAPTER 05
Developing Pune’s Groundwater
Governance Framework
Groundwater governance: short
background
Protecting and restoring aquifers requires a
strategic combination of managing groundwater
resources while establishing a robust system of
decentralized groundwater governance (Kulkarni
et al. 2015). The consequences of unrecognized
large-scale groundwater dependency are
evident in the form of aquifer depletion,
groundwater contamination and drying up of
rivers. In other words, there is an increasing
need to deal with the problem of plenty on one
hand – more sources, deeper wells, greater
pumping – while aquifers deplete, groundwater
quality deteriorates and the gap between water
supply and the demand for water grows by the
day. While groundwater depletion may seem a
simple hydrological problem, it often hides
myriad challenges of social iniquities,
marginalisation, invisible competition and
potential conict, not to mention serious impacts
on natural resources and ecosystems.
The concept of groundwater governance is
relatively new. Groundwater Governance is
better thought of as governance of aquifers,
aquifers being a saturated subsurface space
(sand, gravel, weathered rock and fractured
rock) that has complex structures and is replete
with uncertainties about groundwater ows and
14
dynamics . Varady et al (2013) provides a more
practical description of groundwater governance
as the process by which groundwater is
managed through the application of
responsibility, participation, information
availability, transparency, custom, and rule of
law. It is equally important to view groundwater
governance through the lens of sustainability,
particularly using the indicators on groundwater
sustainability derived from the United Nations
15
Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs)
(Table 4), where we also highlight the
signicance of groundwater in each of the
goals.
1. No poverty Economic returns and livelihoods depend upon how groundwater is
developed, managed and governed
Food security depends upon water security, large parts of which in India are
sustained through groundwater usage; managing groundwater security holds
the key to food security
Ensuring groundwater quality is important to guarantee the best quality of
groundwater for provisioning drinking water supplies, given the overall
importance of groundwater in rural and urban domestic supplies
Building capacity in developing contextual knowledge and skills in
groundwater management and governance are crucial in developing
approaches and strategies for managing and governing groundwater
Gender, equity and social inclusion in the management and governance of
water are signicant in how the paradox of growing groundwater
dependencies and deepening vulnerabilities are managed
This is the core SDG for water. Groundwater governance will decide upon the
fate of aquifers as both a source and a sink. Developing a robust
groundwater governance is key to ensuring the sustainability of water and
sanitation programmes for all in a secure and safe manner
The nexus between food, water, and energy, is complex. Integrated
management of these three resources holds the key for sustainable use of
resources. Managing energy efciently holds the key to protecting and
securing groundwater resources
Economic growth ensures employment. Economic growth is a consequence of
efcient, equitable and sustainable management of resources, particularly
groundwater
Industry and infrastructure development require proper management of
groundwater. Innovative mechanisms of groundwater governance are
required to ensure that industrial and infrastructural developments are not
counter-intuitive to the security of aquifers
Sustainable groundwater access, and equitable distribution hold the key in
reducing inequalities both across and within different water-use sectors.
Sustainability of the urban will depend upon how communities participate
and co-operate in managing natural resources, especially aquifers. Rapid
urbanisation must embrace an increasing focus on managing demand for
water (including groundwater) at the same time developing strategies for
recharge, restoration and reuse (of water) from urban and neighbouring
aquifers
Balancing supply and demand form the foundation of sustainable resource
management. Production and consumption indicate how we view and govern
resources like water
Groundwater resources, although invisible, gure on both sides of climate-
related impacts, including disasters. They have constituted an important
climate-buffer for much of human history. Governance of groundwater is an
integral component of climate action
While the importance of groundwater in sustaining water supplies is well-
understood and recognised, its relationship with ecosystems and as an
ecosystem in itself is gaining signicance both in the water governance eld
and in the environmental management domain
Again, life on land – both human and other biota – is a function of water
resources and human behaviour. These must be an integrated function of
water governance
Groundwater governance involves strong institutional frameworks that include
principles, values and processes of management keeping both resources and
people as focal points. Managing groundwater competition and conict using
the principles of peace, fairness and justice are key objectives for any
groundwater governance framework
Managing groundwater without the participation, decisions and actions of
stakeholders is well-nigh impossible. It requires transdisciplinary approaches
that cannot be enabled and sustained without specic goals (as dened
above) and partnerships. Collaborative mechanisms between experts,
stakeholders and government hold the key to developing and sustaining
systems of groundwater governance
2. Zero hunger
3. Good health
and well-being
4. Quality
education
5. Gender
equality
6. Clean water
and sanitation
7. Affordable and
clean energy
8. Decent work
and economic
growth
9. Industry,
innovation and
infrastructure
10. Reduced
inequalities
11. Sustainable
cities and
communities
12. Responsible
consumption
and production
13. Climate action
14. Life below water
15. Life on land
16. Peace, justice
and strong
institutions
17. Partnership for
the goals
14 www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/8-Tour-de-table-Andrew-Ross.pdf
15 https://en.unesco.org/sustainabledevelopmentgoals
Brief points on the relevance of groundwater
(with specic reference to groundwater governance in India)
Sustainable
Development
Goals (SDGs)
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 102 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 103
Table 13: Groundwater governance is not only part of the core SDG6 but cuts across all the 17
SDGs of UNESCO
Groundwater governance: short
background
Protecting and restoring aquifers requires a
strategic combination of managing groundwater
resources while establishing a robust system of
decentralized groundwater governance (Kulkarni
et al. 2015). The consequences of unrecognized
large-scale groundwater dependency are
evident in the form of aquifer depletion,
groundwater contamination and drying up of
rivers. In other words, there is an increasing
need to deal with the problem of plenty on one
hand – more sources, deeper wells, greater
pumping – while aquifers deplete, groundwater
quality deteriorates and the gap between water
supply and the demand for water grows by the
day. While groundwater depletion may seem a
simple hydrological problem, it often hides
myriad challenges of social iniquities,
marginalisation, invisible competition and
potential conict, not to mention serious impacts
on natural resources and ecosystems.
The concept of groundwater governance is
relatively new. Groundwater Governance is
better thought of as governance of aquifers,
aquifers being a saturated subsurface space
(sand, gravel, weathered rock and fractured
rock) that has complex structures and is replete
with uncertainties about groundwater ows and
14
dynamics . Varady et al (2013) provides a more
practical description of groundwater governance
as the process by which groundwater is
managed through the application of
responsibility, participation, information
availability, transparency, custom, and rule of
law. It is equally important to view groundwater
governance through the lens of sustainability,
particularly using the indicators on groundwater
sustainability derived from the United Nations
15
Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs)
(Table 4), where we also highlight the
signicance of groundwater in each of the
goals.
1. No poverty Economic returns and livelihoods depend upon how groundwater is
developed, managed and governed
Food security depends upon water security, large parts of which in India are
sustained through groundwater usage; managing groundwater security holds
the key to food security
Ensuring groundwater quality is important to guarantee the best quality of
groundwater for provisioning drinking water supplies, given the overall
importance of groundwater in rural and urban domestic supplies
Building capacity in developing contextual knowledge and skills in
groundwater management and governance are crucial in developing
approaches and strategies for managing and governing groundwater
Gender, equity and social inclusion in the management and governance of
water are signicant in how the paradox of growing groundwater
dependencies and deepening vulnerabilities are managed
This is the core SDG for water. Groundwater governance will decide upon the
fate of aquifers as both a source and a sink. Developing a robust
groundwater governance is key to ensuring the sustainability of water and
sanitation programmes for all in a secure and safe manner
The nexus between food, water, and energy, is complex. Integrated
management of these three resources holds the key for sustainable use of
resources. Managing energy efciently holds the key to protecting and
securing groundwater resources
Economic growth ensures employment. Economic growth is a consequence of
efcient, equitable and sustainable management of resources, particularly
groundwater
Industry and infrastructure development require proper management of
groundwater. Innovative mechanisms of groundwater governance are
required to ensure that industrial and infrastructural developments are not
counter-intuitive to the security of aquifers
Sustainable groundwater access, and equitable distribution hold the key in
reducing inequalities both across and within different water-use sectors.
Sustainability of the urban will depend upon how communities participate
and co-operate in managing natural resources, especially aquifers. Rapid
urbanisation must embrace an increasing focus on managing demand for
water (including groundwater) at the same time developing strategies for
recharge, restoration and reuse (of water) from urban and neighbouring
aquifers
Balancing supply and demand form the foundation of sustainable resource
management. Production and consumption indicate how we view and govern
resources like water
Groundwater resources, although invisible, gure on both sides of climate-
related impacts, including disasters. They have constituted an important
climate-buffer for much of human history. Governance of groundwater is an
integral component of climate action
While the importance of groundwater in sustaining water supplies is well-
understood and recognised, its relationship with ecosystems and as an
ecosystem in itself is gaining signicance both in the water governance eld
and in the environmental management domain
Again, life on land – both human and other biota – is a function of water
resources and human behaviour. These must be an integrated function of
water governance
Groundwater governance involves strong institutional frameworks that include
principles, values and processes of management keeping both resources and
people as focal points. Managing groundwater competition and conict using
the principles of peace, fairness and justice are key objectives for any
groundwater governance framework
Managing groundwater without the participation, decisions and actions of
stakeholders is well-nigh impossible. It requires transdisciplinary approaches
that cannot be enabled and sustained without specic goals (as dened
above) and partnerships. Collaborative mechanisms between experts,
stakeholders and government hold the key to developing and sustaining
systems of groundwater governance
2. Zero hunger
3. Good health
and well-being
4. Quality
education
5. Gender
equality
6. Clean water
and sanitation
7. Affordable and
clean energy
8. Decent work
and economic
growth
9. Industry,
innovation and
infrastructure
10. Reduced
inequalities
11. Sustainable
cities and
communities
12. Responsible
consumption
and production
13. Climate action
14. Life below water
15. Life on land
16. Peace, justice
and strong
institutions
17. Partnership for
the goals
14 www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/8-Tour-de-table-Andrew-Ross.pdf
15 https://en.unesco.org/sustainabledevelopmentgoals
Brief points on the relevance of groundwater
(with specic reference to groundwater governance in India)
Sustainable
Development
Goals (SDGs)
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 102 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 103
Table 13: Groundwater governance is not only part of the core SDG6 but cuts across all the 17
SDGs of UNESCO
From urban groundwater
management to groundwater
governance
The process of ensuring a seamless integration
of efcient and equitable groundwater
management to sustainable groundwater
governance must rstly include demystied
science leading to the development of
knowledge, data, skills and understanding of
groundwater resources at any given location.
Such understanding will lead to the decision
support required by a variety of stakeholders,
especially when the stakeholders participate in
the building up of the knowledge and
understanding on groundwater.
Urban groundwater governance requires a
much sharper focus, given the pressures of
ever- increasing demands on water supply, the
vulnerabilities stemming from scarcity and
contamination of civic water supply and the
large-scale ignorance of groundwater in
mainstream urban water policies. The Pune
case clearly demonstrates all of these
challenges and therefore makes it relevant to
focus specically on institutionalising
groundwater management and governance as
a part of the PMC’s overall water management
system. In doing so, it is important to remember
that current responses to the groundwater crises
are far removed from the three components of
water governance proposed below and
signicant reforms in both water practice and
policy are required to achieve these
components.
• Groundwater governance is largely about
transparency, participation, information,
custom and rule of law, and hence, is a
process rather than a set of targets.
• Administrative action and decision making
in the case of groundwater more than
anything else, is an art, given that it involves
balancing aquifer behavior on one side with
human behavior on the other.
• Groundwater governance is sustainable
only if the right balance between protection
of aquifers and moderation of their use is
forged. This is important especially in the
protection of natural recharge sites so that
humans (drinking water needs) are
balanced with ecosystem needs (discharge
of groundwater through streams and seeps)
to keep urban streams and rivers alive.
• Managing urban groundwater would also
need to arrive at a balance between how
much can you recharge, apart from where
you recharge, and a limited for strategic
pumping of shallow groundwater for both
potable and non-potable uses, especially for
sustaining public utilities. A simple approach
would be to locate / use shallow dug wells
in the natural groundwater discharge areas
for public usage and also for ood control.
Aquifer stocks, groundwater levels and a
periodic groundwater balance developed
through long-term monitoring would be
useful in this regard.
Protection, conservation, and management of
Pune’s aquifers will together constitute a robust
package of groundwater governance. If
established and implemented, it will be a
demonstration of good practice that can be
taken up at the national level, given that nearly
5700 small towns and cities can come under
the ambit of such governance. However, the
task is challenging and cannot be completed
without strategies of stakeholder sensitisation,
awareness and participation, participatory data
management systems, strategic science
(especially hydrogeology) for decision support
and integrating groundwater into short- and
long-term plans on urban water security for
Pune city.
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 104 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 105
Photograph 9: Half a day workshop at MCCIA on 31st January 2019 with Govt ofcials,
NGO’s and Citizens of Pune
Photograph 10: Expert’s workshop on Pune’s Aquifer on 26th July 2019 at YASHADA with
Govt ofcials, NGO’s and Citizens of Pune
From urban groundwater
management to groundwater
governance
The process of ensuring a seamless integration
of efcient and equitable groundwater
management to sustainable groundwater
governance must rstly include demystied
science leading to the development of
knowledge, data, skills and understanding of
groundwater resources at any given location.
Such understanding will lead to the decision
support required by a variety of stakeholders,
especially when the stakeholders participate in
the building up of the knowledge and
understanding on groundwater.
Urban groundwater governance requires a
much sharper focus, given the pressures of
ever- increasing demands on water supply, the
vulnerabilities stemming from scarcity and
contamination of civic water supply and the
large-scale ignorance of groundwater in
mainstream urban water policies. The Pune
case clearly demonstrates all of these
challenges and therefore makes it relevant to
focus specically on institutionalising
groundwater management and governance as
a part of the PMC’s overall water management
system. In doing so, it is important to remember
that current responses to the groundwater crises
are far removed from the three components of
water governance proposed below and
signicant reforms in both water practice and
policy are required to achieve these
components.
• Groundwater governance is largely about
transparency, participation, information,
custom and rule of law, and hence, is a
process rather than a set of targets.
• Administrative action and decision making
in the case of groundwater more than
anything else, is an art, given that it involves
balancing aquifer behavior on one side with
human behavior on the other.
• Groundwater governance is sustainable
only if the right balance between protection
of aquifers and moderation of their use is
forged. This is important especially in the
protection of natural recharge sites so that
humans (drinking water needs) are
balanced with ecosystem needs (discharge
of groundwater through streams and seeps)
to keep urban streams and rivers alive.
• Managing urban groundwater would also
need to arrive at a balance between how
much can you recharge, apart from where
you recharge, and a limited for strategic
pumping of shallow groundwater for both
potable and non-potable uses, especially for
sustaining public utilities. A simple approach
would be to locate / use shallow dug wells
in the natural groundwater discharge areas
for public usage and also for ood control.
Aquifer stocks, groundwater levels and a
periodic groundwater balance developed
through long-term monitoring would be
useful in this regard.
Protection, conservation, and management of
Pune’s aquifers will together constitute a robust
package of groundwater governance. If
established and implemented, it will be a
demonstration of good practice that can be
taken up at the national level, given that nearly
5700 small towns and cities can come under
the ambit of such governance. However, the
task is challenging and cannot be completed
without strategies of stakeholder sensitisation,
awareness and participation, participatory data
management systems, strategic science
(especially hydrogeology) for decision support
and integrating groundwater into short- and
long-term plans on urban water security for
Pune city.
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 104 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 105
Photograph 9: Half a day workshop at MCCIA on 31st January 2019 with Govt ofcials,
NGO’s and Citizens of Pune
Photograph 10: Expert’s workshop on Pune’s Aquifer on 26th July 2019 at YASHADA with
Govt ofcials, NGO’s and Citizens of Pune
Photograph 11: Workshop in PMC with Mayor and Commissioner of Pune
Photograph 12: Awareness programme hosted by Thermax Ltd
106 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 107
Moving forward: Pune’s urban
groundwater governance
framework
The PMC has indicated a path-breaking
approach by agreeing to set up a ‘groundwater
– cell’ (PMC, pers comm, 2022). It will also help
if the Groundwater Cell can think through the
setting up of certain advisory committees at the
ward level, to help the groundwater cell function
effectively. This step could be pathbreaking effort
for initializing the institutionalisation of
groundwater governance, perhaps the rst step
of its kind in India. While doing so, it is
important to keep in mind how the processes of
groundwater management and governance can
be seamlessly integrated into one another. The
following steps can be used to constitute a
process for such seamless integration and can
form a set of reference topics for the PGWC to
advise, follow-up on and constitute a set of
activities and outputs that will lead to the
compounded outcomes of participatory urban
water governance.
Urban Groundwater
(Governance) Cell
Constituting a groundwater cell is imperative as
part of Pune’s groundwater governance planning
and design. One of the rst proponents of such
an idea was Bhujal Abhiyan (also called Mission
Groundwater). This idea has further taken shape
as part of the groundwater restoration pilot
under Amrut 2.0 (MoHUA) guidelines including
work in Pune. ACWADAM, Bhujal Abhiyan and
CEE along with inputs from various ofcers of
the PMC have arrived at a template for the
constitution of the urban groundwater cell, based
on the following sections:
1. Objectives:
a. To help improve the understanding of
aquifers in the ‘Urban Local Body’ (ULB)
b. To help improve the management of aquifers
in the ULB
c. To help establish systems of sustainable
groundwater management and participatory
governance within ULB, systems that
integrate efcient and equitable
management of groundwater resources from
these aquifers.
d. To help generate awareness about
groundwater with the purpose of developing
a conservation perspective on groundwater
e. To develop a protocol for protection of urban
aquifers, their natural recharge zones and
the sustainable sources that stem from these
aquifers.
f. To catalyse and facilitate a system of urban
aquifer governance as part of the larger
water governance system within the ULB.
g. To co-ordinate training, capacity building,
awareness campaigns and other such
activities involving various stakeholders, on
the subject of groundwater.
h. To develop a decision making regulatory
inter and intra departmental government
interface to revive, restore, manage and
develop aquifers in city limits of ULB.
i. To develop guidelines and protocols to
maintain and manage the quality of
groundwater within the ULB.
j. To facilitate the processes of participatory
groundwater management and governance
in the ULB.
2. Functions:
a. To facilitate the systematic mapping of urban
aquifers, including the sources that are used
to access these aquifers.
b. To develop such a mapping through a
systematic registration of key groundwater
sources such as wells, bore wells and springs.
c. To develop and promote plans for
implementing the concept of Managed
Aquifer Recharge (MAR), the internationally
recognised approach to groundwater
recharge.
d. To develop a stakeholder database within the
Photograph 11: Workshop in PMC with Mayor and Commissioner of Pune
Photograph 12: Awareness programme hosted by Thermax Ltd
106 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 107
Moving forward: Pune’s urban
groundwater governance
framework
The PMC has indicated a path-breaking
approach by agreeing to set up a ‘groundwater
– cell’ (PMC, pers comm, 2022). It will also help
if the Groundwater Cell can think through the
setting up of certain advisory committees at the
ward level, to help the groundwater cell function
effectively. This step could be pathbreaking effort
for initializing the institutionalisation of
groundwater governance, perhaps the rst step
of its kind in India. While doing so, it is
important to keep in mind how the processes of
groundwater management and governance can
be seamlessly integrated into one another. The
following steps can be used to constitute a
process for such seamless integration and can
form a set of reference topics for the PGWC to
advise, follow-up on and constitute a set of
activities and outputs that will lead to the
compounded outcomes of participatory urban
water governance.
Urban Groundwater
(Governance) Cell
Constituting a groundwater cell is imperative as
part of Pune’s groundwater governance planning
and design. One of the rst proponents of such
an idea was Bhujal Abhiyan (also called Mission
Groundwater). This idea has further taken shape
as part of the groundwater restoration pilot
under Amrut 2.0 (MoHUA) guidelines including
work in Pune. ACWADAM, Bhujal Abhiyan and
CEE along with inputs from various ofcers of
the PMC have arrived at a template for the
constitution of the urban groundwater cell, based
on the following sections:
1. Objectives:
a. To help improve the understanding of
aquifers in the ‘Urban Local Body’ (ULB)
b. To help improve the management of aquifers
in the ULB
c. To help establish systems of sustainable
groundwater management and participatory
governance within ULB, systems that
integrate efcient and equitable
management of groundwater resources from
these aquifers.
d. To help generate awareness about
groundwater with the purpose of developing
a conservation perspective on groundwater
e. To develop a protocol for protection of urban
aquifers, their natural recharge zones and
the sustainable sources that stem from these
aquifers.
f. To catalyse and facilitate a system of urban
aquifer governance as part of the larger
water governance system within the ULB.
g. To co-ordinate training, capacity building,
awareness campaigns and other such
activities involving various stakeholders, on
the subject of groundwater.
h. To develop a decision making regulatory
inter and intra departmental government
interface to revive, restore, manage and
develop aquifers in city limits of ULB.
i. To develop guidelines and protocols to
maintain and manage the quality of
groundwater within the ULB.
j. To facilitate the processes of participatory
groundwater management and governance
in the ULB.
2. Functions:
a. To facilitate the systematic mapping of urban
aquifers, including the sources that are used
to access these aquifers.
b. To develop such a mapping through a
systematic registration of key groundwater
sources such as wells, bore wells and springs.
c. To develop and promote plans for
implementing the concept of Managed
Aquifer Recharge (MAR), the internationally
recognised approach to groundwater
recharge.
d. To develop a stakeholder database within the
ULB and to facilitate engagement with
various stakeholders.
e. To catalyse, facilitate and standardise
strategic recharge activities through both,
public systems of groundwater recharge and
decentralised private / individual initiatives of
groundwater recharge.
f. To promote the concept of participatory
groundwater management and governance
for improved efciency, equity and
sustainability of groundwater resources within
the ULB.
g. To help facilitate the implementation of the
State Regulatory Framework around
groundwater keeping in mind urban water
security – both quantity and quality – and the
protection of natural groundwater recharge
zones, aquifers and the overall water system
within the ULB.
h. To co-ordinate activities of aquifer
sensitisation, awareness and knowledge
through institutions working on various
aspects of water security such as mohalla
and ward samitees within the ULB.
i. To facilitate understanding, knowledge,
decisions and actions pertaining to
groundwater management and governance
within the ULB.
j. More specically, to facilitate the revival and
rejuvenation of wells and aquifers within the
ULB by catalysing, encouraging and
promoting sensitisation, awareness creation
and helping improve the understanding of
urban aquifers in the ULB.
k. Develop an aquifer wise decentralised
monitoring system for conjunctive surface
water and groundwater use and
sustainability, augment the groundwater
levels.
l. To facilitate and provide inputs to projects
such a public recharge through the concept
of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) at
appropriate locations within the ULB.
m. To help frame guidelines for Rainwater
Harvesting (RWH) related MAR that are
specic to the ULB, based on standardised
guidance and protocol.
n. To abide the directives of the Central
Groundwater Authority (CGWA) and State
Groundwater Agency / Department, as
appropriate.
o. Help regulate and control the extraction of
groundwater within the ULB as per the
directives of constitutional bodies under the
Central and State Governments.
p. To provide the interface for regular meetings
and workshops in co-ordination with the
ULB, State Agencies, Authorities, Corporate
Agencies, Academia, Civil Society, Citizen
Groups etc.
q. To provide regular inputs to the ULB on
matters pertaining to urban aquifer
governance.
3. Cell structure and role
a. To create an independent (ground)water cell
possibly under the Water Supply Department
/ Water Resources Department in the ULB.
b. The ex-ofcio chairperson of the cell should
be the Municipal Commissioner or a person
holding an equivalent post associated with
the ULB. The cell should be anchored by
(Co-chairperson / Vice Chairperson) by
either a senior ofcer in the ULB or a person
of eminence from academia or civil society
organisation working on the subject of
groundwater within the limits of the ULB. The
Co-chair should have a strong background
in the subject of Hydrogeology /
Groundwater Science. A convenor – working
as a senior ULB ofcer must also be
included. The constitution of the cell should
be as follows (the posts of Co-chair and
Convenor can be decided by consensus for a
period of three years):
I. ULB water supply department
representative
ii. ULB road department representative
iii. Smart city department representative
iv. Representative from the State
Groundwater Department
v. Representative from CGWB if such a
representative for the ULB location exists
vi. Civil Society Representative(s) – 1 or 2
vii. Federation of housing society
representative
viii. Municipal ward committee
representatives
ix. CREDAI / Builder association/ BAI
representative
The Cell will coordinate meetings at regular
frequency to interface with work under various
schemes, particularly beginning with the revival
and restoration of the shallow aquifers and dug
wells under the Amrut programme of the
MoHUA or any other such programmes. Specic
tasks that the cell will be responsible for but not
restricted to will be:
• Developing and coordinating training,
capacity building and awareness campaigns
on the subject of groundwater
• Co-ordinating activities by different
stakeholders on aspects like mapping of
urban aquifer systems, groundwater
recharge, monitoring of groundwater levels
and groundwater quality etc.
• Providing advisories to the ULB as and when
required, with a specic mandate on
groundwater development, management and
governance
• Developing a centralised city scale data
acquisition and monitoring system on
aquifers and maintaining a database for the
same
Urban groundwater governance:
from protection to regulation
Shah and Kulkarni (2014) proposed seven
elements of a paradigm shift in urban water
management. These elements, with subsequent
modications and additions include the
following aspects:
i. Sustainable management and governance
of aquifers must be mainstreamed into
urban water planning. Participatory aquifer
mapping leading to the management of
urban recharge and discharge areas and
groundwater quality through multi-
stakeholder platforms, involving citizens,
educational institutions, and urban utilities,
must be urgently initiated. Regulation of
depth of borewells is very important to
maintain the ground water table in urban
areas. Compliance may be ensured by
regulating unsustainable practices with
incentives for sustainable ones.
ii. A strong thrust on demand management of
water with a focus on the three Rs - Reduce,
Recycle and Reuse – that must form the
basic tenet of integrated urban water supply
and wastewater management. Treatment of
sewage and eco-restoration of urban river
stretches must go hand in hand with the
restoration and revival of the shallow
unconned aquifers. Long-term citizen
sensitization programmes can enable
increased social acceptance of treated
wastewater for all non-potable uses.
iii. Improving the industrial water footprint will
need to go hand-in-hand with improving
the urban water footprint, both of which
are distinct in their features.
iv. Demarcation, protection, restoration and
recharge of traditional water bodies,
including their catchments, natural
drainage system and the aquifer systems
associated with such water bodies.
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 108 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 109
ULB and to facilitate engagement with
various stakeholders.
e. To catalyse, facilitate and standardise
strategic recharge activities through both,
public systems of groundwater recharge and
decentralised private / individual initiatives of
groundwater recharge.
f. To promote the concept of participatory
groundwater management and governance
for improved efciency, equity and
sustainability of groundwater resources within
the ULB.
g. To help facilitate the implementation of the
State Regulatory Framework around
groundwater keeping in mind urban water
security – both quantity and quality – and the
protection of natural groundwater recharge
zones, aquifers and the overall water system
within the ULB.
h. To co-ordinate activities of aquifer
sensitisation, awareness and knowledge
through institutions working on various
aspects of water security such as mohalla
and ward samitees within the ULB.
i. To facilitate understanding, knowledge,
decisions and actions pertaining to
groundwater management and governance
within the ULB.
j. More specically, to facilitate the revival and
rejuvenation of wells and aquifers within the
ULB by catalysing, encouraging and
promoting sensitisation, awareness creation
and helping improve the understanding of
urban aquifers in the ULB.
k. Develop an aquifer wise decentralised
monitoring system for conjunctive surface
water and groundwater use and
sustainability, augment the groundwater
levels.
l. To facilitate and provide inputs to projects
such a public recharge through the concept
of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) at
appropriate locations within the ULB.
m. To help frame guidelines for Rainwater
Harvesting (RWH) related MAR that are
specic to the ULB, based on standardised
guidance and protocol.
n. To abide the directives of the Central
Groundwater Authority (CGWA) and State
Groundwater Agency / Department, as
appropriate.
o. Help regulate and control the extraction of
groundwater within the ULB as per the
directives of constitutional bodies under the
Central and State Governments.
p. To provide the interface for regular meetings
and workshops in co-ordination with the
ULB, State Agencies, Authorities, Corporate
Agencies, Academia, Civil Society, Citizen
Groups etc.
q. To provide regular inputs to the ULB on
matters pertaining to urban aquifer
governance.
3. Cell structure and role
a. To create an independent (ground)water cell
possibly under the Water Supply Department
/ Water Resources Department in the ULB.
b. The ex-ofcio chairperson of the cell should
be the Municipal Commissioner or a person
holding an equivalent post associated with
the ULB. The cell should be anchored by
(Co-chairperson / Vice Chairperson) by
either a senior ofcer in the ULB or a person
of eminence from academia or civil society
organisation working on the subject of
groundwater within the limits of the ULB. The
Co-chair should have a strong background
in the subject of Hydrogeology /
Groundwater Science. A convenor – working
as a senior ULB ofcer must also be
included. The constitution of the cell should
be as follows (the posts of Co-chair and
Convenor can be decided by consensus for a
period of three years):
I. ULB water supply department
representative
ii. ULB road department representative
iii. Smart city department representative
iv. Representative from the State
Groundwater Department
v. Representative from CGWB if such a
representative for the ULB location exists
vi. Civil Society Representative(s) – 1 or 2
vii. Federation of housing society
representative
viii. Municipal ward committee
representatives
ix. CREDAI / Builder association/ BAI
representative
The Cell will coordinate meetings at regular
frequency to interface with work under various
schemes, particularly beginning with the revival
and restoration of the shallow aquifers and dug
wells under the Amrut programme of the
MoHUA or any other such programmes. Specic
tasks that the cell will be responsible for but not
restricted to will be:
• Developing and coordinating training,
capacity building and awareness campaigns
on the subject of groundwater
• Co-ordinating activities by different
stakeholders on aspects like mapping of
urban aquifer systems, groundwater
recharge, monitoring of groundwater levels
and groundwater quality etc.
• Providing advisories to the ULB as and when
required, with a specic mandate on
groundwater development, management and
governance
• Developing a centralised city scale data
acquisition and monitoring system on
aquifers and maintaining a database for the
same
Urban groundwater governance:
from protection to regulation
Shah and Kulkarni (2014) proposed seven
elements of a paradigm shift in urban water
management. These elements, with subsequent
modications and additions include the
following aspects:
i. Sustainable management and governance
of aquifers must be mainstreamed into
urban water planning. Participatory aquifer
mapping leading to the management of
urban recharge and discharge areas and
groundwater quality through multi-
stakeholder platforms, involving citizens,
educational institutions, and urban utilities,
must be urgently initiated. Regulation of
depth of borewells is very important to
maintain the ground water table in urban
areas. Compliance may be ensured by
regulating unsustainable practices with
incentives for sustainable ones.
ii. A strong thrust on demand management of
water with a focus on the three Rs - Reduce,
Recycle and Reuse – that must form the
basic tenet of integrated urban water supply
and wastewater management. Treatment of
sewage and eco-restoration of urban river
stretches must go hand in hand with the
restoration and revival of the shallow
unconned aquifers. Long-term citizen
sensitization programmes can enable
increased social acceptance of treated
wastewater for all non-potable uses.
iii. Improving the industrial water footprint will
need to go hand-in-hand with improving
the urban water footprint, both of which
are distinct in their features.
iv. Demarcation, protection, restoration and
recharge of traditional water bodies,
including their catchments, natural
drainage system and the aquifer systems
associated with such water bodies.
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 108 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 109
v. 21st century Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI)
urban planning approach to enable better
utilisation of water-related ecosystem
services, improve water quality, and help in
temperature moderation and ood
mitigation. Such systems must duly consider
the role of aquifers and their characteristics
in the planning and design of such BGI.
vi. Compensation for eco-system services so
that cities contribute towards protecting and
treatment of the catchment areas of their
water bodies. Building requisite capacities
among ULBs and water utilities will help
develop such “green infrastructure”, giving
due consideration also to how such green
infrastructure will interface with the
underlying aquifers.
vii. A key thrust area is the improvement of
water distribution, which should involve
extensive use of IT-based sensors to ensure
equitable distribution, leak detection and
plugging, and for quality improvement. The
impact of these on groundwater on one
hand and the inclusion of groundwater into
mainstream water distribution must be
carefully explored.
viii. Capacity building on the aspect of
groundwater is particularly signicant within
the larger ULB and water utility capacity
building to take managerial and
technological decisions regarding essential
public services and to implement and
deliver these services to all. This internal
capacity is even more important in a
situation where urban services are
contracted to private companies. ULBs need
to work closely with bodies such as Mohalla
Samitis, whose capacities need to be built
so that they can play an active and
informed role in urban water management
ix. The overall control and ownership of urban
water governance must remain in public
hands. Regulatory capacity must be
strengthened to ensure clear accountability
so that the responsibility of the state as
public trustee remains even if some
functions are entrusted to any specic
agency. This is especially important bearing
in mind that groundwater is a common
pool resource and its management and
governance must be founded on the
fundamental principles that determine the
governance of any CPR.
Keeping in mind the above points, groundwater
governance for Pune’s aquifers must include the
following key thrust areas:
1. Protection of aquifers through a combination
of participatory mechanisms and regulatory
functions that are enacted through formal
legislation. This should include the protection
of natural recharge areas of aquifers –
especially those in open spaces and along
hill-tops and hillslopes and their discharge
zones – particularly those intersecting with the
stream and river channels in the city. Citizens
must be made aware of such zones so that
the risk of their encroachment and potential
contamination through waste dumping and
littering can be avoided
2. Equally important is protecting the aquifer
itself, by ensuring minimally invasive physical
interference with the aquifer. One example
could be to ensure that parking spaces are
created above ground rather than excavating
precious aquifer material from below the
ground level. Moreover, building land-ll sites
and dumping waste – both solid and liquid –
in areas immediately underlain by the
shallow unconned aquifers should be
avoided.
3. Working on increased efciencies on MAR
and pumping can be seriously considered,
especially on regulating pumping through
some smart ways such as imposing a limit on
the HP of pumps
4. At the same time, we need a strong
regulatory reform to ensure that the goals of
sustainability, equity and efciency are
achieved in any city-scale effort on the
groundwater governance. Developing a
framework for such regulation and building
stakeholder condence and acceptance of
such regulation could be the two important
steps in this direction
The commonality, across many such efforts, lies
in the aspects of community members
participating in the process of developing local
knowledge, arriving at decisions, and building
actions around such community-based decisions.
In most cases, they include mechanisms of
decentralised groundwater governance as part of
the larger groundwater management strategy. At
the core of all these attempts lies a combination
of ‘a transdisciplinary approach and the
micromanagement of groundwater problems’, a
combination that holds promise in the pursuit of
not just SDG6 but all the other SDGs wherein the
aspect of groundwater remains implicit but
crucial to their achievement. Such efforts also
hold promise for an improved dialogue between
groundwater science, praxis, and policy.
The micromanagement of aquifers will help build
up a robust system of groundwater governance
with seven ‘Ps’ at its core (Kulkarni, 2022). It
would be useful for the Pune Groundwater Cell
to begin to think about such as system as one of
the key mandates in protecting, managing, and
securing Pune’s aquifers. The seven aspects are:
1. Principles: values and norms around
aquifers as CPR
2. People: changing human behaviour,
diffusing tensions, dealing with competition,
and managing conict
3. Processes: participative, collaborative data
gathering based on which community
decisions are made
4. Practices: actions that are based on
informed decisions
5. Policies: securing and sustaining good
practices and moving away from a
command-and-control approach
6. Partnerships: forging partnerships across a
variety of disciplines and organisations
7. Plurality: getting to a common goal through
multiple trajectories keeping in mind the
socio-ecological diversity of aquifers
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 110 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 111
v. 21st century Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI)
urban planning approach to enable better
utilisation of water-related ecosystem
services, improve water quality, and help in
temperature moderation and ood
mitigation. Such systems must duly consider
the role of aquifers and their characteristics
in the planning and design of such BGI.
vi. Compensation for eco-system services so
that cities contribute towards protecting and
treatment of the catchment areas of their
water bodies. Building requisite capacities
among ULBs and water utilities will help
develop such “green infrastructure”, giving
due consideration also to how such green
infrastructure will interface with the
underlying aquifers.
vii. A key thrust area is the improvement of
water distribution, which should involve
extensive use of IT-based sensors to ensure
equitable distribution, leak detection and
plugging, and for quality improvement. The
impact of these on groundwater on one
hand and the inclusion of groundwater into
mainstream water distribution must be
carefully explored.
viii. Capacity building on the aspect of
groundwater is particularly signicant within
the larger ULB and water utility capacity
building to take managerial and
technological decisions regarding essential
public services and to implement and
deliver these services to all. This internal
capacity is even more important in a
situation where urban services are
contracted to private companies. ULBs need
to work closely with bodies such as Mohalla
Samitis, whose capacities need to be built
so that they can play an active and
informed role in urban water management
ix. The overall control and ownership of urban
water governance must remain in public
hands. Regulatory capacity must be
strengthened to ensure clear accountability
so that the responsibility of the state as
public trustee remains even if some
functions are entrusted to any specic
agency. This is especially important bearing
in mind that groundwater is a common
pool resource and its management and
governance must be founded on the
fundamental principles that determine the
governance of any CPR.
Keeping in mind the above points, groundwater
governance for Pune’s aquifers must include the
following key thrust areas:
1. Protection of aquifers through a combination
of participatory mechanisms and regulatory
functions that are enacted through formal
legislation. This should include the protection
of natural recharge areas of aquifers –
especially those in open spaces and along
hill-tops and hillslopes and their discharge
zones – particularly those intersecting with the
stream and river channels in the city. Citizens
must be made aware of such zones so that
the risk of their encroachment and potential
contamination through waste dumping and
littering can be avoided
2. Equally important is protecting the aquifer
itself, by ensuring minimally invasive physical
interference with the aquifer. One example
could be to ensure that parking spaces are
created above ground rather than excavating
precious aquifer material from below the
ground level. Moreover, building land-ll sites
and dumping waste – both solid and liquid –
in areas immediately underlain by the
shallow unconned aquifers should be
avoided.
3. Working on increased efciencies on MAR
and pumping can be seriously considered,
especially on regulating pumping through
some smart ways such as imposing a limit on
the HP of pumps
4. At the same time, we need a strong
regulatory reform to ensure that the goals of
sustainability, equity and efciency are
achieved in any city-scale effort on the
groundwater governance. Developing a
framework for such regulation and building
stakeholder condence and acceptance of
such regulation could be the two important
steps in this direction
The commonality, across many such efforts, lies
in the aspects of community members
participating in the process of developing local
knowledge, arriving at decisions, and building
actions around such community-based decisions.
In most cases, they include mechanisms of
decentralised groundwater governance as part of
the larger groundwater management strategy. At
the core of all these attempts lies a combination
of ‘a transdisciplinary approach and the
micromanagement of groundwater problems’, a
combination that holds promise in the pursuit of
not just SDG6 but all the other SDGs wherein the
aspect of groundwater remains implicit but
crucial to their achievement. Such efforts also
hold promise for an improved dialogue between
groundwater science, praxis, and policy.
The micromanagement of aquifers will help build
up a robust system of groundwater governance
with seven ‘Ps’ at its core (Kulkarni, 2022). It
would be useful for the Pune Groundwater Cell
to begin to think about such as system as one of
the key mandates in protecting, managing, and
securing Pune’s aquifers. The seven aspects are:
1. Principles: values and norms around
aquifers as CPR
2. People: changing human behaviour,
diffusing tensions, dealing with competition,
and managing conict
3. Processes: participative, collaborative data
gathering based on which community
decisions are made
4. Practices: actions that are based on
informed decisions
5. Policies: securing and sustaining good
practices and moving away from a
command-and-control approach
6. Partnerships: forging partnerships across a
variety of disciplines and organisations
7. Plurality: getting to a common goal through
multiple trajectories keeping in mind the
socio-ecological diversity of aquifers
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 110 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 111
References
ACWADAM. 2005. Augmenting Groundwater
Resources by Articial Recharge: Final report for
the research site at Kolwan valley, Pune district,
Maharashtra.
ACWADAM (2017) Hydrogeological aspects of
PAQM in Urban Groundwater scenario in SE
Bengaluru-ACWADAM Aug 2017.
10.13140/RG.2.2.29595.62242. 70p.
ACWADAM (2018) Hydrogeological study of
Ghod River Basin: input to a larger river basin
management study. ACWADAM, CII and ITC,
Report no. ACWA/Hydro/2018/ H67, 172p.
ACWADAM (2019) Pune's Aquifers: Some Early
Insights from a Strategic Hydrogeological
Appraisal. ACWADAM Report no.
ACWA/HYDRO/2019/H-8610.13140/
RG.2.2.11362.48326, 57p.
Adyalkar, P. G. and Mani, V. V. S. 1971.
Palaeogeography, geomorphological setting and
ground- water possibilities in the Deccan Traps,
Western Maharashtra. Bull. Volc. Tome, 35
(3):696 708.
Aslekar, U., Joshi, D. and Kulkarni, H. (2022).
What are we allocating and who decides?
Democratising understanding of groundwater
and decisions for judicious allocations in India.
10.2166/9781789062786_0173.
Brassington, R. (2007) Field Hydrogeology. 3rd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, London.
Cantonati, M., Gerecke, R. and Bertuzzi, E.,
2006. Springs of the Alps–sensitive ecosystems
to environmental change: from biodiversity
assessments to long-term studies.
Hydrobiologia, 562(1), pp.59-96.
Census of India. 2011, Government of India.
2011.
Central Ground Water Board. 2011.
Groundwater Scenario in Major Cities of India,
CGWB, Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India.
Central Ground Water Board. 2012. Aquifer
Systems of India, CGWB, Ministry of Water Re-
sources, Government of India.
Central Ground Water Board. 2017. Dynamic
Ground Water Resources of India (as on March,
2013). CGWB, Ministry of Water Resources,
River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation,
Government of India.
CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and
Ecosystems (WLE). 2015. Groundwater and
ecosystem services: a framework for managing
smallholder groundwater dependent agrarian
socio-ecologies - applying an ecosystem services
and resilience approach. Colombo, Sri Lanka:
International Water Management Institute
(IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water,
Land and Ecosystems (WLE). 25p. doi:
10.5337/2015.208
Deolankar, S. B. 1977. Hydrogeology of the
Deccan Trap Area in Some Parts of
Maharashtra, PhD Thesis, University of Pune,
India, p 260.
Deolankar, S. B. 1980. Deccan basalts of
Maharashtra- their potential as aquifers:
Ground Water, 18 (5): 434-437.
Deolankar. S., B., Himanshu, Kulkarni. (1985).
Impact of hydrogeology on agriculture in
Deccan basaltic terrain of Maharashtra, India.
IAHS-AISH publication, 212-213.
Deshmukh, S. S. 1988. Petrographic variations
in compound ows of Deccan Traps and their
signicance. Mem. Geol. Soc. India; 10; 305-
319.
Deshpande, B. G. (1950) Rural water supply in
Deccan Trap area in Ahmednagar district,
Bombay state, Geol. Surv. India (Unpublish
report)
Deshpande, B. G. and Sengupta, S. N. (1956)
Geology of groundwater in the Deccan Traps
and the application of geophysical methods,
Bull. Geol. Surv. India Ser. B (8): 27 p.
Deshpande, S., Wani, K., Deodhar, A., Gole, S.,
Nulkar, G., Gabale, S., Shitole, T., Kulkarni, H.
and Bhagwat, M., Flood Fury of Pune:
Understanding the Tributaries. Journal of
Ecological Society.
Dhokarikar, B. G. 1984. Increasing irrigation by
dug wells, dug-cum-borewells and bore wells in
basaltic rock terrain of Maharashtra. Conf. Proc.
on Development of Groundwater Resources of
Maharashtra, Bombay: 90 – 100.
Dillon, P., Vanderzalm, J., Sidhu, J., Page, D.,
Chadha, D. 2014. A Water Quality Guide to
Managed Aquifer Recharge in India. CSIRO and
UNESCO; 2014. https://doi.
org/10.4225/08/584ee831925bb.
District Resource Maps of GSI (various years)
and CGWB (2012)
Driscoll, F.G. (1986) Groundwater and Wells.
2nd Edition, Johnson Division, St. Paul.
Duraiswami, R. A., Das, S. and Shaikh, T. 2012.
Hydrogeological framework of aquifers in the
Deccan Traps, India: Some Insights. Memoir
Geological Society of India No, 2012, pp.1-15.
Fetter, C.W., 1980. Applied hydrogeology.
Charles E.
Foster., Hirata, S. R. and Garduno, H. 2010.
Urban Groundwater Use Policy—Balancing the
Benets and Risks in Developing Nations, GW-
MATE Strategic Overview Series 3, World Bank,
Washington DC, US.
Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J.A., 1979. Ground~
water. Prentice-hall.
Gale, I., Macdonald, D. M., Calow, R. C.,
Neumann, I., Moench, M., Kulkarni, H.,
Mudrakartha, S. and Palanisami, K. 2006.
Managed Aquifer Recharge: an assessment of
its role and effectiveness in watershed
management. British Geological Survey
Commissioned Report CR/06/107N. 80P.
Synthesis of the AGRAR case studies.
Gokhale, P. and Deo, S.G., Digital
Reconstruction and Visualisation of Peshwa
Period Water System of Pune.
Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency
and Central Ground Water Board. 2014.
Kale, V.S. & Kulkarni, H.C. (1992) IRS 1A and
LANDSAT data in Mapping Deccan Trap Flows
around Pune, India: implications on
hydrogeological modeling. Archives
International Society of Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing, 29, 429–435.
Kale, V.S. (2016) Architecture of lavas from
Deccan Volcanic Province, India and its
implications: 35th International Geological
Congress, 24 August–4 September, Cape Town,
South Africa, session 46-16, no. 4440, https://
www.americangeosciences .org /igc/16088
Kale, V.S. (2019) Cretaceous volcanism in the
Indian Plate: Rajmahal and Deccan Traps, in
Gupta, N., and Tandon, S.K., eds., Geodynamic
Evolution of the Indian Subcontinent: Berlin,
Germany, Springer-Verlag, In press.
Kale, V.S., Dole, G., Shandilya, P. and Pande, K.
(2019) Stratigraphy and correlations in Deccan
Volcanic Province, India: Quo vadis? Bulletin
Geological Society America, In press.
Doi:10.1130/B35018.1
Kulkarni, H. and Deolankar, S.B., 1995.
Hydrogeological mapping in the Deccan
basalts-an appraisal. Geological Society of
India, 46(4), pp.345-352.
Kulkarni, H., Deolankar, S.B., Lalwani, A., 1997.
Groundwater as an urban water supply in India-
A case study of Pune city, India. Engineering
Geology and Environment (ISBN:
9054108770).
Kulkarni, H., Deolankar, S., Lalwani, A., Joseph,
B. & Pawar, S. (2000). Hydrogeological
framework of the Deccan basalt groundwater
systems, west-central India. Hydrogeology
Journal. 8. 368-378.
10.1007/s100400000079.
Kulkarni, H. 2005. Groundwater overdraft: a
physical perspective. In: COMMAN 2005. Com-
munity Management of Groundwater Resources
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 112 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 113
References
ACWADAM. 2005. Augmenting Groundwater
Resources by Articial Recharge: Final report for
the research site at Kolwan valley, Pune district,
Maharashtra.
ACWADAM (2017) Hydrogeological aspects of
PAQM in Urban Groundwater scenario in SE
Bengaluru-ACWADAM Aug 2017.
10.13140/RG.2.2.29595.62242. 70p.
ACWADAM (2018) Hydrogeological study of
Ghod River Basin: input to a larger river basin
management study. ACWADAM, CII and ITC,
Report no. ACWA/Hydro/2018/ H67, 172p.
ACWADAM (2019) Pune's Aquifers: Some Early
Insights from a Strategic Hydrogeological
Appraisal. ACWADAM Report no.
ACWA/HYDRO/2019/H-8610.13140/
RG.2.2.11362.48326, 57p.
Adyalkar, P. G. and Mani, V. V. S. 1971.
Palaeogeography, geomorphological setting and
ground- water possibilities in the Deccan Traps,
Western Maharashtra. Bull. Volc. Tome, 35
(3):696 708.
Aslekar, U., Joshi, D. and Kulkarni, H. (2022).
What are we allocating and who decides?
Democratising understanding of groundwater
and decisions for judicious allocations in India.
10.2166/9781789062786_0173.
Brassington, R. (2007) Field Hydrogeology. 3rd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, London.
Cantonati, M., Gerecke, R. and Bertuzzi, E.,
2006. Springs of the Alps–sensitive ecosystems
to environmental change: from biodiversity
assessments to long-term studies.
Hydrobiologia, 562(1), pp.59-96.
Census of India. 2011, Government of India.
2011.
Central Ground Water Board. 2011.
Groundwater Scenario in Major Cities of India,
CGWB, Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India.
Central Ground Water Board. 2012. Aquifer
Systems of India, CGWB, Ministry of Water Re-
sources, Government of India.
Central Ground Water Board. 2017. Dynamic
Ground Water Resources of India (as on March,
2013). CGWB, Ministry of Water Resources,
River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation,
Government of India.
CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and
Ecosystems (WLE). 2015. Groundwater and
ecosystem services: a framework for managing
smallholder groundwater dependent agrarian
socio-ecologies - applying an ecosystem services
and resilience approach. Colombo, Sri Lanka:
International Water Management Institute
(IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water,
Land and Ecosystems (WLE). 25p. doi:
10.5337/2015.208
Deolankar, S. B. 1977. Hydrogeology of the
Deccan Trap Area in Some Parts of
Maharashtra, PhD Thesis, University of Pune,
India, p 260.
Deolankar, S. B. 1980. Deccan basalts of
Maharashtra- their potential as aquifers:
Ground Water, 18 (5): 434-437.
Deolankar. S., B., Himanshu, Kulkarni. (1985).
Impact of hydrogeology on agriculture in
Deccan basaltic terrain of Maharashtra, India.
IAHS-AISH publication, 212-213.
Deshmukh, S. S. 1988. Petrographic variations
in compound ows of Deccan Traps and their
signicance. Mem. Geol. Soc. India; 10; 305-
319.
Deshpande, B. G. (1950) Rural water supply in
Deccan Trap area in Ahmednagar district,
Bombay state, Geol. Surv. India (Unpublish
report)
Deshpande, B. G. and Sengupta, S. N. (1956)
Geology of groundwater in the Deccan Traps
and the application of geophysical methods,
Bull. Geol. Surv. India Ser. B (8): 27 p.
Deshpande, S., Wani, K., Deodhar, A., Gole, S.,
Nulkar, G., Gabale, S., Shitole, T., Kulkarni, H.
and Bhagwat, M., Flood Fury of Pune:
Understanding the Tributaries. Journal of
Ecological Society.
Dhokarikar, B. G. 1984. Increasing irrigation by
dug wells, dug-cum-borewells and bore wells in
basaltic rock terrain of Maharashtra. Conf. Proc.
on Development of Groundwater Resources of
Maharashtra, Bombay: 90 – 100.
Dillon, P., Vanderzalm, J., Sidhu, J., Page, D.,
Chadha, D. 2014. A Water Quality Guide to
Managed Aquifer Recharge in India. CSIRO and
UNESCO; 2014. https://doi.
org/10.4225/08/584ee831925bb.
District Resource Maps of GSI (various years)
and CGWB (2012)
Driscoll, F.G. (1986) Groundwater and Wells.
2nd Edition, Johnson Division, St. Paul.
Duraiswami, R. A., Das, S. and Shaikh, T. 2012.
Hydrogeological framework of aquifers in the
Deccan Traps, India: Some Insights. Memoir
Geological Society of India No, 2012, pp.1-15.
Fetter, C.W., 1980. Applied hydrogeology.
Charles E.
Foster., Hirata, S. R. and Garduno, H. 2010.
Urban Groundwater Use Policy—Balancing the
Benets and Risks in Developing Nations, GW-
MATE Strategic Overview Series 3, World Bank,
Washington DC, US.
Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J.A., 1979. Ground~
water. Prentice-hall.
Gale, I., Macdonald, D. M., Calow, R. C.,
Neumann, I., Moench, M., Kulkarni, H.,
Mudrakartha, S. and Palanisami, K. 2006.
Managed Aquifer Recharge: an assessment of
its role and effectiveness in watershed
management. British Geological Survey
Commissioned Report CR/06/107N. 80P.
Synthesis of the AGRAR case studies.
Gokhale, P. and Deo, S.G., Digital
Reconstruction and Visualisation of Peshwa
Period Water System of Pune.
Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency
and Central Ground Water Board. 2014.
Kale, V.S. & Kulkarni, H.C. (1992) IRS 1A and
LANDSAT data in Mapping Deccan Trap Flows
around Pune, India: implications on
hydrogeological modeling. Archives
International Society of Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing, 29, 429–435.
Kale, V.S. (2016) Architecture of lavas from
Deccan Volcanic Province, India and its
implications: 35th International Geological
Congress, 24 August–4 September, Cape Town,
South Africa, session 46-16, no. 4440, https://
www.americangeosciences .org /igc/16088
Kale, V.S. (2019) Cretaceous volcanism in the
Indian Plate: Rajmahal and Deccan Traps, in
Gupta, N., and Tandon, S.K., eds., Geodynamic
Evolution of the Indian Subcontinent: Berlin,
Germany, Springer-Verlag, In press.
Kale, V.S., Dole, G., Shandilya, P. and Pande, K.
(2019) Stratigraphy and correlations in Deccan
Volcanic Province, India: Quo vadis? Bulletin
Geological Society America, In press.
Doi:10.1130/B35018.1
Kulkarni, H. and Deolankar, S.B., 1995.
Hydrogeological mapping in the Deccan
basalts-an appraisal. Geological Society of
India, 46(4), pp.345-352.
Kulkarni, H., Deolankar, S.B., Lalwani, A., 1997.
Groundwater as an urban water supply in India-
A case study of Pune city, India. Engineering
Geology and Environment (ISBN:
9054108770).
Kulkarni, H., Deolankar, S., Lalwani, A., Joseph,
B. & Pawar, S. (2000). Hydrogeological
framework of the Deccan basalt groundwater
systems, west-central India. Hydrogeology
Journal. 8. 368-378.
10.1007/s100400000079.
Kulkarni, H. 2005. Groundwater overdraft: a
physical perspective. In: COMMAN 2005. Com-
munity Management of Groundwater Resources
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 112 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 113
in Rural India – Research Report, R. Calow and
D. Macdonald (eds), British Geological Survey
Commissioned Report CR/05/36N., pp. 1-13.
Kulkarni, H., Badarayani, U., Phadnis, V. and
Robb R., 2005. Detailed case study of Kolwan
valley, Mulshi taluka, Pune district, Maharashtra.
AGRAR Project, Final Case Study Report.
Kulkarni, H., Upasani, D., Patil, S. & Dhawan,
H. (2009). Rapid Geohydrological Appraisal of
Purainee and Orlaha villages, Supaul district,
Bihar, with special regard to drinking water
management and alternative sources.
10.13140/RG.2.2.17279.97446.
Kulkarni H, Vijay Shankar PS, Krishnan S (2009)
Synopsis of groundwater resources in India:
status, challenges and a new framework for
responses, Report submitted to the Planning
Commission of India, Government of India.
ACWA/ PC/ Rep – 1.
Kulkarni, H. and Vijay Shankar, P. S. 2014.
Groundwater resources in India: an arena for
diverse competition. Local Environment: The
International Journal of Justice and
Sustainability, v. 19(9), 990-1011.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2014.96
4192.
Kulkarni, Himanshu & Shah, Mihir & P S,
Vijayshankar. (2015). Shaping the contours of
groundwater governance in India. Journal of
Hydrology: Regional Studies. 5.
10.1016/j.ejrh.2014.11.004.
Kulkarni, Himanshu & Patil, Siddharth. (2017).
Competition and Conict around Groundwater
Resources in India.
10.13140/RG.2.2.14917.40163.
Kulkarni, Himanshu & Desai, Jayesh & Siddique,
Mohammad Imran. (2021). Rejuvenation of
Springs in the Himalayan Region.
10.1002/9781119564522.ch6.
Kulkarni, H. and Gokhale, R. 2021. Managing
Deccan basalt aquifers: understanding aquifer
heterogeneity, iniquitous access and
groundwater competition. e-Journal of
Geohydrology, v 1(2), Indian National Chapter,
Indian Association of Hydrogeologists.
Lalwani, A. 1993. Practical Aspects of
Exploration of Deccan Basaltic Aquifers for
Borewell Development from Parts of the Haveli
Taluka, Pune District, Maharashtra, Unpubl. PhD
thesis, University of Poona, p 109.
Lawrence, A.R. and S.U. Ansari. 1980. The
shallow aquifer of the Betwa basin, India. Indo-
British Betwa groundwater project,
WD/OS/80/2.
Lawrence, A.R. 1985. An interpretation of dug
well performance using a digital model. Ground
water, v.23, No.4, pp. 449-454.
Lerner, D. N. 2004. Urban groundwater
pollution. Balkema Publishers,
Lisse/Abingdon/Exton (PA)/Tokyo.
Lopez-Gunn, E., Zorrilla, P. and Llamas, M.R.
2011. The impossible dream? The Upper
Guadiana system: aligning changes in
ecological systems with changes in social
systems On the Waterfront, vol. 2, pp. 115-126.
Macdonald, D. M. J., Kulkarni, H., Lawrence, A.
R., Deolankar, S. B., Barker, J. A. and Lalwani,
A. 1995. Sustainable Groundwater
Development of Hard-rock Aquifers: The
Possible Conict Between Irrigation and Drinking
Water Supplies from the Deccan Basalts of
India, British Geological Survey NERC Technical
Report WC/95/52: p. 54. Wallingford, UK.
Marathe, Manas. (2019). Reimagining Water
Infrastructure in its Cultural Specicity Case of
Pune, INDIA. Manas Rajendra Marathe.
Margat, J. and van der Gun, J. 2013.
Groundwater around the world: a geographic
synopsis. CRC Press / Balkema © Taylor &
Francis. 348 p.
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
2014. Web based land use statistics information
system, Various Land Use Statistics Reports,
Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation.
lus.dacnet.nic.in/dt_lus.aspx.
Ministry of Jal Shakti, Department of Water
resources, River Development & Ganga
Rejuvenation. http://mowr.gov.in/agro-climatic-
zones.
Moench, M., Kulkarni, H., Burke, J., 2012.
Trends in local groundwater management
institutions. In: Thematic paper 7, Ground-water
Governance: A Global Framework for Country
action. GEF ID 3726.
www.groundwatergovernance.org.
Morris, B. L., Lawrence, A. R. and Stuart, M. E.
1994. The Impact of Urbanization on Ground-
water Quality, Project summary report, British
Geological Survey Technical Report WC/94/56.
Narain, S. 2012. Excreta Matters, Vol 1, Center
for Science and Environment, New Delhi. Niti
Aayog. 2018.
Narayanpethkar, A.B., Rao, V.G. and Mallick,
K., 1993. Evolution of regional transmissivity
pattern in Adila Basin: a nested squares nite
difference model. Geological Society of India,
41(1), pp.21-32.
NIUA. 2005. Status of Water Supply, Sanitation
and Solid Waste Management in Urban Areas,
National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi.
Ostrom, E., 1990. Governing the commons:
The evolution of institutions for collective action.
Cambridge university press.
Pyne, R.D.G., Articial recharge of groundwater
II. ACSE, New York, pp 231240Dickenson JM,
Bachman SB (1995) The optimization of
spreading ground operations. Johnson AI, Pyne.
Rajguru, J., and Kulkarni, H. (2018).
Groundwater in the Ghod river basin: Part of
the larger Ghod river basin management study.
ACWA/Hydro/2018/H67, Advanced Center for
Water Resources Development and
Management, Pune.
Report of Working Group I: Inventory and
Revival of Springs in the Himalayas for Water
Security. Contributing to Sustainable
Development of Indian Himalayan Region. Niti
Aayog, Government of India. 52 p.
Shah, M. and Kulkarni, H. 2015. Urban water
systems in India: typologies and hypotheses.
Special Article, Economic and Political Weekly, L
(30), July 25, 2015, 57-69.
Shah, T. 2009. Taming the Anarchy:
Groundwater Governance in South Asia,
Resources for the Future, Washington DC, and
International Water Management Institute,
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Singhal, B. B. S. 1997. Hydrogeological
characteristics of Deccan Trap formations of
India.
Singhal, B. B. S. and Gupta, R. P. 1998. Applied
Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
Varady, R.G., Van Weert, F., Megdal, S.B.,
Gerlak, A.K., Iskandar, C.A., and House-Peters,
L. Groundwater Governance: A Global
Framework for Country Action. Available
onlinehttp://www.yemenwater.org/wpcontent/up
loads/2015/04/GWG_Thematic5_8June2012.p
df. accessed on 19 September 2016.
5th Minor Irrigation Census, Government of
India
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 114 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 115
in Rural India – Research Report, R. Calow and
D. Macdonald (eds), British Geological Survey
Commissioned Report CR/05/36N., pp. 1-13.
Kulkarni, H., Badarayani, U., Phadnis, V. and
Robb R., 2005. Detailed case study of Kolwan
valley, Mulshi taluka, Pune district, Maharashtra.
AGRAR Project, Final Case Study Report.
Kulkarni, H., Upasani, D., Patil, S. & Dhawan,
H. (2009). Rapid Geohydrological Appraisal of
Purainee and Orlaha villages, Supaul district,
Bihar, with special regard to drinking water
management and alternative sources.
10.13140/RG.2.2.17279.97446.
Kulkarni H, Vijay Shankar PS, Krishnan S (2009)
Synopsis of groundwater resources in India:
status, challenges and a new framework for
responses, Report submitted to the Planning
Commission of India, Government of India.
ACWA/ PC/ Rep – 1.
Kulkarni, H. and Vijay Shankar, P. S. 2014.
Groundwater resources in India: an arena for
diverse competition. Local Environment: The
International Journal of Justice and
Sustainability, v. 19(9), 990-1011.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2014.96
4192.
Kulkarni, Himanshu & Shah, Mihir & P S,
Vijayshankar. (2015). Shaping the contours of
groundwater governance in India. Journal of
Hydrology: Regional Studies. 5.
10.1016/j.ejrh.2014.11.004.
Kulkarni, Himanshu & Patil, Siddharth. (2017).
Competition and Conict around Groundwater
Resources in India.
10.13140/RG.2.2.14917.40163.
Kulkarni, Himanshu & Desai, Jayesh & Siddique,
Mohammad Imran. (2021). Rejuvenation of
Springs in the Himalayan Region.
10.1002/9781119564522.ch6.
Kulkarni, H. and Gokhale, R. 2021. Managing
Deccan basalt aquifers: understanding aquifer
heterogeneity, iniquitous access and
groundwater competition. e-Journal of
Geohydrology, v 1(2), Indian National Chapter,
Indian Association of Hydrogeologists.
Lalwani, A. 1993. Practical Aspects of
Exploration of Deccan Basaltic Aquifers for
Borewell Development from Parts of the Haveli
Taluka, Pune District, Maharashtra, Unpubl. PhD
thesis, University of Poona, p 109.
Lawrence, A.R. and S.U. Ansari. 1980. The
shallow aquifer of the Betwa basin, India. Indo-
British Betwa groundwater project,
WD/OS/80/2.
Lawrence, A.R. 1985. An interpretation of dug
well performance using a digital model. Ground
water, v.23, No.4, pp. 449-454.
Lerner, D. N. 2004. Urban groundwater
pollution. Balkema Publishers,
Lisse/Abingdon/Exton (PA)/Tokyo.
Lopez-Gunn, E., Zorrilla, P. and Llamas, M.R.
2011. The impossible dream? The Upper
Guadiana system: aligning changes in
ecological systems with changes in social
systems On the Waterfront, vol. 2, pp. 115-126.
Macdonald, D. M. J., Kulkarni, H., Lawrence, A.
R., Deolankar, S. B., Barker, J. A. and Lalwani,
A. 1995. Sustainable Groundwater
Development of Hard-rock Aquifers: The
Possible Conict Between Irrigation and Drinking
Water Supplies from the Deccan Basalts of
India, British Geological Survey NERC Technical
Report WC/95/52: p. 54. Wallingford, UK.
Marathe, Manas. (2019). Reimagining Water
Infrastructure in its Cultural Specicity Case of
Pune, INDIA. Manas Rajendra Marathe.
Margat, J. and van der Gun, J. 2013.
Groundwater around the world: a geographic
synopsis. CRC Press / Balkema © Taylor &
Francis. 348 p.
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
2014. Web based land use statistics information
system, Various Land Use Statistics Reports,
Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation.
lus.dacnet.nic.in/dt_lus.aspx.
Ministry of Jal Shakti, Department of Water
resources, River Development & Ganga
Rejuvenation. http://mowr.gov.in/agro-climatic-
zones.
Moench, M., Kulkarni, H., Burke, J., 2012.
Trends in local groundwater management
institutions. In: Thematic paper 7, Ground-water
Governance: A Global Framework for Country
action. GEF ID 3726.
www.groundwatergovernance.org.
Morris, B. L., Lawrence, A. R. and Stuart, M. E.
1994. The Impact of Urbanization on Ground-
water Quality, Project summary report, British
Geological Survey Technical Report WC/94/56.
Narain, S. 2012. Excreta Matters, Vol 1, Center
for Science and Environment, New Delhi. Niti
Aayog. 2018.
Narayanpethkar, A.B., Rao, V.G. and Mallick,
K., 1993. Evolution of regional transmissivity
pattern in Adila Basin: a nested squares nite
difference model. Geological Society of India,
41(1), pp.21-32.
NIUA. 2005. Status of Water Supply, Sanitation
and Solid Waste Management in Urban Areas,
National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi.
Ostrom, E., 1990. Governing the commons:
The evolution of institutions for collective action.
Cambridge university press.
Pyne, R.D.G., Articial recharge of groundwater
II. ACSE, New York, pp 231240Dickenson JM,
Bachman SB (1995) The optimization of
spreading ground operations. Johnson AI, Pyne.
Rajguru, J., and Kulkarni, H. (2018).
Groundwater in the Ghod river basin: Part of
the larger Ghod river basin management study.
ACWA/Hydro/2018/H67, Advanced Center for
Water Resources Development and
Management, Pune.
Report of Working Group I: Inventory and
Revival of Springs in the Himalayas for Water
Security. Contributing to Sustainable
Development of Indian Himalayan Region. Niti
Aayog, Government of India. 52 p.
Shah, M. and Kulkarni, H. 2015. Urban water
systems in India: typologies and hypotheses.
Special Article, Economic and Political Weekly, L
(30), July 25, 2015, 57-69.
Shah, T. 2009. Taming the Anarchy:
Groundwater Governance in South Asia,
Resources for the Future, Washington DC, and
International Water Management Institute,
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Singhal, B. B. S. 1997. Hydrogeological
characteristics of Deccan Trap formations of
India.
Singhal, B. B. S. and Gupta, R. P. 1998. Applied
Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
Varady, R.G., Van Weert, F., Megdal, S.B.,
Gerlak, A.K., Iskandar, C.A., and House-Peters,
L. Groundwater Governance: A Global
Framework for Country Action. Available
onlinehttp://www.yemenwater.org/wpcontent/up
loads/2015/04/GWG_Thematic5_8June2012.p
df. accessed on 19 September 2016.
5th Minor Irrigation Census, Government of
India
Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 114 Developing Pune’s Groundwater Governance Framework 115
ACWADAM
‘Suvidya', Plot No 27, Lane No 3, Kshipra Society,
Karve Nagar, Pune - 411052
Ph: +91-91722 46959
www.acwadam.org acwadam@gmail.com
