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Correlates of adolescents’ STEM career aspirations: the importance of academic motivation, academic identity, and gender
Abstract
The current study focuses on how academic motivation, academic identity, and gender work in concert to predict STEM career aspirations. We examined these relations in a sample of adolescents who predominantly identified as East Asian American (61%), which afforded insight into how career decision-making operates among students who are not well represented in the academic motivation literature. Participants were 629 adolescents (Mage = 16.09) who attended a US high school. Findings demonstrated that both facets of academic motivation (i.e., STEM self-expectancy and STEM value) were indirectly associated with STEM career interest via STEM identity. The link between STEM identity and STEM career interest was significantly stronger for girls than it was for boys. Although analyses revealed few ethnic differences, the hypothesized mediation model explained less variance for East Asian American participants than it did for participants from other ethnic backgrounds. These findings have theoretical implications for models of STEM identity development and applied implications for interventions that seek to reduce gender disparities in STEM fields.
... The educators of these programs may be certified teachers, but it is common for these programs to employ educators who do not have teaching credentials (Blanchard et al., 2020). These informal STEM experiences in afterschool and other out of school time spaces can have a positive effect on student interest in STEM (Chittum et al., 2017;Öndeş, 2024;Xia et al., 2024;Young et al., 2017) and STEM careers (Chittum et al., 2017;Dabney et al., 2012;Öndeş, 2024;Sahin et al., 2014;Wulf et al., 2010;Young et al., 2017;Xia et al., 2024), which are strong predictors for pursuing and obtaining a STEM degree (Maltese & Tai, 2010;Myint & Robnett, 2024;Tai et al., 2006;Zhao et al., 2024) A national study of afterschool STEM programming which explored 158 afterschool programs in 11 states found that STEM knowledge and practices had the strongest effect on young people's STEM attitudes and twenty-first century skills. However, this domain was the most difficult for afterschool STEM programs to master . ...
... The content is timely and important to teach young people because the US is suffering from a lack of cybersecurity professionals (National Academy of Sciences, 2018). Educating young children in STEM in an afterschool setting can positively increase their attitudes toward STEM (Myint & Robnett, 2024;Xia et al., 2024;Zhao et al., 2024) at a time when their disciplinary preferences and career aspirations are forming (Tran, 2018). ...
Online professional development (OPD) is a popular professional learning option, especially for those with monetary and time constraints such as afterschool educators. This study reports on the design, implementation, and evaluation of an OPD on preparing 18 afterschool educators to teach a content-heavy, transmedia, STEM curriculum on cryptology and cybersecurity to 223 students. The design of our OPD is grounded in andragogy, incorporates OPD best practices, and uses a community of inquiry and online interaction framework. We evaluated the OPD on all four levels (reaction, learning, transfer, and results) of Kirkpatrick’s (Training and Development Journal, 1979) evaluation framework. Educators in general had positive reactions to the OPD, and while reporting they were comfortable with the content, still expressed the desire to review trickier concepts before implementing. When implementing, educators reported they retained content, but still struggled with difficult concepts. Eighteen educators completed the OPD with 17 implementing in their program. One hundred percent of educators who started the curriculum completed it with their students. Students’ knowledge assessment scores significant increased (Mpre = 5.51, SDpre = 1.79, Mpost = 7.46, SDpos t = 2.39, t = 9.07, df = 143, p < 0.001). Suggested strategies for designers of OPDs with similar curricular and program needs are included.
... Third, in the between-network validity study, the present study focused solely on academic engagement, teacher support, and EFL achievement. Future endeavours could expand the scope of theoretically pertinent constructs by exploring the linkages between the seven subtypes of academic motivation and other outcomes, such as psychological well-being [78], goal orientation and academic well-being [86], achievement emotions [87], and educational aspirations [88]. ...
Inspired by self-determination theory (SDT), the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) was developed to measure students’ learning motivation. While the AMS has been widely validated and used in educational contexts, it has generally overlooked the domain-specific nature of academic motivation, particularly in learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in China, home to the world’s largest population of EFL learners. This study sought to adapt the AMS and substantiate its validity using both within-network and between-network approaches with a sample of 1,390 Chinese secondary EFL learners. Results from item analysis, internal consistency, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that the 28-item EFL-specific AMS exhibits robust psychometric properties, characterised by a seven-factor structure, and demonstrates invariance across gender and grade levels. Structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses further indicated that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations are positively correlated with perceived teacher support, engagement, and achievement, whereas amotivation is inversely associated with these outcomes. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are also discussed.
... In addition, mathematics achievement directly influences STEM career interest (β = 0.78). The most recent study has concluded that both academic achievement and motivation significantly impact students interest in STEM career (Myint and Robnett 2024). ...
There is a disparity between the number of graduates and the demand for professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)-related fields globally. This gap underscores the importance of understanding and addressing the factors that drive student interest in the STEM career. Consequently, the education sector around the world is increasingly focused on identifying and improving these influencing factors to better align educational outcomes with the needs of the STEM industry. Thus, this study examined the cognitive (mathematics knowledge, science knowledge, and academic achievement), motivational (self-efficacy and outcome expectation), and socioeconomic status (parents’ education and family income) factors involved in predicting student interest in pursuing STEM careers. The data were conducted from tests, questionnaires, and documents from grade 10 and 11 students (n = 738) in Indonesia. In addition, two theoretical models (i.e., Models 1 and 2) were developed and were tested using structural equation modeling. The results showed that both models met the required standards for good fit, but Model 2 fit the data better overall, while Model 1 was only slightly below the ideal range for one measure (RMSEA). We found that motivational and cognitive factors were crucial predictors in shaping student interest in general STEM and STEM discipline–specific fields. A strong indirect effect was found in the relationship between self-efficacy and career interest through the outcome expectation factor, and the indirect effect of mathematics and science knowledge on interest in STEM careers through academic achievement is an important concern. Similar and different factors are discussed in terms of student interest in general STEM-related fields and STEM discipline–specific careers.
... The study findings by Robnett and Leaper [26] showed a gender difference in STEM-related career interest in high school and suggested that social identities and self-concepts play a substantial role in shaping the STEM career choices of young individuals. Ketenci et al [28] and Myint and Robnett [29] also reported gender differences choice on STEM career attainment. Kızılay and Yamak [30] employed the Career Interest Scale for STEM Fields [31] as data collection tool and revealed a gender disparity among high school students, in favour of male students. ...
The main objective of this study was to investigate the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) career interests of secondary school students in Portugal. Data were collected from a sample of 190 twelfth grade students, consisting of 106 females and 84 males, using the STEM Career Interest Survey. The results showed that interest in careers in engineering tended to be lower than interest in mathematics, science, and technology among secondary school students. The study also found a gender gap in students' interest in science, engineering, and technology careers. Female students were less interested in engineering and technology-related careers than their male counterparts, but more interested in science-related careers. These findings can inform education policy makers, curriculum developers, teachers, and researchers about the importance of STEM education in nurturing and cultivating students' interest in STEM fields.
... Academic identities have been found to predict students' motivation and success (e.g., Cohen & Garcia, 2008;Oyserman et al., 2006). Research indicates identification with pSTEM enhances youths' motivation in those subjects during middle and high school (e.g., Lewis et al, 2017;Master et al., 2016;Myint & Robnett, 2023). Students gain this sense of belonging or identification with a group when they perceive themselves as similar to people associated with a subject area. ...
Nerd-genius stereotypes about people in the physical sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics (pSTEM) are barriers to getting many adolescent girls interested in pSTEM. Endorsing these stereotypes may undermine youths’ pSTEM identity especially when they are incongruent with their self-concepts—possibly more likely for girls than boys. Conversely, pSTEM identity may strengthen when stereotypes are congruent—possibly more for boys than girls. We tested these premises among 310 adolescents. Novel contributions of the study include the separate evaluation of youths’ endorsement of four stereotypes about persons in pSTEM (geniuses, awkward, unattractive, unsuccessful at dating) and the separate consideration of two facets of self-concepts (competence and importance) in each stereotyped domain. Factor analyses confirmed the four-factor structure for self-concepts but indicated a two-factor structure for stereotypes (nerd [awkward, unattractive, unsuccessful at dating] and genius). Students’ pSTEM identity was based on their felt typicality with persons in pSTEM fields. Our results generally confirmed our hypothesized model for self-perceived competence but not for importance. Congruence predicted higher pSTEM identity. Conversely, incongruence predicted lower pSTEM identity.
This longitudinal phenomenological case study examines a science outreach program called iBEARS from undergraduate mentors' perceptions of their expectation for success, value in the experience, and knowledge gained. Undergraduates ( n = 24) mentored K‐12 classrooms through biology research projects, participated in pre‐ and post‐questionnaires, and follow‐up interviews 4 years later ( n = 4). We found that prementoring themes focused on expectancy for successful and enjoyable outreach experiences and gaining skills for future careers. Postmentoring, undergraduates emphasized enjoying the experience and reinforced research capabilities. Follow‐up interviews revisited mentoring skills' utility for current/future careers. Additionally, they expressed mentoring and providing value to society as part of their identities. Perceptions of their own learning as a result of teaching others also became a valued aspect of the experience. Strong perspectives of value and personal importance may have overshadowed cost. Future research could utilize cost–benefit analysis to explore these constructs in combination.
Gender differences in creative thinking competency, career interest, and situated expectancy‐value beliefs in STEM, have been widely studied separately. This study brings these lines of research together by examining gender differences in the association between adolescents' perceived opportunities for creative thinking, creative thinking competency belief, and career interest in STEM, as well as the mediating role of STEM situated expectancy‐value beliefs. Results from structural equation models (SEMs) with 737 middle/high school students attending the Prefreshman Engineering Program (PREP) in the Southwestern United States showed that perceived opportunities for creative thinking in STEM education settings were positively associated with creative thinking competency belief and career interest in STEM, after controlling for pre‐measures and background characteristics. Multigroup SEM analyses indicated that there were no significant gender differences in the relationship between perceived opportunities for creative thinking in STEM and the two examined STEM outcomes in our student sample. A set of mediation analyses demonstrated that STEM expectancy belief, intrinsic value, and utility value serve as key mediators linking perceived opportunities for creative thinking in STEM to student STEM outcomes. However, only the indirect effect of perceived opportunities for creative thinking in STEM on creative thinking competency belief through STEM expectancy belief was significant for both girls and boys. The mediating effects of STEM intrinsic value on both outcomes and the mediating effect of STEM utility value on STEM career interest were only significant for boys and not girls. Taken together, the findings of this study advance our understanding of the benefits of opportunities for creative thinking in STEM for middle/high school students and the underlying mechanisms by which creative‐supporting contexts have influence on students STEM outcomes differently for girls and boys.
Women and underrepresented minoritized (URM) persons remain marginalized in physical science, technology, engineering, and math (pSTEM). Relative to non-URM men, URM women may experience a double disadvantage based on their gender and race whereby they observe few same-gender and few same-race role models in pSTEM while additionally internalizing stereotypes linking pSTEM with non-URM men. Our hypothesized model was partly supported in a sample of undergraduates ( N = 1,068; 68% women, 44% URM). First, perceiving same-gender or same-race pSTEM role models predicted lower explicit stereotypes among women and URM individuals regarding gender and race, respectively. Second, explicit and implicit associations linking pSTEM with men and White/Asian persons predicted (a) lower pSTEM identity among women and URM students and (b) higher identity among men and non-URM students. Finally, both implicit and explicit pSTEM identity positively predicted expectancy–value beliefs.
Background
The underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields is well documented in developed countries, and yet public discussion of gender disparities in STEM in China is still in its nascent stage. Endorsement of traditional gender role beliefs and conformity to social norms are pertinent to Chinese culture, which may even exacerbate the gender disparities in STEM engagement. Grounded in social cognitive career theory, the present study drew on a national sample of secondary school students ( N = 3020) in China to estimate gender disparities in self-efficacy, interest, and aspirations in STEM and examine how cultural and gender norms influence STEM engagement.
Results
The proposed sequential mediation model was supported, in which girls were more likely to show lower levels of self-efficacy than boys; this was associated with lower interest in STEM and lower motivation to pursue STEM careers. The results also supported the moderating effect of traditional gender role beliefs and found that gender differences in self-efficacy, interest, and aspirations in STEM were more apparent among students who strongly endorsed stereotypical views of male and female roles.
Conclusions
The findings provide important implications for efforts to improve girls’ access to STEM education through curriculum enrichment and out-of-school time programs to bridge the gender gap in STEM. Access to female role models and gender-responsive pedagogy is also essential to boost girls’ self-efficacy in STEM and eradicate traditional gender role beliefs among all students.
Relevance interventions have shown a great potential to foster motivation and achievement (Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016). Yet, further research is warranted to test how such interventions can be successfully implemented in practice. We conducted a cluster-randomized trial in ninth-grade mathematics classrooms to test the effectiveness of a relevance intervention, which was shown to be efficacious when implemented by researchers, for fostering motivation and achievement under real-world conditions. The 78 participating classrooms (N = 1,744 students) were randomly assigned to one of two intervention conditions or a waitlist control condition. The intervention was implemented by master’s students or the regular math teachers. Intervention effects were evaluated using self-reports, teacher ratings, and achievement tests 4 weeks and 3 months after the intervention, controlling for the initial levels of the outcomes. Compared with the control condition, both intervention conditions showed similar positive effects on utility value. Unexpectedly, students in both intervention conditions also reported higher perceived cost compared with students in the control condition after the intervention. When implemented by master’s students, additional intervention effects on students’ growth mindsets and a standardized achievement test could be observed. Only small differences in effectiveness were observed between the intervention conditions, although master’s students showed a higher level of adherence. In both intervention conditions, higher levels of adherence and lower levels of discipline problems were associated with more positive changes in utility value. Overall, the intervention thus showed mixed effects. Future research should therefore continue to examine the conditions under which relevance interventions work in practice.
Different cross‐domain trajectories in the development of students’ ability self‐concepts (ASCs) and their intrinsic valuing of math and language arts were examined in a cross‐sequential study spanning Grades 1 through 12 (n = 1,069). Growth mixture modeling analyses identified a Moderate Math Decline/Stable High Language Arts class and a Moderate Math Decline/Strong Language Arts Decline class for students’ ASC trajectories. Students’ intrinsic value trajectories included a Strong Math Decline/Language Arts Decline Leveling Off, a Moderate Math Decline/Strong Language Arts Decline, and a Stable Math and Language Arts Trajectories class. These classes differed with regard to student characteristics, including gender, family background, and math and reading aptitudes. They also resulted in different high school math course enrollments, career aspirations, and adult careers.
This study examined the longitudinal associations of Hispanic youths’ 9th-grade math expectancy-values and their subsequent participation (course taking and advanced course taking), performance, and preparedness (high school graduation and university eligibility) across 9th to 12th grades. Gender moderation associations of expectancy-value and participation, performance, and preparedness were evaluated. Students’ socio-demographic characteristics and previous math experiences (achievement and curricular track) were controlled. The study sample (n = 1,116) was 53% female, 46% English learner, and 84% low income. Males reported higher expectancy, interest, attainment, and cost values. Females completed more math courses and advanced courses, achieved stronger course grades, and were more likely to complete math preparation requirements for high school graduation and college. Associations of expectancy-value, and participation and performance were observed along with gender-moderated associations with preparedness. The odds of graduation preparedness were increased for females with high attainment value, whereas the odds of university preparedness were increased for males with high utility value.
Motivation is an essential determinant of academic learning, educational choices, and career decisions during adolescence and early adulthood. While achievement motivation has been widely studied across Western populations, recent work has emphasized the importance of examining the universality versus cultural specificity of motivation constructs across countries or diverse cultures. This article is a systematic review of the current discourse surrounding developmental and gender differences in student motivation in the disciplines of mathematics and English, offering comparisons of how these patterns are deployed within Western and East Asian countries. Guided by expectancy–value theory, this review focuses on ability self-concept and task values as two prominent motivational constructs. The authors first examine age and gender differences in the development of ability self-concept and task values among those from Western and East Asian countries from primary school to secondary school. Next, the sociocultural and contextual factors driving developmental and gender differences in motivation are discussed. The article concludes by summarizing the limitations of existing literature and suggesting new lines of inquiry to advance knowledge in cross-cultural studies on student achievement motivation.
Prior research indicates many women either leave or pursue science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)degrees because the social climate undermined or strengthened their motivation and career aspirations. We investigated whether women’s experiences of sexual harassment and STEM-related gender bias negatively predicted their STEM motivation (task value, competence beliefs, and perceived costs) and STEM career aspirations. We also tested whether STEM encouragement from friends and family positively predicted motivation and aspirations. To consider domain-specific effects,we also tested the predictors in relation to non-STEM motivation and career aspirations. Students’ grade point average wascontrolled in all analyses. The sample was undergraduate women enrolled in gateway biology courses for majors (N¼685;M¼19.67 years of age; 35% Asian, 31% White, and 27% Latinx). A majority experienced gender bias (60.9%) or sexual harassment (78.1%) at least once in the past year. STEM-related gender bias from classmates and sexual harassment from instructors (faculty, teaching assistants, or graduate students) were negatively related to STEM motivation and career aspirations. Perceived STEM encouragement from friends was positively related to motivation, and STEM encouragement from friends and family predicted STEM career aspirations. Finally, domain-specific effects were indicated. Our research highlights the need for programs that increase awareness of discrimination, combat bias and harassment, and affirm students’STEM interest
We conducted a systematic review of empirical research focused on the experiences of female students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) during middle and high school. Drawing on social identity theory, recent research was synthesized to explore how aspects of the social environment influence STEM identity development. Findings indicate that young women experience challenges to their participation and inclusion when they are in STEM settings. Additionally, we found that perceptions regarding who is part of the ingroup or outgroup of STEM fields can be changed through intervention and educational programs. We conclude with recommendations for theory, research, programs, and policy for STEM identity development among young women, informed by a social identity perspective.
Drawing on expectancy-value theory, this study examines gender and family influences on students’ career aspirations and attached values. 796 secondary Spanish students (M age = 16 years old, S.D. = 0.81) participated. 53% were boys. The results show that boys and students with mothers who have completed intermediate level education were more interested in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) architecture and technology. Girls and students with highly educated mothers born in Spain were more likely to aspire to STEM health and experimental studies. Furthermore, boys and students planning to pursue STEM-technology studies attached higher extrinsic values to these studies. On the contrary, girls and participants with interest in experimental and health studies attached less extrinsic values to these studies. Moreover, students with highly educated mothers and interested in STEM architecture and technology reported higher extrinsic values. Understanding the interaction of gender and family factors shaping adolescents’ career aspirations in STEM fields seems to be crucial to designing significant and effective school and family grounded interventions.
Psychology must confront the bias in its broad literature towards the study of participants
developing in environments unrepresentative of the vast majority of the world’s population. Here,
we focus on the implications of addressing this challenge, highlight the need to address over-reliance
on a narrow participant pool, and emphasize the value and necessity of conducting research with
diverse populations. We show that high impact-factor developmental journals are heavily skewed
towards publishing papers with data from WEIRD populations (Western, Educated, Industrialized,
Rich and Democratic). Most critically, despite calls for change and supposed widespread awareness
of this problem, there is a habitual dependence on convenience sampling and little evidence that the
discipline is making any meaningful movement towards drawing from diverse samples. Failure to
confront the possibility that culturally-specific findings are being misattributed as universal traits has
broad implications for the construction of scientifically defensible theories and for the reliable public
dissemination of study findings.
Although the gender gap in math course-taking and performance has narrowed in recent decades, females continue to be underrepresented in math-intensive fields of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). Career pathways encompass the ability to pursue a career as well as the motivation to employ that ability. Individual differences in cognitive capacity and motivation are also influenced by broader sociocultural factors. After reviewing research from the fields of psychology, sociology, economics, and education over the past 30 years, we summarize six explanations for US women’s underrepresentation in math-intensive STEM fields: (a) cognitive ability, (b) relative cognitive strengths, (c) occupational interests or preferences, (d) lifestyle values or work-family balance preferences, (e) field-specific ability beliefs, and (f) gender-related stereotypes and biases. We then describe the potential biological and sociocultural explanations for observed gender differences on cognitive and motivational factors and demonstrate the developmental period(s) during which each factor becomes most relevant. We then propose evidence-based recommendations for policy and practice to improve STEM diversity and recommendations for future research directions.
Many college students abandon their goal of completing a degree in science, technology, engineering, or math (STEM) when confronted with challenging introductory-level science courses. In the U.S., this trend is more pronounced for underrepresented minority (URM) and first-generation (FG) students, and contributes to persisting racial and social-class achievement gaps in higher education. Previous intervention studies have focused exclusively on race or social class, but have not examined how the 2 may be confounded and interact. This research therefore investigates the independent and interactive effects of race and social class as moderators of an intervention designed to promote performance, measured by grade in the course. In a double-blind randomized experiment conducted over 4 semesters of an introductory biology course (N = 1,040), we tested the effectiveness of a utility-value intervention in which students wrote about the personal relevance of course material. The utility-value intervention was successful in reducing the achievement gap for FG-URM students by 61%: the performance gap for FG-URM students, relative to continuing generation (CG)-Majority students, was large in the control condition, .84 grade points (d = .98), and the treatment effect for FG-URM students was .51 grade points (d = 0.55). The UV intervention helped students from all groups find utility value in the course content, and mediation analyses showed that the process of writing about utility value was particularly powerful for FG-URM students. Results highlight the importance of intersectionality in examining the independent and interactive effects of race and social class when evaluating interventions to close achievement gaps and the mechanisms through which they may operate. (PsycINFO Database Record
The present study sought to understand the role of ethnicity in the relationship between each of 3 distinct coping strategies (problem-focused, active emotional, and avoidant emotional) and depressive symptoms in a sample of 81 South Asian Americans, 123 East Asian Americans, and 117 European Americans. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that use of avoidant emotional coping strategies is a consistent predictor of depressive symptoms when coping with either an academic or interpersonal stressful event. Additional analyses indicated a significant interaction effect between ethnicity and avoidant emotional coping for South Asian Americans and European Americans in accounting for depressive symptoms when the stressful event was interpersonal, but not academic, in nature. Overall, the present findings support some evidence of ethnic differences in the relations between coping strategies and depressive symptoms for Asian-American subgroups and European Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record
Although young women now obtain higher course grades in math than boys and are just as likely to be enrolled in advanced math courses in high school, females continue to be underrepresented in some Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) occupations. This study drew on expectancy-value theory to assess (1) which intellectual and motivational factors in high school predict gender differences in career choices and (2) whether students’ motivational beliefs mediated the pathway of gender on STEM career via math achievement by using a national longitudinal sample in the United States. We found that math achievement in 12th grade mediated the association between gender and attainment of a STEM career by the early to mid-thirties. However, math achievement was not the only factor distinguishing gender differences in STEM occupations. Even though math achievement explained career differences between men and women, math task value partially explained the gender differences in STEM career attainment that were attributed to math achievement. The identification of potential factors of women’s underrepresentation in STEM will enhance our ability to design intervention programs that are optimally tailored to female needs to impact STEM achievement and occupational choices.
Friendship group characteristics, motivation, and gender were investigated in relation to adolescents' science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) career interest. The sample was comprised of 468 high school students (M = 16 years, range = 13–18) from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Participants rated their friendship group's support of STEM as well as their personal motivation in science. They separately rated the friendship group's support of English and personal motivation in English. Other predictors included friendship group characteristics (importance, gender composition) and background variables such as gender. Group support of STEM (but not English) and science motivation (but not English motivation) predicted STEM career interest. Group characteristics and participant gender moderated the effects. Findings suggest social identities and self-concepts may shape youths' STEM career choices.
The current short-term longitudinal study investigated the role of college students’ identity development and motivational beliefs in predicting their chemistry achievement and intentions to leave science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) majors. We collected 4 waves of data over 1 semester from 363 diverse undergraduate STEM students enrolled in a chemistry lab course. The results of analyses that examined the reciprocal relations among the variables over time (i.e., cross-lagged path analysis) suggested that identity development that involved exploration (e.g., information-seeking, reflection) was positively related to students’ beliefs about their competence and value for the STEM major and negatively related to perceptions of effort cost (drawbacks associated with time and effort) for the major. Identity development that did not involve exploration was related to low competence beliefs and high perceptions of costs for the STEM major. Competence beliefs, values, and perceptions of cost for the major were dynamically related to chemistry achievement and to students’ intentions to leave the STEM major over the semester, with different kinds of cost perceptions (drawbacks associated with effort, lost opportunities, and stress and anxiety) relating differentially to students’ intentions. The results support the role of identity development in students’ motivation for a STEM major and address a gap in the literature regarding the role of perceived cost in students’ academic choices.
We analyze programs for undergraduate women in science and engineering as strategic research sites in the study of disparities between women and men in scientific fields within higher education. Based on responses to a survey of the directors of the universe of these programs in the United States, the findings reveal key patterns in the programs’ (1) definitions of the issues of women in science and engineering, (2) their solutions to address the issues, (3) their goals and perceived success with goals, and (4) their organizational characteristics and relationship to the larger institutional environments. The findings—which are conceptually grounded in the distinction between structural/institutional and individual issues facing women in science—have implications for understanding gender, science, and higher education, and for initiatives undertaken to improve the condition of women in scientific fields. The findings may also inform strategic efforts to reduce gender disparity in other organizational contexts.
Self-reported grades are heavily used in research and applied settings because of the importance of grades and the convenience of obtaining self-reports. This study reviews and meta-analytically summarizes the literature on the accuracy of self-reported grades, class ranks, and test scores. Results based on a pairwise sample of 60,926 subjects indicate that self-reported grades are less construct valid than many scholars believe. Furthermore, self-reported grade validity was strongly moderated by actual levels of school performance and cognitive ability. These findings suggest that self-reported grades should be used with caution. Situations in which self-reported grades can be employed more safely are identified, and suggestions for their use in research are discussed.
Despite efforts to recruit and retain more women, a stark gender disparity persists within academic science. Abundant research
has demonstrated gender bias in many demographic groups, but has yet to experimentally investigate whether science faculty
exhibit a bias against female students that could contribute to the gender disparity in academic science. In a randomized
double-blind study (n = 127), science faculty from research-intensive universities rated the application materials of a student—who was randomly
assigned either a male or female name—for a laboratory manager position. Faculty participants rated the male applicant as
significantly more competent and hireable than the (identical) female applicant. These participants also selected a higher
starting salary and offered more career mentoring to the male applicant. The gender of the faculty participants did not affect
responses, such that female and male faculty were equally likely to exhibit bias against the female student. Mediation analyses
indicated that the female student was less likely to be hired because she was viewed as less competent. We also assessed faculty
participants’ preexisting subtle bias against women using a standard instrument and found that preexisting subtle bias against
women played a moderating role, such that subtle bias against women was associated with less support for the female student,
but was unrelated to reactions to the male student. These results suggest that interventions addressing faculty gender bias
might advance the goal of increasing the participation of women in science.
Mathematics is often thought of as a purely intellectual and unemotional activity. Recently, researchers have begun to question the validity of this approach, arguing that emotions and cognition are intertwined. The emotions expressed during mathematics work may be linked to mathematics achievement. We used behavioral measures to identify the emotions expressed by U.S. mothers and their 11-year-old children while solving pre-algebra tasks in the home. The most notable positive emotions displayed by mothers and children included positive interest, affection, joy, and pride, whereas the most notable negative emotions expressed included tension, frustration, and distress. Reflecting the social aspects of doing homework together, mothers' and children's emotions were highly correlated. Independent of pre-existing differences in knowledge, children's emotions were associated with their performance on a mathematics post-test: tension was linked to poorer performance while positive interest, humor, and pride were linked to better performance. We found no evidence of gender differences in the emotions while working the tasks, although boys responded with more tension following an incorrect solution than did girls.
Despite concentrated research and important legislative milestones on gender equality over the past quarter century, gender-related disparities in science, technology, and math careers persist into the 21st century. This persistence sustains a troubling state of gender inequity in which women are not sharing in the salary and status advantages attached to scientific and technical careers. In this landmark volume, editors Helen M. G. Watt and Jacquelynne S. Eccles, both well known for their research contributions in this area, have compiled a rich source of longitudinal analysis that places the problem in context. Experts from different countries in the fields of developmental and social psychology, human development, biology, education, and sociology draw from longitudinal data on the gender-related variables that influence occupational outcomes. Together, the studies bring a variety of perspectives, theoretical models, and cultural settings to bear on the book's central questions. Further, the contributors highlight policy implications, suggesting which circumstances best promote a more comprehensive and realistic understanding of gender differences in career choice and persistence. Detailed explanations of study design will serve as an invaluable resource for future researchers in this area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A web-based survey of members of the Society for the Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in Science tested a model that proposed that the effects of science support experiences on commitment to science careers would be mediated by science self-efficacy and identity as a scientist. A sample of 327 undergraduates and 338 graduate students and postdoctoral fellows described their science support experiences (research experience, mentoring, and community involvement); psychological variables (science self-efficacy, leadership/teamwork self-efficacy, and identity as a scientist); and commitment to pursue a career in scientific research. Structural equation model analyses supported our predictions. Among the undergraduates, science (but not leadership/teamwork), self-efficacy, and identity as a scientist fully mediated the effects of science support experiences and were strong predictors of commitment. Results for the graduate/postdoctoral sample revealed a very similar pattern of results, with the added finding that all three psychological mediators, including leadership/teamwork self-efficacy, predicted commitment.
A growing body of literature provides insight into the ingredients for academic success for underrepresented ethnic minority students at all points of the academic pipeline. Theory and research in developmental and social psychology, education, and sociology all point to the important role of identity for students’ academic success. The purpose of this article is to review some of the major findings across these social science disciplines to identify points of synergy that can inform effective policy recommendations. The review is structured around three points of convergence across disciplines: (1) prejudice and stereotype threat; (2) the role of social support; and (3) the availability of options for identity development. Reviewing these three topics sheds light on how the relation between identity and academic success must be understood on individual, relational, and institutional levels of analysis.
This study examined the continued gender imbalance in mathematics participation in senior high, which has implications for adolescents' future careers. It confirms persisting greater male parti-cipation in maths-related educational and occupational choices among this sample of Australian youth. Gendered course-taking in maths, along with participation intentions for maths-related careers, were explained using the Expectancy–Value framework of Eccles and colleagues (Eccles (Parsons) et al., 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The influences of maths-related self-perceptions, intrinsic and utility values, and perceived task difficulty were assessed using longitudinal data from a sample of 442 adolescents spanning Grades 9 through 11 in Sydney, Australia. Gendered maths-related self-perceptions and intrinsic values were the major influences on gendered educational participation in senior high maths, which subsequently predicted maths-related career aspirations— over and above prior mathematical achievement. Utility value showed a curvilinear relationship with maths-related occupational intentions moderated by gender, whereby girls with the highest utility values planned for highly maths-related careers, while boys with mid through high utility values planned similarly highly maths-related careers. Recommendations focus on ways to enhance participation in maths, especially for girls.
In our chapter, we provide a brief survey of ways that gender inequalities in society can be seen as starting in childhood and adolescence. The available research is primarily limited to studies conducted in the United States, Canada, Australia, United Kingdom, and western Europe; hence, some of the patterns that we describe may not generalize to other cultural contexts. To start, we discuss transgender youth, who challenge the basic gender binary that pervades most research on gender development. Next, we address research on intersectionality among children and adolescents and point to the complex ways that gender can be expressed. Third, we explain that gender-typed play provides children with different opportunities that may affect the roles they adopt as adults. In our fourth section, we examine how gender relates to academic achievement, which in turn influences the kinds of professions that people pursue as adults. Fifth, we consider sports as a context that can foster positive qualities but also reinforce negative features of traditional gender roles. Sixth, we explain how the sexualization of girls undermines their body image and confidence. In our seventh section, we review how benevolent and hostile sexism are enacted in the heterosexual dating scripts that many youth commonly adopt. Eighth, the prevalence and impact of sexual harassment are addressed. Ninth, we discuss heterosexism and discrimination against those who violate heteronormativity. Our 10th topic is traditional masculinity ideology in boys and how it contributes to sexism. Our final section focuses on how feminist identity may help to empower girls and young women.
Math self-concept is strongly associated with a range of academic and career outcomes in math. The current research sought to identify factors that distinguish between undergraduates with particularly low or high math self-concept. A sample of 754 college students were asked to recall a low point they had with math as well as respond to questionnaires measuring math self-concept, value, and anxiety. Focal analyses were conducted on a subsample of participants who reported either high (n = 90) or low (n = 94) math self-concept. Relative to participants who were high in math self-concept, those who were low tended to be women, were higher in math anxiety, and valued math less. Thematic analysis also revealed similarities and differences in how undergraduates from these two groups appraised challenges, or low points, that they encountered in their history with math. Although there were similarities in the types of low points described by members of these two groups, these experiences were often appraised in distinct ways. Unique themes also emerged for each group, indicating that narrative interpretations of math experiences vary with current levels of math self-concept. Implications for future research and math education are discussed.
The present study explored the direct and indirect (serial multiple mediation of math self-efficacy and math enjoyment) effects of perceived parental math support on middle school students' math engagement. A total of 374 middle school students ranging the age of 11 to 15 years completed a set of questionnaires assessing perceived parental math support, math self-efficacy, math enjoyment, and math engagement. In the analysis of structural model, a multiple-step multiple mediation analysis was employed. The findings indicated that perceived parental math support was directly and positively associated with math engagement. Additionally, math self-efficacy and math enjoyment sequentially mediated the relationship between parental math support and math engagement. The limitations and implications of the results are discussed and suggestions for future research are proposed.
Eccles and colleagues’ expectancy-value theory of achievement choice has guided much research over the last 40+ years. In this article, we discuss five “macro” level issues concerning the theory. Our broad purposes in taking this approach are to clarify some issues regarding the current status of the theory, make suggestions for next steps for research based in the theory, and justify our decision to call the theory Situated Expectancy-Value Theory (SEVT). First, we note how visual representations of the model make it appear static, linear, and monolithic, something that was not intended from its inception. Second, we discuss definitions of the major psychological constructs in the model, focusing on our and others’ elaboration of the task value component, particularly the “cost” component. In this section we also discuss research on the development of expectancies and values. Third, we discuss the often-neglected middle part of the model focused on how individuals understand and interpret their own performance as well as the many messages they receive from different socializers regarding their activity participation and performance. In the fourth section we discuss the situative and culturally-focused aspects of the model, stressing the impact of the situation and cultural background on children’s developing expectancy and value hierarchies. The fifth issue (one that we mention in several of the previous sections) concerns the importance of understanding the development of individuals’ hierarchies of expectancies of success and subjective task values and how they relate to performance, choice, and engagement.
This mixed-methods study focuses on narratives that undergraduates tell about pivotal moments (i.e., turning points) in their prior history with math. A key objective was to examine whether these turning points would be associated with participants’ current math affect, math motivation, and future plans with math. Undergraduate participants (N = 210) completed quantitative measures assessing math anxiety, math self-expectancy, and math value, and also wrote narratives about a turning point with math and their future math plans. Thematic analysis revealed four themes in the math turning point narratives: (1) redemption, (2) contamination, (3) consistently positive, and (4) consistently negative. Quantitative analyses indicated that participants who wrote consistently positive narratives reported significantly lower math anxiety and higher math self-expectancy and math value relative to participants who wrote other types of narratives. Further, participants who wrote consistently negative turning point narratives were more likely to indicate that they would avoid math in the future. These results suggest that an individual’s memory of their early math experiences can color their math affect, math motivation, and plans for pursuing math in the future, even years after the experience has occurred. Implications for math education are discussed.
The current research examined adolescents’ attitudes about sexism in fields related to science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). The ethnically diverse sample (61% East Asian) was composed of 629 adolescents (Mage = 16.09) who attended a public school in the United States. Participants responded to closed‐ and open‐ended questions about the prevalence and severity of sexism in STEM. We used latent profile analysis to classify participants into latent classes according to their responses. Of note, one latent class included participants who perceived sexism in STEM as a fairly common and very serious problem. Relative to the other classes, participants in this class were more likely to be girls and showed higher STEM value. Qualitative analyses illustrated that the participants in each class reasoned in fundamentally different ways about sexism in STEM.
We report results from two studies testing the Mediation Model of Research Experiences, which posits that science (or engineering) self‐efficacy and identity as a scientist (or engineer) mediate the association between support programs and students’ commitment to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers. Study 1 included 502 matriculated and recently graduated undergraduate STEM students. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that research experience, instrumental mentoring, and involvement in a community of scientists were associated with commitment to a STEM career, mediated through science/engineering self‐efficacy and identity as a scientist/engineer. There were few interactions with ethnicity and none with gender. In Study 2, 63 undergraduate students in science/engineering support programs were surveyed with a similar instrument at the beginning and end of their programs. Pre–post analyses indicated that increases over time in community involvement were associated with increases in science/engineering self‐efficacy, and increases over time in science/engineering identity were associated with increased commitment to a STEM career. Taken together, these two studies show the importance of psychological processes such as identity and self‐efficacy in understanding the specific ways in which science/engineering support programs lead to enhanced commitment to a career in STEM among White and underrepresented minority undergraduate students.
Despite shifting demographic trends, research on motivation generally remains focused on European American, middle-class, educated samples, calling into question its utility and overall generalizability. Thus, the overarching purpose of this article is to increase the practical and cultural relevance of motivational research. Specifically, we review four key principles of motivation—meaningfulness, competence, autonomy, and relatedness—and unpack how they align with the research on culturally responsive and relevant education. Ultimately our goal is to emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary research and to demonstrate how the principles of culturally responsive education are instantiated in motivationally supportive classrooms where teachers are more culturally sensitive and create an environment where cultural differences are appreciated and valued.
This study builds on research on the power of counter-stereotypical cues, as well as intergroup contact theory, to consider whether interactions with a female teacher and female peers in a high school engineering classroom decrease male students' gender/science, technology, engineering, and math stereotypical beliefs and whether this varies according to the initial strength of their stereotypical views. Analyses reveal that among male students who initially reject stereotypes of male superiority, more female peers in the classroom leads to a further decrease in their stereotypical views by the end of the year. In contrast, boys who held strong stereotypical beliefs became less stereotypical by the end of the course when they had a female teacher. Implications for future research and current educational reforms are discussed.
Purpose
In an attempt to understand the postsecondary and occupational pathways of minorities who choose to pursue science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) pathways, what this paper offers is an examination of literature that focuses on identity. More specifically, this paper aims to present a research argument that highlights the importance of self-efficacy as it relates to the creation of a science identity for minority students. The authors, in other words, posit that self-efficacy, particularly as it relates to the cultivation of a science identity remains a critical and under-examined component of the STEM success puzzle for underrepresented students.
Design/methodology/approach
The conceptual framework used for this paper is taken from two bodies of literature that are used to provide a deeper understanding of the relationship between self-efficacy and science identity – self-efficacy, is grounded in social cognitive theory which posits that achievement is rooted in the bidirectional interaction between behavior, personal factors (e.g. cognitive, affective and biological) and external environment (Bandura, 1986).
Findings
Developing an understanding of the science identity development for students of color is essential because it helps construct a connection to the belief that science has value and that the student is capable to engage in the sciences successfully.
Originality/value
This analysis widens the scholarly discussion on STEM success for students of color to be inclusive of the critical role that the cultivation of a STEM identity plays in their transition from students at a collegiate level to professionals at a workforce capacity.
Drawing on Eccles’ expectancy-value model of achievement-related choices, we examined the personal aptitudes and motivational beliefs at 12th grade that move individuals toward or away from science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) occupations at age 29. In the first set of analyses, occupational and lifestyle values, math ability self-concepts, family demographics, and high school course-taking more strongly predicted both individual and gender differences in the likelihood of entering STEM careers than math scores on the Differential Aptitude Test. In the second set of analyses, individual and gender differences in career decisions within STEM disciplines (health, biological, and medical sciences (HBMS) versus mathematics, physical, engineering, and computer sciences (MPECS)) were best predicted by occupational values (i.e. preferences for work that were people oriented and altruistic predicted entrance into HBMS instead of MPECS careers). Females were less likely to hold the beliefs that predicted selection of STEM in general, but those who did choose STEM were more likely to select HBMS than MPECS.
The current study focuses on girls’ and women’s reported experiences with gender bias in fields related to science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). In the first set of analyses, I examined whether the prevalence of self-reported gender bias varied depending on the educational context. I then examined whether experiencing gender bias was associated with lower STEM self-concept and, if so, whether having a supportive network of STEM peers would buffer this effect. Data were collected through a self-report survey that was administered to high school girls who aspired to have STEM careers, women in STEM undergraduate majors, and women in STEM doctoral programs. Overall, 61% of participants reported experiencing gender bias in the past year, but the prevalence rate varied according to their phase of education and field of study. In particular, women in math-intensive undergraduate majors were especially likely to encounter gender bias, which predominately originated from male peers in their major. As expected, participants who encountered gender bias had lower STEM self-concept than participants who did not. However, this effect was attenuated for participants who also had a supportive network of STEM peers. These findings suggest that positive peer connections may be a valuable resource for girls and women in the STEM pipeline.
Prior research shows that undergraduates tend to identify more strongly with the field of science after participating in scientific research. However, mediators that might account for this association are not well understood. In the current study, we propose that science self-efficacy may serve this mediational function. Specifically, data from a 2-year longitudinal study were used to test a model in which science self-efficacy was expected to mediate the association between research involvement and identity as a scientist. The ethnically diverse sample included 251 undergraduates who were recruited from colleges and universities across the United States. The hypothesized mediation model was tested with a cross-lagged panel analysis. As expected, greater levels of research experience at Time 1 predicted higher identity as a scientist at Time 3, and this association was mediated by science self-efficacy at Time 2. Exploratory analyses testing for ethnic and gender differences in the model suggested that the associations in the model were similar for undergraduates from diverse backgrounds. From a theoretical standpoint, the current study provides novel insight into how research experience, efficacy, and identity relate to one another over time. Applied implications center on the importance of involving undergraduates in research that has the potential to bolster their science self-efficacy. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach
This article examines the concentration of Asian Americans in the STEM and health-care fields of study and occupations by generation, ethnic group and gender, compared to white Americans, based on the 2009–11 American Community Surveys. By making a generational comparison, it suggests that the selective migration of Asian immigrants is the most important factor to their concentration in these fields of study and occupations. Asian immigrants as a whole are highly selective in these fields of study and occupations, compared to white Americans, with some Asian groups showing much higher levels of concentration. While younger-generation Asian groups whose immigrant generations have an extremely high concentration have experienced significant reductions in STEM, the other groups have experienced moderate or significant increases. All younger-generation Asian groups apart from Filipino have significantly or moderately higher levels of representation in non-nurse health-care occupations than their immigrant counterparts.
Background
The Model Minority Stereotype (MMS) describes Asians and Asian Americans (As/AsAm) as the epitome of assimilation into U.S. society using hard work, intelligence, high educational attainment, and economic success to overcome the challenges of discrimination and recent immigration. Certain facets of the MMS intersect with qualities often perceived as desirable in engineering education. Purpose (Hypothesis)Our research questions are: To what degree do academic data support the assertion that AsAm engineering students conform to the MMS? How do AsAm engineering students express the impact of the facets of the MMS on their lived experiences? What facets of the MMS are more often reported than others among AsAm engineering students? How do AsAm engineering students perceive their fellow racial/ethnic peers fit within the MMS? Design/Method
The research uses a mixed methods approach including analysis of academic transcript data, surveys and semi-structured interviews. ResultsThe academic record of AsAm participants was not significantly different from participants in other racial/ethnic groups. Although the AsAm participants were not found to conform to the MMS academically, they discussed their perceptions of many facets of the MMS including: being hardworking, uncomplaining and extremely intelligent, and seeking both economic attainment and educational prestige. Interestingly, many students who denied that the stereotype applied to them projected this stereotype on other AsAms. Conclusions
Documentation of the existence of the MMS on our campus shows that, although AsAm students are not underrepresented, they face stereotyping and discrimination. We present specific recommendations for institutions to address equity and parity challenges.
The United States has made a significant effort and investment in STEM education, yet the size and the composition of the STEM workforce continues to fail to meet demand. It is thus important to understand the barriers and factors that influence individual educational and career choices. In this article, we conduct a literature review of the current knowledge surrounding individual and gender differences in STEM educational and career choices, using expectancy-value theory as a guiding framework. The overarching goal of this paper is to provide both a well-defined theoretical framework and complementary empirical evidence for linking specific sociocultural, contextual, biological, and psychological factors to individual and gender differences in STEM interests and choices. Knowledge gained through this review will eventually guide future research and interventions designed to enhance individual motivation and capacity to pursue STEM careers, particularly for females who are interested in STEM but may be constrained by misinformation or stereotypes.
Higher education, especially that leading to a degree from a high-prestige university, is strongly related to social status and employment opportunities in East Asian countries. This is a consequence of both traditional Confucian attitudes to education and the social and economic changes accompanying industrialisation. Since the number of places available at high-prestige universities is limited, competition is intense. Successful entry to such a university is not only an important achievement for the future career of the student, but also a victory for the family. In contrast, failure to do so is often seen as shameful for the family, sometimes resulting in psychological problems or suicide. This background affects the international education of East Asian students, who often have a high level of family support, with correspondingly high expectations of their success. Motives for international study vary, from avoidance of the hyper-competitive domestic system, pursuit of an overseas degree as an ‘easy option’ of moderate prestige, to an expectation of more up-to-date teaching and content. Understanding this background can be a first step for Australian or other Western educators to better meet the needs of East Asian international students and to attract students from East Asia in the long term.
Who am I? What am I about? What is my place in my social group? What is important to me? What do I value? What do I want to do with my life? These are all questions related to what psychologists call identity. Many theorists have argued that we are driven to answer these questions, particularly during adolescence. In this article, I summarize an expectancy value perspective on identity and identity formation. Within this framework, identity can be conceptualized in terms of two basic sets of self perceptions: (a) perceptions related to skills, characteristics, and competencies, and (b) perceptions related to personal values and goals. Together these two sets of self perceptions inform both individuals' expectations for success and the importance they attach to becoming involved in a wide range of tasks. Within this perspective, then, I focus on the role personal and collective identities can play on motivated action through their influence on expectations for success and subjective task values. I also discuss briefly how personality and collective identities develop over time.
Examined differences in career development attributes and occupational values between 63 Asian-American and 83 White American college students using (1) the Career Maturity Inventory; (2) the Assessment of Career Decision Making; (3) My Vocational Situation; and (4) an occupations and values scale. Asian Americans had greater preferences for dependent decision-making styles and a lower level of career maturity. No differences in vocational identity were found between the cultural groups. Asian Americans also placed greater emphasis on extrinsic and security occupational value clusters (e.g., making more money, having a stable, secure future) relative to White Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Many challenges to studying Asian Americans in higher education exist, but they are not insurmountable. The urgency of rising to overcome those challenges is discussed.
In this article we examine the scientific identity formation of two young women of color who attend an urban vocational high school. One young woman lives in an urban setting, while the other lives in a suburban setting. We describe how these young women's identities influence and respond to experiences in school science. In particular, we describe how the experience of marginalization can make membership in a school science community impossible or undesirable. We also describe the advantages that accrue to students who fit well with the ideal identities of an urban school. Finally, we describe some of the difficulties students face who aspire to scientific or technological competence yet do not desire to take on aspects of the identities associated with membership in school science communities. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 38: 965–980, 2001