The Te’omim Cave, Jerusalem Hills: A preliminary archaeological report

Abstract

The Te’omim cave is situated on the western edge of the Jerusalem Hills. The cave consists of the main hall (approximately 50×70 meters with a maximum height of about 10 meters). Several passages lead from the main hall to other small chambers and systems of crevices. The cave detailed description is presented. The Te’omim cave has been researched by archaeologists since the late 19th century till now. Modern excavations discovered multiple artifacts of various periods of time, including Neolith, Bronze and Iron Ages, Roman and Byzantine periods and etc. Recent finds are described in the paper. In the antique times calcite deposits in the cave main hall were quarried to produce “calcite alabaster”. This is the first “alabaster” quarry known in the southern Levant. Quarry faces, toolmarks and unfinished blocks remained, and they are described in the paper.

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Ш.Р. Абдуллин (Владивосток, РФ), Г.Н. Амеличев (Симферополь, РФ), В.Ю. Байбиков (Москва, РФ),
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Russia), Yu.V. Dublyansky (Innsbruck, Austria), V.S. Zhitenev (Moscow, Russia), B. Zissu (Jerusalem, Israel),
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Design: А.V. Nekratova
Издаётся с 2021 г. Периодичность: 3 раза в год.
На обложке: масляные лампы из пещеры Теомим, Израиль (фото Б. Зиссу)
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МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫЙ НАУЧНЫЙ ЖУРНАЛ
С ПЕ ЛЕ ОЛ ОГ ИЯ И С ПЕ ЛЕ СТО ЛО ГИ Я № 1 / 2 02 2
SPELEOLOGY AND SPELESTOLOGY ISSN 2713-0290
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

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Спелеология и спелестология, № 1, 2022 Спелеология
УДК 904:551.435.84(569.4) | Научная статья
ПЕЩЕРА ТЕОМИМ В ИУДЕЙСКИХ ГОРАХ: ПРЕДВАРИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АРХЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ОТЧЁТ
Б. Зиссу1, Э. Кляйн2, Ю. Давидович3, Р. Порат3, 4, Б. Ленгфорд4, Н. Штобер-Зису5,
А. Амир1, М. Ульман3, 4, А. Фрумкин4
1 Институт археологии, Университет им. Бар-Илана, Рамат-Ган, Израиль, bzissu@gmail.com
2 Управление древностей Израиля, Рамат-Ган, Израиль
3 Институт археологии, Еврейский университет в Иерусалиме, Иерусалим, Израиль
4 Центр исследования пещер, Отдел географии, Еврейский университет в Иерусалиме, Иерусалим, Израиль
5 Отдел изучения Израиля, Хайфский университет, Хайфа, Израиль
Пещера Теомим (Пещера Матери Близнецов) — карстовая пещера, расположенная в восточной части Иудей-
ских гор. Впервые пещера была исследована археологами в 1873 г. В дальнейшем здесь были обнаружены много-
численные артефакты каменного, бронзового, железного веков, византийского, римского периодов и др.
Вход в пещеру представляет собой естественное отверстие, расширенное людьми. Он приводит в круп-
ный карстовый зал габаритами около 50×70 м и высотой до 10 м. В результате обрушений свода большая
часть пола зала закрыта глыбовым навалом, на котором накопился слой грунта, голубиного помета и гуано.
В навале доступно некоторое количество проходов, сквозь которые можно пройти в камеры и трещины.
Как показали исследования, такие трещины богаты на археологические находки. Так, в системе трещин
L 3036 были найдены 5 позднеримских-ранневизантийских масляных ламп и керамическая чаша. Авторы под-
робно описывают находки, сделанные в пещере Теомим во время археологических раскопок.
В главном зале пещеры накопилось большое количество кальцитовых отложений. В среднюю бронзу в
его восточной части была заложена каменоломня по добыче кальцитового алебастра, обнаруженная по-
следними исследованиями. Судя по множественным следам инструмента добываемые блоки имели габариты
от нескольких десятков см до 2 м. Забой каменоломни, где прекратилась разработка, представляет собой
4-метровую кальцитовую стену. Сама выработка имеет длину 25 м и ширину до 8 м. До последнего времени
считалось, что все артефакты из кальцитового алебастра, найденные на территории Израиля, были про-
изведены в Египте. Каменоломня в пещере Теомим — это первая подобная выработка, известная в южном
Леванте.
Анализ находок указывает, что впервые люди начали посещать пещеру ещё в Неолите. В среднюю
бронзу пещера активно использовалась для добычи кальцита. Множественные находки монет, оружия и
керамики периода восстания Бар-Кохбы свидетельствуют о том, что в это время пещера использовалась
инсургентами в качестве убежища. В позднеантичное время пещера использовалась в качестве святилища.
Ключевые слова: пещера Теомим, археология, масляные лампы, разработки кальцитового алебастра
UDC 904:551.435.84(569.4) | Original Article
THE TE’OMIM CAVE, JERUSALEM HILLS: A PRELIMINARY ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT
B. Zissu1, E. Klein2, U. Davidovich3, R. Porat3, 4, B. Langford4, N. Shtober-Zisu5, A. Amir1,
M. Ullman3, 4, A. Frumkin4
1 Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, Bar-Ilan University,
Ramat-Gan, Israel
2 Israel Antiquities Authority, Ramat-Gan, Israel
3 Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
4 Cave Research Center, Department of Geography, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
5 Department of Israel Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
The Te’omim cave is situated on the western edge of the Jerusalem Hills. The cave consists of the main hall (ap-
proximately 50×70 meters with a maximum height of about 10 meters). Several passages lead from the main hall to
other small chambers and systems of crevices. The cave detailed description is presented. The Te’omim cave has been
researched by archaeologists since the late 19th century till now. Modern excavations discovered multiple artifacts of
various periods of time, including Neolith, Bronze and Iron Ages, Roman and Byzantine periods and etc. Recent finds
are described in the paper.
In the antique times calcite deposits in the cave main hall were quarried to produce “calcite alabaster”. This is
the first “alabaster” quarry known in the southern Levant. Quarry faces, toolmarks and unfinished blocks remained,
and they are described in the paper.
© Зиссу Б., Кляйн Э., Давидович Ю., Порат Р.,
Ленгфорд Б., Штобер-Зису Н., Амир А.,
Ульман М., Фрумкин А., 2022

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Speleology and Spelestology, № 1, 2022 Speleology
During the Bar-Kokhba revolt the cave served as a shelter by Jewish insurgents. This period is described based on
multiple finds of coins, weapons and pottery.
Key words: the Te’omim cave, archaeology, oil lamps, an eye axe, a “calcite alabaster” quarry
Introduction
The Te’omim Cave is a karst cave locat-
ed on the northern bank of Nahal Hame’ara
(NIG 152049/126028; 31.726209°N, 35.020506°E),
on the western edge of the Jerusalem hills (fig. 1).
The cave was named Mŭghâret Umm et Tûeimîn —
“the cave of the mother of twins” — by local resi-
dents in the nineteenth century [84, р. 129].
The first comprehensive study of the cave was
carried out by the Survey of Western Palestine
team on October 17, 1873 [20, р. 148–149]. The
SWP team mapped out the cave and noted a deep
pit at its northern end. They briefly described local
traditions and customs of the fellahin, who attrib-
uted healing and fertility properties to the spring
that issued in the cave. The fellahin even told the
surveyors a story about how unfaithful wives were
thrown into the pit [19, р. 20–23].
The cave floor was partially excavated in the
late 1920s by the prehistorian René Neuville. He
published mainly the materials collected from
a specific layer found in a small probe excavated
near the entrance to the main chamber. This
layer yielded various pottery sherds, lithics, bone
and stone tools. In accordance with the available
parallels at the time, Neuville asserted that the
finds should be attributed to one period only, his
“Bronze I tardif”, which more or less parallels the
more recent designation “Early Bronze Age”. How-
ever, when examining the materials published, it is
clear that the aforementioned layer contains finds
from at least four different chronological periods:
Neolithic, Chalcolithic (Ghassulian), Early Bronze
Age and Intermediate Bronze Age. The fact that
all these finds were collected from one spatial con-
text points to the stratigraphic mixture so often
acquainted in natural caves. In addition, Neuville
reported finds from the Middle and Late Bronze
Age, Iron Age and the Roman and Byzantine peri-
ods [58].
In the early 1970s, Gideon Mann of the Soci-
ety for the Protection of Nature in Israel studied
the cave. He descended the deep shaft, where he
found passages leading to the inner sections of the
cave. Mann collected pottery, an oil lamp, and frag-
ments of glass vessels, which were dated by Amos
Kloner to the Roman and Byzantine periods [51,
р. 160–164].
Since 2009, the cave has been explored by our
team as a joint project of the Department of Land
of Israel Studies and Archaeology at Bar-Ilan Uni-
versity and the Cave Research Unit at the Hebrew
University. The 2009 season focused on the diffi-
cult-to-access inner chambers of the cave, which
well-preserved archaeological and numismatic
finds indicate was used as a place of refuge by Jew-
ish insurgents at the end of the Bar Kokhba Revolt
[97].
The 2010–2014 explorations focused on the
main chamber of the cave1. The survey included
mapping and penetrating hard-to-reach crevices in
this chamber (as L3036) and near the deep shaft
(as L3004, fig. 2, 3, 7; see below). During the recent
survey numerous finds from various periods were
collected.
Description of the Cave and Main Periods of
Activity
The cave entrance — a natural opening that
was widened by hewing — is located about four
meters above the channel of the wadi. From the en-
trance one descends northward into a spacious hall
(approximately 50×70 meters, with a maximum
height today of about 10 meters) created by karst
dissolution processes. Most of the hall is covered
by a huge pile of rocks produced by the collapse of
the ceiling; on the rocks is an accumulation of soil,
pigeon droppings, and bat guano. Several passag-
es and fissures in the rubble lead to underground
crevices and cavities, rich in archaeological finds
(fig. 2; notice location of various survey units, or
loci, marked in brown).
The recent survey of the main hall uncovered
numerous finds from various periods. The discov-
ery of few typical Yarmukian sherds, concentrated
on the eastern slope (L 3038, 3039) and close to the
southern wall of the hall (L 3021, 3023), makes it
possible to date with more precision the Neolithic
phase observed in the lithic material published by
1 This research was supported by the Israel Science
Foundation, (ISF-Grant No. 104/13). The survey was carried out
by the authors (permits S-161/2010, S-287/2011, S-364/2012;
A-43-2014; S-364-16) on behalf of the Department of Land of
Israel Studies and Archaeology at Bar-Ilan University and the
Cave Research Unit at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, with
assistance from the Jeselsohn Epigraphic Center of Jewish History
at Bar-Ilan University and the Israel Nature and Parks Authority
(INPA). Yinon Shivtiel, Mika Ullman, Jonathan Goldsmith, Amir
Goldman, Shemesh Ya’aran, Yotham and Tamara Zissu participated
in the field work. Conservation of the metal objects was undertaken
by Mimi Lavi at the Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University.
The oil lamps and metal artifacts were drawn by Julia and David
Rudman. The metal artifacts were photographed by Tal Rogovski.
We are grateful to Zvika Tsuk, Menachem Fried and Dekel Gad of the
INPA for their assistance. Nili Ahipaz, Amos Kloner, Marva Balouka,
Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom, Esther Eshel, Christopher Faraone,
Gideon Bohak, Emmanuel Friedheim, Lenn Schramm, Debby Stern,
Nili Graicer and Ortal-Paz Saar also provided valuable advice.
The article is an up to dated, modified version after our
Hebrew article [96].

49
Спелеология и спелестология, № 1, 2022 Спелеология
Neuville, which constitutes the
earliest phase of human occupa-
tion in the cave. The discovery
of numerous sherds typical to
the Ghassulian culture, together
with the absence of sherds and
flints typical to earlier Chal-
colithic cultures, points to the
re-occupation of the cave during
the second half of the fifth mil-
lennium BC, following a gap of
approximately 1500 years. It
seems that another gap followed,
in the first half of the fourth mil-
lennium, before a renewed phase
of occupation took place in the
latter part of the Early Bronze
I, evidenced by sherds and flint
tools. This phase was followed
yet again by a chronological gap,
in the Early Bronze II–III, before
another re-occupation in the In-
termediate Bronze (IB) Age. Pot-
tery sherds of IB Age were found
mostly in the eastern portion
of the main hall, and a cache of
three weapons probably dating
to this time span was found in
L 3004 (see below). The next pe-
riod, the Middle Bronze Age, is
one of the major periods of occu-
pation in the cave, judging from
the amount of pottery sherds
dated to this period scattered all
over the main hall. It seems that
this occupation is connected di-
rectly to the flowstone quarry,
probably functioning at that time
in the eastern portion of the hall
Fig. 1. Location shown on a blank map of Israel, with inset of Deir es-Sheikh 15/12 Sheet, 1:20000. British Mandate Map, 1945
Рис. 1. Расположение пещеры на карте Израиля. Врезка: Дейр эз-Шейх, лист 15/12, 1:20000, British Mandate Map, 1945
Fig. 2. Plan and sections of the Teomim Cave (B. Langford, M. Ullman, A. Klein)
Рис. 2. План и сечения пещеры Теомим (Б. Ленгфорд, М. Ульман, А. Кляйн)

50
Speleology and Spelestology, № 1, 2022 Speleology
(see below). Regarding the Late Bronze and Iron
Ages, no indicative sherds which unambiguously
date to these periods were recognized, although
Neuville mentioned such sherds. This probable gap
in occupation apparently continues into the Per-
sian and Early Hellenistic periods. The Hasmonean
and Early Roman periods are represented by few
coins and fragments of pottery and oil lamps.
In the course of the renewed survey, an exten-
sive assemblage of oil lamps and coins from the
Late Roman period, as well as finds and pottery
from the Byzantine, Islamic and Ottoman periods,
was discovered in the main hall and its ramifica-
tions — (although not in the inner hard-to-access
chambers F and G).
Several passages and crevices underneath the
collapsed boulders lead to underground cavities
and crevices. Approximately 120 well preserved oil
lamps dating to the Late Roman period were dis-
covered in many of these cavities.
One of the cavities is L 3036, a system of in-
terconnected crevices, located underneath large
collapsed boulders in the center of the entrance
hall (fig. 3). In one of its crevices, five Late Ro-
man-Early Byzantine oil-lamps, hidden together
with a MBII bowl, were found in situ (fig. 13, 14).
Three lamps were found underneath the bowl and
two others were located near it. It seems that the
much older bowl was found elsewhere, and inten-
tionally concealed together with the lamps in the
Late Antiquity. In an extremely narrow natural
crevice, located behind a large boulder (L 3049),
four Late Roman — Early Byzantine oil-lamps were
concealed, partly covered by the upper part of a
human skull (fig. 15).
In the southeastern corner of the chamber is a
wide elliptical pit (approximately 12 meters in di-
ameter; L 3007) termed the “large depression”. It is
five meters lower than the rock shelves and is sur-
rounded on almost all sides by rows of stalagmites
and stalactites. The steep walls of the depression
are pocked with narrow, deep crevices in which a
number of lamps from the Late Roman period were
discovered (L 3028). Such lamps were found even
in the narrow crevices leading from a smaller pit,
located some ten meters west of the large depres-
sion, to a series of difficult-to-access inner cavities
(L 3020). A small, artificially widened karst cavi-
ty (Cavity C; L 3003–3018) was discovered north-
east of the “large depression”. Its floor, which is
higher than the present-day floor of the cham-
ber, contains cave sediment. A square pool hewn
Fig. 3. Detailed plan of niche L 3036 (M. Ullman, S. Yaaran, U. Davidovich)
Рис. 3. Детальный план ниши L 3036 (М. Ульман, С. Яаран, Ю. Давидович)

51
Спелеология и спелестология, № 1, 2022 Спелеология
in the chamber collects the water that drips from
the ceiling (fig. 4). The water then flows westward
through a rock-cut canal.
North of cavity C, the eastern (lowest) part of
the large chamber was hewn and dressed for ap-
proximately 25 meters, to a maximum height of
four meters. A flowstone quarry have operated
here [32] (fig. 5, 6).
The Flowstone Quarry
A wide array of vadose calcite speleothems
(chemical cave deposits), such as flowstone, sta-
lagmites and columns had accumulated in various
parts of the main chamber. The flowstone had been
deposited by a sheet of water over a sloping surface
under free-air conditions, prevailing since the cave
emerged above the regional water table, millions of
years ago [33].
The Survey of Western Palestine noted: “The
cave appears to be entirely natural, except near
the reservoir, where the sides of the cave have
been hewn” [20, p. 149]. During our renewed sur-
vey, a quarry was identified in the eastern part of
the cave’s main chamber. Field examination and
drilling revealed that the quarry is entirely within
flowstone, composed of translucent, banded coarse
crystalline calcite, suggesting that it was used in
antiquity as a source of calcite-alabaster. The flow-
stone layering is partly seen in the quarried sur-
faces, while in other surfaces younger flowstone
covers the wall. In many places there are signs of
the cessation of quarrying — scars or ‘negatives’
left on the quarry walls and floor after the removal
of flowstone blocks. Few blocks of flowstone were
never separated, due to fissures or defects in the
bedrock. The cleaving channels — shallow chan-
nels left in the flowstone after the block was sep-
arated — offer an estimate of the dimensions of
blocks extracted, 10’s cm to 2 m in size.
The quarry face, where quarrying had stopped,
is up to 4 m high vertical wall of flowstone, under-
lain by additional flowstone, indicating that the
original flowstone thickness was >4 m. The quarry
is 25 m long and up to 8 m wide. The remaining
walls of un-quarried flowstone decrease in height
away from the central part of the quarry face, allow-
ing us to evaluate the volume of quarried material
and the original form of the flowstone top layer,
which sloped westward. The quarry had produced
c. 200 m3 of raw flowstone. At the highest parts of
the quarry face the flowstone had filled the entire
void up to the cave ceiling. We uncovered various
waste materials related to the quarrying works,
such as flowstone chips. No indication for in situ
production of vessels were observed during our ar-
chaeological survey of the cave (e.g. working tools,
drills), and it seems reasonable to assume that ves-
sel production took place in a proximate subaerial
site.
The nearest excavated Middle Bronze Age sites
are Beth Shemesh [15, with further references]
Fig. 4. The square pool (photo by B. Langford)
Рис. 4. Квадратный бассейн (фото Б. Ленгфорда)
Fig. 5. Part of the quarry, used in antiquity as a source
of calcite speleothems – “alabaster” (photo by B. Zissu)
Рис. 5. Часть античной каменоломни, где добывался
кальцитовый алебастр (фото Б. Зиссу)
Fig. 6. Another part of the ancient quarry
(photo by B. Zissu)
Рис. 6. Другая часть античной каменоломни
(фото Б. Зиссу)

52
Speleology and Spelestology, № 1, 2022 Speleology
and Giv‘at Sharett [5], approximately 5 km to the
west-north-west of the Te’omim Cave, but smaller
Middle Bronze Age sites may be found nearby [e.g.
24; 88]. An abundance of calcite-alabaster objects
from the Middle Bronze Age II–III have been found
at numerous south Levantine sites during archae-
ological excavations conducted over the last cen-
tury [9; 16].
Water flow and dripping is an ongoing process
on the quarried surfaces, where recent flowstone
and other types of dripstone are still deposited to-
day. Small channels have been artificially hewn in
ancient times on some of the quarried surfaces in
order to collect water for human use. A 1 m deep,
21.8 m pool was hewn on the bottom of the quarried
surface to collect the water of the largest dripping
point (so called ‘spring’). The measured drip dis-
charge was 0.9 ml sec-1 in October, the driest month
of the year. It proves to be a permanent source of
drinking water in this dry region. Flowstone depos-
ited over the channels and pool attests to their old
age, although they postdate the quarried surface by
a short or long period, being cut into it.
We dated flowstone which was deposited on
the quarried surface after the cessation of quar-
rying [32]. Our U-Th samples determine the latest
possible time of abandonment of this part of the
quarry. The dating results indicate that a major
quarrying enterprise existed in the Te’omim Cave
prior to 1500 BCE. The Middle Bronze Age II–III
(c. 1750–1550 BCE) was one of the main periods
of occupation of the cave, judging from the large
quantities of pottery sherds from this period scat-
tered all over the main chamber.
Numerous Middle Bronze Age II–III south
Levantine sites produced abundant calcite-al-
abaster objects, as found during archaeological
excavations conducted over the last century [9;
16]. These three independent lines of evidence
indicate that the Te’omim Cave quarry, and possi-
bly other local quarries as well, were active during
the Middle Bronze Age. It may be inferred that
the continuous flow of Egyptian calcite-alabaster
objects into the southern Levant during this pe-
riod stimulated attempts to find local deposits of
calcite-alabaster in karst caves. The use of local
calcite-alabaster sources may have demanded the
transfer of technological knowledge from Egypt,
but this and other issues necessitate further re-
search. The tens cm size of blocks from Te’omim
Fig. 7. Plan and sections of L 3004 (M. Ullman, S. Yaaran, U. Davidovich)
Рис. 7. План и сечения L 3004 (М. Ульман, С. Яаран, Ю. Давидович)

53
Спелеология и спелестология, № 1, 2022 Спелеология
Cave indicate that during the Middle Bronze Age,
local calcite-alabaster was used mainly to produce
small items.
Local calcite-alabaster was probably still used
during the Roman period, as indicated by the
Herodian bathtub from Cypros, (produced of local
calcite-alabaster) and possibly by the Late Roman
remains which abound on much of the quarried
surface in Te’omim Cave.
The north-eastern part of the main chamber
An easily traversed path on the northern side
of the quarry area, among the stalagmites and pil-
lars, leads to corridor D, a wide, high northward
passage. The row of stalagmites and pillars divide
the main chamber from the corridor, forming a
kind of natural monumental entrance, leading into
corridor D, niche L 3004, and deep pit E.
Late Roman-Early Byzantine period coins
were found scattered on the slanted rock surface
ascending towards this entrance (loci 3001, 3002,
and 2019). Our survey turned up 33 bronze coins,
from the reign of Commodus (177–192 CE) through
that of Arcadius (383–395 CE).
In the eastern wall of corridor D, about 15 me-
ters north of the “monumental” entrance, and four
meters before the deep pit E there is a recess ap-
proximately four meters wide (L 3004; fig. 7). The
floor of this recess is about four meters lower than
the level of passage D. The bottom of the recess is
covered by collapsed rocks and boulders, contain-
ing numerous deep crevices (fig. 8). Deep, narrow
crevices are also visible in the natural walls of the
niche and its ceiling. Over 30 oil-lamps from the
Late Roman-Early Byzantine period were discov-
ered, concealed in the ramifications of this recess,
and its ceiling (fig. 9, 10, 11). In the southern
section of the niche floor, a narrow vertical shaft
about two meters deep leads to a wide crevice at
a lower level (L 3030; see fig. 2, 7, 8, 10). Many oil
lamps and a jug were buried here, too, despite the
great difficulty of reaching this lower level. In one
of the narrow fissures, Late Roman oil-lamps were
found together with four much earlier artifacts: an
intact EB (?) juglet, and three Intermediate Bronze
Age metal weapons (see below).
Bar Kokhba refuge in the northern passage
Approximately four meters north of L 3004,
the passage is blocked by a deep karst pit (E) with
a diameter ranging from four meters at the top to
six meters at the bottom. The shaft extends some
15 meters below the floor of passage D; its top is
about three meters above the passage ceiling. The
total difference in elevation from bottom to top is
approximately 23 meters.
When the passage resumes north of the shaft,
there are three narrow, hard-to-reach tunnels lead-
ing to the inner section of the cave (chambers G
and F). An outstanding assemblage of finds —
hoards of coins, two spears, fragmentary human
bones, pottery and oil lamps — hidden here at the
end of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE) was
discovered in situ in 2009.
The assemblage included three hoards of coins
hidden by people who found refuge in the inner
section of the cave. The first hoard, consisted of
83 silver coins (20 tetradrachms and 63 denarii) re-
struck by the rebels administration. This is the only
hoard of Bar Kokhba silver coins ever discovered in
a licensed archaeological exploration. The second
cache comprised 10 different coins. This hoard is
significant because it is the first time Bar Kokh-
ba’ coins were discovered alongside earlier Judean
coins. The third hoard consisted of 24 coins — of
gold, silver and bronze, covering the period from
Tiberius to Hadrian [97].
Oil Lamps
Over 120 well preserved oil-lamps and addi-
tional fragments were collected in the 2010–2016
Fig. 8. Overall view of upper part of L 3004
(phot by B. Zissu)
Рис. 8. Общий вид верхней части L 3004
(фото Б. Зиссу)
Fig. 9. Oil lamp in situ in niche L 3004
(photo by B. Zissu)
Рис. 9. Масляная лампа in situ в нише L 3004
(фото Б. Зиссу)

54
Speleology and Spelestology, № 1, 2022 Speleology
seasons from all sections of the cave, with the ex-
ception of the inner chambers G and F.
Over ninety of the lamps were of regional styles
prevalent from the late second to fourth centuries
CE, that is, the Late Roman and Early Byzantine
period (fig. 12). All of these lamps had been de-
liberately deposited in narrow, deep crevices: near
the deep pit and in various parts of the main hall.
Most of these crevices are accessible only by diffi-
cult crawling. We had to use long poles with iron
hooks to extricate most of the lamps; long poles
had probably been used to insert them in the crev-
ices initially. The largest oil-lamps concentrations
were found in two main locations, as explained
above: in crevice L 3004 and its ramifications and
in crevice L 3036.
The fact that these lamps had been thrust into
and buried deep in these hidden, hard-to-reach
crevices suggests that illuminating the dark cave
was not their sole purpose. In our opinion the cave
functioned as a place of devotion (see discussion
below).
The oil-lamps from the Late Roman period dis-
covered in the crevices of the Te’omim Cave repre-
sent various types, prevalent in the region of Jeru-
salem and the Judean Shephelah (fig. 10, 12). Most
lamps fit into five main types:
Type 1 — “Roman Provincial Lamps”: These
mold-made lamps have a squat, rounded body, a
flat base, small rounded nozzle, small mouth, and a
sunken discus with a small filling-hole (fig. 11:1).
In many examples the discus has been deliberately
broken off (except for that of erotic lamp shown
here). The shoulders of the lamps are plain, or carry
an ovolo or a triangles motif, schematic double-ax-
es and two volutes, which usually flank the nozzle.
Lamps of this kind are common in assemblages of
the second-third centuries CE: in Bar-Kokhba ref-
uge caves of the Judean Desert, as well as in tombs
and various domestic contexts [92; see 57, р. 160–
161 for a general description
of this type and a discussion of
the issue of the broken discus].
D. Barag and M. Hershkovitz
suggested that they appear af-
ter 115 CE. [6, р. 127].
Type 2 — “Transitional
Type”: Lamps of this category
have a rounded body, a flat base
(sometimes bearing a producer’s
mark), small rounded nozzle, and
a large filling-hole (fig. 11:2).
On the shoulders there is some
form of decoration, reminiscent
of motifs found on the Roman
Provincial Lamps: vestigial vo-
lutes, which usually flank the
nozzle, schematic ovolo, trian-
gles, rays or double-axes. We re-
gard these lamps as a transition-
al type, which bridges the gap
between the Roman Provincial
Lamp with its small filling hole
(type no. 1, above) and the local
lamps of the third-fourth centu-
ries, which were originally pro-
duced with a large filling hole
(especially type no. 2, below).
Lamps of this type were found in
assemblages of the third-fourth
centuries CE in the Jerusalem
area [e.g. 36, рl. LXXXIII: 3].
Type 3 — “Ovoid Lamps”:
This group of lamps is fashioned
in a mold, with a squat ovoid
body (almost lacking a nozzle),
small knob handles, and a large
Fig. 10. Intact oil lamps discovered in the Te’omim Cave (mostly in L 3004)
in the 2010 season (photo by B. Zissu)
Рис. 10. Неповреждённые масляные лампы, найденные в пещере Теомим
(в основном в нише L 3004) в 2010 г. (фото Б. Зиссу)

55
Спелеология и спелестология, № 1, 2022 Спелеология
filling hole (fig. 11:3). The ornamentation some-
times includes degraded volutes flanking the noz-
zle and radial decorations on the shoulders. This
group is sometimes referred to as “Karm a-Sheikh”
lamps. This name is derived from a group of buri-
al caves excavated during the British Mandate at
Karm a-Sheikh (the Rockefeller Museum com-
pound). The caves were part of the northern ne-
cropolis of Aelia Capitolina [7]. Lamps of this type
have been found mainly in the Jerusalem area: at
el-Jib, Tel e-Nasbeh, Motza ‘Illit, Gezer, and Hurvat
Burgin. The suggested date of this group of lamps
is the third to early fourth centuries CE [73, р. 99–
100; 41, р. 104–105].
Type 4 — “Ramat Mamre” lamps (fig. 11:4).
This group of lamps is characterized by an ovoid
body, a small pyramidal handle, and molded geo-
metrical, zoomorphic, or floral designs on the
shoulder. Here, too, the filling hole is large. The
base is ring-shaped. Such lamps have been found
near Aelia Capitolina and in the Judean Shephelah
(in the Beit Guvrin–Eleutheropolis area). Similar
ones have been discovered in the waste pits of the
workshop at Beit Nattif (cistern I). Their designa-
tion comes from the large group of lamps of this
type discovered at the site of the Ramat Mamre
cultic fair, some two kilometers north of Hebron
[49, рl. 88]. They have been found at many other
Fig. 11. Plate showing five main types of oil-lamps (E. Klein, J. Rudman, B. Zissu)
Рис. 11. Основные типы масляных ламп (Е. Кляйн, Ю. Рудман, Б. Зиссу)

56
Speleology and Spelestology, № 1, 2022 Speleology
sites as well, including Tel e-Nasbeh, Gezer, Ramat
Rahel, Beit Nattif, Kh. Hubeilleh, Beit Fajar, Hurvat
‘Ethri, Hurvat Burgin, and the Beit Guvrin necrop-
olis. The suggested date for this type of lamp, too,
is the third to early fourth centuries CE [73, р. 99,
101–102; 41, р. 100–103].
Type 5a — Beit Nattif Lamps (fig. 11:5). This
group of decorated mold-made lamps is charac-
terized by a large, decorated, bow-shaped nozzle,
a large central filling hole surrounded by a ridge,
and a shoulder decorated with various complex
patterns-geometric, floral, braided, and sometimes
zoomorphic. The nozzle is separated from the body
of the lamp by a double-rope pattern. The lamps
have pyramidal handles and a reddish slip on their
upper part. This group was first named in 1934
during the excavation of cisterns that had been
used as waste pits for a lamp and clay-figurine
workshop at nearby Beit Nattif. Fragments of stone
molds were discovered together with the figurines
and lamps. None of the lamps found there showed
traces of soot. Coins discovered in the cisterns in-
dicate that the workshop operated in the third to
early fourth centuries CE [8]. Although wasters of
two types of lamps were found in these cisterns,
only the type under discussion, found in cistern II,
was named for the site. This was one of the most
widespread types of lamps in use in Judea by the
Late Roman period and beginning of the Byzantine
period [73, р. 104–105; 80, р. 63–68; 41, р. 116–
127].
Type 5b — This group is known as “Related
Beit Nattif Lamps” lamps (fig. 11:6). These lamps
have the same characteristics as the regular Beit
Nattif lamps, but their nozzle is shorter, rounded,
and the filling hole is large. Similar lamps have
been discovered in Cistern I at Beit Nattif and are
common elsewhere in Judea. In our opinion they
should be regarded as a variant of the Beit Nattif
lamps (Type 5a above). A reexamination of the
original report, has shown that stone molds for the
production of this variant were found in Cistern
II, proving that it was produced at the Beit Nattif
workshop [8, рl. XII: 5, 7]. The suggested date for
Types 5a and 5b is the third to early fourth centu-
ries CE
Three Metal Weapons and an Intact Juglet
from L 3004
An assemblage of four ancient items was found
alongside three Late Antique oil-lamps in the
southern portion of L 3004, inside a very narrow
crevice, reachable only by stretching out a hand
between the boulders. The assemblage includes
three bronze objects — an axe (B.957) and two
socketed spearheads (B.958–959) — as well as an
intact juglet (B.956) (fig. 16–17).
The axe is a complete and well-preserved ex-
ample of the famous socketed “eye axe” type
[e.g., 94, р. 59, 168–171]. The specimen is 125 mm
long and 81 mm wide, and the “eyes” are almost
identical (maximum dimensions: 44×36 mm and
42×36 mm). The socket is elliptical in cross-section,
narrowing from 29×19 mm at one end to 20×13 mm
at the other. Only a few eye axes have been found
Fig. 12. Intact oil lamps discovered in the Te’omim Cave
(mostly in L 3036) in the 2012 season (photo by B. Zissu)
Рис. 12. Неповреждённые масляные лампы,
найденные в пещере Теомим (в основном в системе
трещин L 3036) в 2012 г. (фото Б. Зиссу)
Fig. 13. Oil-lamps and a MBII bowl in situ in crevice
L 3036 (photo by B. Langford)
Рис. 13. Масляные лампы и чаша MBII in situ
в трещине L 3036 (фото Б. Ленгфорда)

57
Спелеология и спелестология, № 1, 2022 Спелеология
at Canaanite sites [67, р. 51–53, fenestrated axe
type 2; 55, р. 51–67, pl. 15: 225–230, both with
references]; the only complete example of an eye
axe that derives from a clear chrono-stratigraphic
context comes from the burial ground at Ma’abarot
[23, р. 35–37, fig. 12:12, pl. 12: 9 (Cave 6)] and is
dated to the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA), while
the general evidence points to the very late third
millennium as the time-span in which this type ex-
isted [55, р. 58–67].
The two medium-sized socketed spearheads are
similar in their overall appearance but vary slightly
in dimensions. The longer specimen is preserved to
a length of 235 mm, of which the blade constitutes
165 mm. The shorter spearhead is preserved to a
length of 198 mm, while the blade itself measures
144 mm and has a bit of its tip cut off. Remains
of wood, possibly from the original spear, are still
visible in the socket of the larger spearhead. Both
sockets were broken in antiquity before the spec-
imens were cached, thus preventing their classi-
fication into specific subtypes, which are usually
based on total length and the ratio of socket size
to head size [67, р. 88–92]. Medium-sized or large
socketed spearheads (length of head > 12 cm) are
common in the northern Levant, but are rare in
the southern Levant [67, р. 88–99]. Interestingly,
two medium-sized spearheads with broken sock-
ets were found in tomb 84 (chamber C) at Megiddo
together with a eye axe [35, р. 113–115, pl. 163:
8–10] — a combination similar to the present one.
Philip [67, р. 99–101] suggests that medium sized
to large socketed spearheads should be dated to
the early second millennium BCE, though it is pos-
sible that they might have appeared earlier, in the
late third millennium BCE.
The juglet was made by hand by a rather coarse
method. It is pinkish to light brown in color, and
contains straw as well as sand-sized and larg-
er stones as temper. The surface is unsmoothed
and undecorated. The juglet is 107 mm high and
103 mm wide at the middle, it has no neck, and the
Fig. 14. Three oil-lamps (on the left) were found underneath the MBII bowl; two oil-lamps (on the right) were placed
near it (photo by B. Zissu)
Рис. 14. Слева – три масляные лампы, найденные под чашей MBII; справа – две масляные лампы, лежавшие рядом
с ней (фото Б. Зиссу)

58
Speleology and Spelestology, № 1, 2022 Speleology
rim is slightly everted, with the mouth diameter
reaching 68 mm. The sole loop handle connects the
rim with the body and extends slightly above the
rim. A few short incisions are located at the con-
nection between the handle and the rim, but it is
unclear whether these are decorative or function-
al. In its overall shape, the vessel does not resemble
typical IBA juglets or handled goblets; it is most
likely paralleled in Early Bronze I assemblages (cf.
juglets from Jericho tomb A94 in [43: fig. 13, 14:
16].
The question of how these four items ended
up in the same narrow crevice together with three
Late Roman lamps, with no clear separation be-
tween the items, is hard to answer. If the juglet is
indeed from Early Bronze I, then the assemblage is
composed of items dating from three different pe-
riods. Since it is inconceivable that three deposits
were independently placed in the same inaccessi-
ble crevice, we suggest that the four ancient items
were originally placed elsewhere in the cave (in
the case of the three IBA weapons, possibly as part
of a “warrior grave”; see [67: 162–169]), and were
gathered and re-deposited in the Late Roman-Early
Byzantine period, together with the oil lamps, as
part of a cultic activity (to be discussed below). An
interesting parallel is the re-use of Neolithic axe-
heads as amulets in Roman Imperial times [26].
A Cave Sanctuary or Cultic Site (?)
The oil-lamps from the Late Roman and Early
Byzantine period discovered in the Te’omim Cave
had been deliberately hidden in narrow, deep, hard
to-reach karstic crevices. Despite the lack of addi-
tional epigraphic or artistic finds, we assume that
the oil-lamps were concealed as part of certain
cultic practices that took place in the cave in the
Late Antiquity. The oil-lamps were probably votive
offerings presented by visitors and were therefore
buried in lieu of disposal.
It appears that the dark Teomim Cave, with its
deep pit and water spring was dedicated to a mys-
tery cult, a chtonic deity or other mythical figure.
In the Greek and Roman milieu, deep, dark cav-
erns often served as cultic sites for deities, as De-
meter, Persephone, Hermes, Dionysos, Apollo, and
sometimes nymphs and muses. Shafts, pits, water
sources, wells and caverns were viewed as possible
entrances to the netherworld.
Although in antiquity, oil-lamps were used in
many different rites [22], the burying of oil lamps
Fig. 15. Four oil-lamps, found together with an upper part of a human skull in crevice L 3049 (photo by B. Zissu)
Рис. 15. Четыре масляные лампы, найденные вместе с верхней частью человеческого черепа в трещине L 3049
(фото Б. Зиссу)

59
Спелеология и спелестология, № 1, 2022 Спелеология
inside a dark cavern and especially close to a deep
pit suggests that the lamps were used as part of a
certain cultic activity which unfortunately we can-
not identify precisely at this stage of the research
[96; 98; for an extensive discussion of venerated
caves in the Greek and Roman world see 72, р. 152–
173; 25].
This hypothesis is based on the nature of the
finds in the Teomim Cave and on similar rituals
described in the written sources [e.g. 79, р. 4,
1–8; 64; for Greek papyri describing usage of oil-
lamps in magical procedures, see discussion in 52:
93–95].
Deposits of oil-lamps in pits located within
active or abandoned sacred precincts, often in or
near wells and other water sources are known from
other sites in the Greek and Roman world. The list
is long, and includes the “Fountain of the Lamps”
at Corinth [89; 90, р 26–33; 34], the spring of Anna
Perenna in Rome [52, р. 87–88], the temenos of De-
meter and Persephone at Cnidus [59, р. 393–396],
the mysteries of Melikertes-Palaimon in the Sanc-
tuary of Poseidon at Isthmia [12; 13, р. 2–3, 92],
the Temple of Cybele in Lyon [37], cisterns within
the former sacred precinct at Nemea [54, р. 57–59],
Delos [14, р. 283] Athens [76, n. 26] and Cyrene,
[91, р. 21] among other examples.
Similar deposits from the Late Antiquity were
found also in our region, in the well of the sacred
precinct of Ramat Mamre [49], at the sacellum un-
derneath the Bet Guvrin amphitheater [45, р. 93–
95, 100–101], at the sanctuary of Pan at Paneas/
Caesarea Philippi [10, р. 36–40], at the bath com-
plex of Hammat Gader [39, р. 208–211; 18, р. 319–
322] and underneath the hippodrome of Gerasa
[60, р. 59, 71].
Fig. 16. Photos of three bronze objects (an “eye axe”
and two socketed spearheads) and an intact juglet found
together with three Late Roman oil-lamps in a narrow
crevice on floor of L3004 (photo by T. Rogovski)
Рис. 16. Три бронзовых предмета («топор
с отверстием» и два втульчатых наконечника копий)
и неповреждённый кувшинчик, найденные вместе
с тремя позднеримскими масляными лампами в узкой
трещине в полу L 3004 (фото Т. Роговски)
Fig. 17. Drawing of the “eye axe”, two socketed spear-
heads and juglet from L 3004 (drawing by Ju. Rudman,
D. Rudman)
Рис. 17. Зарисовка «топора с отверстием», двух
втульчатых копейных наконечника и кувшинчика из
L 3004 (выполнено Ю. Рудман, Д. Рудман)

60
Speleology and Spelestology, № 1, 2022 Speleology
Despite the various sources and many archae-
ological parallels, it is impossible to know exact-
ly how the cultic rituals relating to the oil-lamps
were performed.
B.A. Robinson’s detailed discussion of the ritu-
al uses of caves in Greece (esp. Pitsa and Vari) and
Italy (as Locri Epizefiri) and their function as plac-
es of veneration is instructive [72, p. 164]:
“Certain patterns become clear. Almost all sa-
cred caves had a water source within them, and
many had statuesque stalactite formations that
were prone to interpretation as sacred signs”. In
addition, Robinson discusses the assemblages of
ex-votos typically found in these caves.
Some support for the identification of this cave
as a site for the cult of Demeter and Persephone
(i.e., as a possible site for the Thesmophoria fertili-
ty ceremony) is its name: Umm et Tûeimîn (“moth-
er of twins”). The legend associated with the cave,
tells of a barren woman who drank water dripping
from the cave ceiling and subsequently bore twins
[20, р. 148–149; 87]. Perhaps the association of
the cave’s name with a woman and the legends re-
lated to female fertility are distant echoes of fer-
tility rites that took place there during the Late
Roman period.
Another possibility suggested by the Arabic
name of the cave is that it was a sanctuary dedicat-
ed to the Dioscuri, the mythical twins Castor and
Pollux [63, р. 484]. Because their myth includes
a descent and return from the netherworld, the
twins were regarded as chthonic heroes, connected
to Demeter and Persephone [86, р. 162; 56, р. 77,
299; 81; 82].
If our assumption is correct and the Te’omim
Cave indeed served for the performing of rituals in
honor of certain deities from the later part of the
2nd century CE to the 4th century CE, we have here
evidence of ethnic and cultural changes in rural
Judea after the Bar Kokhba Revolt, when the Jews
abandoned the region and the area was occupied
by pagan settlers, of various origins.
According to the last coin, a terminus post
quem of the cultic activity would be the reign of
Arcadius (383–395 CE). This date is also reflected
by the oil lamps — some types are dated to the
2nd century CE, but the vast majority is from the
3rd–4th centuries CE. In our opinion, the cultic —
apparently pagan — activity continued during the
4th century, unaffected by the Christian rule. The
acceptance and continuation of pagan practices is
typical to the “religious landscape” of the 4th cen-
tury CE [11, р. 632–647]. It seems that the pagan
cult was apparently suppressed only following the
Theodosian Code (391–392 CE) who banned all ex-
pressions of pagan “superstition” [30, р. 548–558;
66, р. 472–476].
Summary
The recent explorations undertaken at the
Te’omim Cave uncovered numerous finds, repre-
senting various periods of human activity, from the
Neolithic period to present times. Remains from
three periods are especially interesting:
1. The Middle Bronze Age, when an extensive
quarry for the extraction of “calcite-alabaster”
operated in the cave. Until now, calcite-alabaster
artifacts from our region were commonly attribut-
ed to Egyptian sources. For the first time, a quarry
of ‘calcite-alabaster’ was identified in the southern
Levant.
2. The Bar-Kokhba Revolt, represented by an
impressive assemblage of finds well preserved in
the inner chambers of the cave. Hoards of coins,
weapons and pottery vessels were hidden by Jew-
ish insurgents who found refuge in the cave at the
end of the revolt, c. 135–136 CE.
3. The Late Antiquity, when the cave and espe-
cially the deep pit and inner spring functioned as a
sanctuary, perhaps dedicated to a chtonic deity or
other mythical character.
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