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Sandalwood essential oil
Abstract
Sandalwood trees are small, evergreen, hemiparasitic plants. One of the most extensively and commonly used essential oil can be extracted from sandalwood trees known as sandalwood essential oil. Sandalwood essential oil is one of the most valuable essential oil. It is largely used in perfumery, cosmetics, and aromatherapy industries. The utilization of naturally occurring substances has been encouraged not only due to their nontoxic behavior but also due to their capability to modulate various signaling pathways involved in the growth of multiple diseases. Sandalwood essential oils are used for the treatment of fever, common colds, burns, headaches, infection of the urinary tract, bronchitis, etc. It is also used as antiseptic, antispasmodic, vaginitis, urethritis, gonorrheal recovery, antipyretic, antiscabietic, expectorant, stimulant, and diaphoretic agent. The importance of this plant is not only confined to industrial and therapeutic applications, this plant has a role in various cultural rituals of Asian households. The essential oil extracted from this plant is very costly, and researchers are still working on a daily basis to improve the quality and quantity of the essential oil so that it can meet the enormous demand of the international market. This chapter is an attempt to rediscover and rearrange all the relevant literature associated with production, method of extraction, chemical composition, properties, storage, therapeutic benefits, toxicity, regulation, potential, and future prospects of sandalwood essential oil in a single place so that it will help anyone interested in this topic to conduct future studies.
Santalum album L., commonly known as sandalwood, is a tree species with recognized medicinal properties. The essential oil extracted from the heartwood of this tree is of considerable economic importance. It is used as an essential ingredient in many traditional medicinal practices worldwide, being widely employed for the prevention and treatment of different ailments. The medicinal and physiological benefits of sandalwood are well recognized due to its richness in phytochemicals, especially sesquiterpenes. In addition, sandalwood is of great historical and economic importance as a venerable and highly valuable natural scent resource, renowned for its many medical and commercial uses. Cultivated in India for more than 25 centuries, sandalwood is appreciated worldwide for its pleasant and long-lasting aroma.
Numerous biological features and potential health benefits associated with sandalwood have been extensively studied, including its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant activities. The objective of this review is to elucidate the several natural origins of santalenes and santalols, as well as their biosynthetic pathways, while exploring the phytochemical and pharmacological properties of sandalwood. Among the reported characteristics are antioxidant, antibacterial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. However, further investigations regarding the toxicity and pharmacokinetic aspects of S. album and its main compounds, santalenes and santalols, are strongly required to support their efficacy in medical applications.
In the last decade, extensive research has been performed on developing hand sanitizers that can be used to eradicate the diseases that are caused due to poor hand hygiene. Essential oils possess antibacterial and antifungal properties and thus have great potential to replace the available antibacterial agents. In the present study, sandalwood oil–based nanoemulsion (NE) and sanitizer have been formulated and well characterized for their properties. Antibacterial activity was assessed using growth inhibition studies, agar cup, viability assay, etc. The sandalwood oil NE synthesized had oil to surfactant ratio of 1:0.5 (2.5% sandalwood oil and 0.5% Tween 80) and was observed to have a droplet diameter of 118.3 ± 0.92 nm, the zeta potential of − 18.8 ± 2.01 mV, and stability of 2 months. The antibacterial activity of sandalwood NE and sanitizer was evaluated against microorganisms. The antibacterial activity was assessed using the zone of inhibition value of sanitizer, which was in the range of 19 to 25 mm against all microorganisms. Morphological analysis showed distant changes in membrane shape and size and microorganisms’ morphology. The synthesized NE was thermodynamically stable and efficient enough to be used in sanitizer, and the formulated sanitizer showed great antibacterial efficacy.
Santalum album L. is commonly known as East Indian sandalwood, Shrigandha, sandalwood and Chandana. The plant is considered as the oldest, precious and commercially significant herbal plant which is also used as timber in India. The plant is well known for its unique and distinctive fragrance. Also, this plant is considered sacred and its importance and usage are also mentioned in Vedas, Puranas, Buddhism, epics and scriptures. It is used in various religions like Hindu, Buddhism and Jainism culture for auspicious work. The heartwood of the plant is very expensive and is associated with great commercial value in the national and international market as it is enriched with fragranced essential oil. The aromatic essential oil of the plant is used in various perfumes, food products, cosmetics, aromatherapy and pharmaceutical industries. Traditionally, the plant is used in various medicinal systems such as Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha to cure diseases like jaundice, dysentery, gastric irritability and is used as a tonic for liver, heart, fever, memory improvement, anti-poison and for blood purifier. In Ayurveda, the sandalwood plant is used as an expectorant, diuretic, astringent, stimulant, coolant and sedative agent. Besides this, the plant is associated with reported therapeutic and pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, hepatoprotective and cardio-protective properties. Although, due to the overexploitation of the plant it is enlisted in the IUCN Red List. In this review, the traditional medicinal usage of the sandalwood plant and its pharmacological properties along with its modern view is briefly described.
The rapacious 19th century commercial exploitation of sandalwood species in the Pacific
region was a relatively short term phenomena that had significant ecological and social
impact on the isolated islands where it took place. The oil-rich heartwood of these plants
was gathered by Western traders because it was one of the few commodities that Chinese
merchants in Asia would accept as payment for luxury goods. Sandalwood was rapidly
harvested from a series of islands in Remote Oceania including Fiji, the Marquesas,
Hawaiʻi, New Caledonia, the Loyalties, and Vanuatu between 1800-70. The profitable
extraction of this valuable resource quickly depleted the sources of supply which
necessitated shifts from one island group to another as stocks were exhausted. Although
the only assumed extinction of a Pacific Santalum species (S. fernandezianum F. Phil. from
the Juan Fernández Islands) is largely undocumented, the 19th century Pacific traffic in
sandalwood is acknowledged to have had caused sharp declines in Santalum species where
rapid harvesting occurred although this paper does not attempt to quantify to what
extant populations were diminished. We do, however, outline and discuss the
environmental and cultural impacts generated by this depletion of Pacific sandalwood.
We also provide rough measures of the weight of wood cut and place a special emphasis
on the extraction and subsequent replanting efforts in the Hawaiian islands.
Since ancient times, plant roots have been widely used in traditional medicine for treating various ailments and diseases due to their beneficial effects. A large number of studies have demonstrated that—besides their aromatic properties—their biological activity can often be attributed to volatile constituents. This review provides a comprehensive overview of investigations into the chemical composition of essential oils and volatile components obtained from selected aromatic roots, including Angelica archangelica, Armoracia rusticana, Carlina sp., Chrysopogon zizanioides, Coleus forskohlii, Inula helenium, Sassafras albidum, Saussurea costus, and Valeriana officinalis. Additionally, their most important associated biological impacts are reported, such as anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, pesticidal, and other miscellaneous properties. Various literature and electronic databases—including PubMed, ScienceDirect, Springer, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Wiley—were screened and data was obtained accordingly. The results indicate the promising properties of root-essential oils and their potential as a source for natural biologically active products for flavor, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and fragrance industries. However, more research is required to further establish the mechanism of action mediating these bioactivities as well as essential oil standardization because the chemical composition often strongly varies depending on external factors.
Santalum yasi is a high-value hemiparasitic tree endemic to Fiji, Niue and Tonga. It has been overexploited for its oil-yielding heartwood and is now threatened. Remaining stands lack genetic diversity and are likely to be suffering from inbreeding depression, although the species still has significant genetic diversity overall. We argue that the best way to conserve this species is through an active domestication program that will adequately sample and conserve the genetic base in ex situ and circa situm plantings. The approach to S. yasi tree-breeding can be characterised as a low-input strategy involving the early use of molecular markers for population parameter determination. Long-term success will have strong interdependent links with the conservation of the remaining genetic resources. A strategy based on recurrent selection and breeding for key traits—including heartwood volume and oil yield per year, oil quality and environmental adaptability related to cyclone resistance and the tolerance of pests and diseases—is recommended. The establishment of genetic conservation stands based on collections of the species throughout its natural range in Fiji and Tonga has commenced. Challenges associated with the conservation and domestication of S. yasi are discussed. These include the advanced age required before oil characterisation can be undertaken; the need to assess genotype–host-plant interactions; and the need for comparatively sophisticated equipment and destructive harvesting to carry out oil assessments. Capacity development of professional staff in the Pacific Islands is an additional prerequisite for implementing an effective strategy. Research into the variation and heritability of heartwood formation and oil characteristics, and a better understanding of the breeding biology of S. yasi and geneflow between it and exotic Indian sandalwood (S. album), are high priorities. It will be more than a decade—probably around 20 years—before S. yasi individuals in planned, well-designed trial plantings have sufficient heartwood development to enable oil-trait assessment. Establishment of such trials is an immediate priority. In addition to this long-term activity, we recommend a simple interim strategy that promotes high genetic diversity of seedling-based planting stock. This can be implemented using a combination of gene conservation stands, progeny trials that can be culled to seedling seed orchards, and genetically diverse community-based seed stands. The strategy will both provide a safeguard against the further loss of diversity and promote wide outcrossing. Releasing fragmented populations from inbreeding depression is expected to increase general vigour.
Santalum yasi, a sandalwood native to Fiji and Tonga, is a tree crop of significant economic potential for these countries. Development of a plantation industry underpinned by a breeding program is a high priority for industry development. Gathering information on heartwood development, oil yield and oil composition is a critical step for the domestication and tree breeding of the species. Oil yield and composition were determined for 86 Santalum core samples using gas chromatography and combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Most (67) cores were from the lower boles of individual trees of S. yasi, with smaller samples of S. album and S. album × S. yasi, both of which are also commonly grown in Fiji and Tonga, and S. austrocaledonicum was included for comparison. Although the ages of the trees were unknown, they are likely to have been between 10 and 20 years. Relationships among traits, including solvent-extracted oil yield, oil composition, lower bole diameters under and over bark, and heartwood diameter, were examined. Yield was highly variable (0.05–11.8%) and only weakly correlated with underbark diameter at 30 cm above ground. Oil yield and percent composition of santalol oil components were strongly positively correlated. For those trees with oil yields >1% w/w, the oil composition was generally favourable relative to the international standard for S. album oil, with large proportions of santalols, particularly β-santalol. The study confirms that both harvesting and selection for genetic improvement of S. yasi trees younger than 20 years old are likely to be suboptimal, with unreliable heartwood and oil development. Further study of heartwood and oil development, both within individual trees and among genotypes in common-garden trials with known genetics and controlled environments and hosts, is a high priority. The development of an international standard for S. yasi, supporting the growth of a niche market for the product, is also recommended.
Sandalwood has distinct, high-value end uses that function to underpin its price and maintain demand in different market segments and regions. These uses and markets include essential oil from its heartwood as an ingredient (providing woody base notes and fixative properties) in fine perfumes, exclusive natural body-care products and new pharmaceuticals, especially for European and North American markets; in solid furniture, carvings, traditional medicines and religious uses in China, the Republic of Korea and Japan; for attars ¹ funeral pyres and chewing tobaccos in India; and customary uses in the Middle East. The markets for sandalwood heartwood and oils from Pacific Island countries have been strong and have continually diversified since exports to China commenced over 200 years ago. The global sandalwood market remains buoyant, with 2019 wholesale prices of Santalum album oil ranging from USD 1750 kg⁻¹ (unlicensed production through Dubai) to USD 2100 kg⁻¹ for licensed production from India and USD 2000–2500 kg⁻¹ as wholesale price for Australian S. album plantation oil. The wholesale price for S. austrocaledonicum oil is USD 1500–1750 kg⁻¹. The heartwood (air-dried) of S. album is mostly traded by growers for more than USD 100 kg⁻¹. The price for Fiji’s S. yasi heartwood (partly to fully air-dried, ‘village gate’ price) for carving, furniture, and oil distillation has increased steadily to USD 50 kg⁻¹ in 2019 while the price for grade 1 S. austrocaledonicum heartwood (partly to fully air-dried; ‘on the beach’ price) is USD 35 kg⁻¹. The global market for sandalwood products, sustainably sourced from a growing plantation resource in Australia, Asia and the Pacific Islands, is predicted to remain strong up to and beyond 2040. The high rate of increase in sandalwood prices in recent decades is unlikely to continue, however, due to both an expanding supply from increasingly better-managed plantations and the likelihood that, in the longer term, genetic improvement and the adoption of technological innovations will induce earlier and greater heartwood yields in planted sandalwood. Nevertheless, sandalwood prices will remain sufficiently high to make agroforestry cultivation a commercially attractive proposition for efficient Pacific Island sandalwood growers. This paper provides a prognosis for the production of and demand for sandalwood in 2040 for major sandalwood producer regions (Australia, India, Indonesia, Timor-Leste and the Pacific Island nations) and markets (China, Europe, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Middle East, North America and the United Kingdom). These estimates of production and demand were made to inform prospective sandalwood growers, and especially smallholders in Pacific Island countries, on the likelihood that the current strong demand and prices will continue and the extent to which export/international markets will be affected by the large sandalwood plantations now being established in several countries.
Fragrance is an integral part of cosmetic products and is often regarded as an overriding factor in the selection of cosmetics among consumers. Fragrances also play a considerable role in masking undesirable smells arising from fatty acids, oils and surfactants that are commonly used in cosmetic formulations. Essential oils are vital assets in the cosmetic industry, as along with imparting pleasant aromas in different products, they are able to act as preservatives and active agents and, simultaneously, offer various benefits to the skin. Moreover, the stimulating demand for natural ingredients has contributed massively to a renewed interest in cosmetic and wellness industries in plant derivatives, especially essential oils. This has led popular cosmetic companies to endorse natural fragrances and opt for minimally processed natural ingredients, given the potentially adverse health risks associated with artificial fragrance chemicals, which are major elements of cosmetics. Among the high-valued essential oils used as fragrances are citrus, lavender, eucalyptus, tea tree and other floral oils, among others, while linalool, geraniol, limonene, citronellol, and citral are much-appreciated fragrance components used in different cosmetics. Thus, this review aimed to highlight the enormous versatility of essential oils as significant sources of natural fragrances in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. Moreover, a special focus will be laid on the different aspects related to essential oils such as their sources, market demand, chemistry, fragrance classification, aroma profile, authenticity and safety.
Sandalwood is the fragrant heartwood of some species of genus Santalum (Family: Santalaceae). Santalum album L. commercially known as East Indian Sandalwood is indigenous to peninsular India. It is naturally distributed in an extent of around 9600 km 2 mainly in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The essential oil obtained from this wood has occupied a significant place in perfumery industry/market. The value of a Sandalwood tree depends on three important characters (i) volume of heartwood; (ii) concentration and (iii) quality of its heartwood oil. Although Sandalwood is available in other countries, yet Indian Sandalwood has retained its dominance over other sources because of its quality. The warm, sweet, precious wood notes and the non-dominating fixative characteristics of this oil make it an ideal choice for creating wide varieties of perfumes. Due to increased global and domestic demand, and also decrease in supply, Sandalwood prices have skyrocketed.
Offerings of flowers, leaves, fruits, cereals, foods and drinks to the Gods have been spoken about to a great extent in ancient Hindu scriptures such as Puranas and Vedas. These substances also have replete with significant medicinal values. ' Mahamrityunjaya Mantra Japa' means Great Death-conquering Mantra, is a verse (sukta) of the Rigveda. This mantra is addressed to Shiva for warding off death and bestows longevity. Lord Shiva idolizes with some astonishing substances like Bilva Patra, Bhang Patra, Arka Puspa and Ganga Jal in Mahamrityunjaya Mantra Japa'. Medicinal properties like, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic, Anticancer, Antioxidant property of these have been reported by recent researches. In the future, In vitro and In vivo studies on these items of worship show that these may be an answer to non-treatable diseases like autoimmune disorder, viral infection and cancer etc., as these substances have anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation and antimicrobial properties. Exploration of the text of Traditional and complementary medicine might be useful in research of new drug molecules.
There is an increasing incidence of skin cancer across the world. The World Health Organization reports that the global incidence of melanoma will continue to rise with increasing depletion of the ozone layer and consequent UV irradiation. The natural product sandalwood oil from genus Santalum (Family Santalaceae) and its constituent alpha-santalol have been reported to exert chemopreventive effects against skin cancers as well as prostate, head and neck, and breast cancers. The anticancer effects are mediated via modulation of MAPK, AP-1, beta-catenin and PI3K/Akt pathways, upregulation of p21, and activation of caspases/PARP. Furthermore, sandalwood oil exerts anti-inflammatory activities via prostaglandin E2, IL-1beta, inhibition of NF-kappaB, and 5-lipoxygenase. Other therapeutic activities in eczema, psoriasis, radiation dermatitis, antifungal, etc. have also been reported. Sandalwood oil has acceptable safety and is well-tolerated. Taken together, given the chemopreventive potential of sandalwood oil, future clinical trials are warranted to investigate its use as an adjunct to chemotherapy or immunotherapy for skin cancers.
Sandalwood oil has been utilizing for a variety of purposes throughout history, with its integration into foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. It’s now being increasingly recognized for effects on wrinkle skin. In this review article, a brief analyze has been discussed on various skin disorders especially skin ageing, skin appearance and wrinkle skin & description of sandalwood oil and use of sandalwood oil by topical skin applications. Thus, it focuses on the therapeutic benefits of sandalwood oil according to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action, it is to describe the Nitric Oxide (NO) scavenging activities and cell regulatory properties on wrinkle skin.
East Indian Sandalwood Oil (EISO) has diverse beneficial effects and has been used for thousands of years in traditional folk-medicine for treatment of different human ailments. However, there has been no in-depth scientific investigation to decipher the neuroprotective and geroprotective mechanism of EISO and its principle components, α- and β-santalol. Hence the current study was undertaken to assess the protective effects of EISO, and α- and β-santalol against neurotoxic (6-OHDA/6-hydroxydopamine) and proteotoxic (α-synuclein) stresses in a Caenorhabditis elegans model. Initially, we found that EISO and its principle components exerted an excellent antioxidant and antiapoptotic activity as it was able to extend the lifespan, and inhibit the ROS generation, and germline cell apoptosis in 6-OHDA-intoxicated C. elegans. Further, we showed that supplementation of EISO, and α- and β-santalol reduced the 6-OHDA and α-synuclein-induced Parkinson's disease associated pathologies and improved the physiological functions. The genetic and reporter gene expression analysis revealed that an EISO, or α- and β-santalol-mediated protective effect does not appear to rely on DAF-2/DAF-16, but selectively regulates SKN-1 and its downstream targets involved in antioxidant defense and geroprotective processes. Together, our findings indicated that EISO and its principle components are worth exploring further as a candidate redox-based neuroprotectant for the prevention and management of age-related neurological disorders.
Background: Santalum album L. (Fam. Santalaceae) is a small evergreen tree distributed in South India mainly on the Deccan plateau, especially in Mysore and Tamil Nadu. The heartwood is highly prized and medicinally useful; Santalum album is one of the ingredients in many Ayurvedic and Siddha formulations. Objective: The present study brings out macro-microscopic atlas on heartwood of medicinal plant Santalum album L. Materials and Methods: Sections and powder were observed and photographed under different magnifications with the help of Olympus BX51 Microscopic unit fitted with Olympus Camera. Results: Macroscopically odour and taste, microscopically tyloses, fibres, tailed pitted vessels, uni and biseriate medullary rays, brownish content and oil globules are the unique diagnostic characters reported. Conclusion: The finding of the present study is believed to be helpful in identifying the correct botanical source of the plant in crude form and also standardization of herbal formulation containin sandalwood as in redient
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Developing methods for routine clonal propagation of sandalwood (Santalum austrocaledonicum) is important for its domestication and development as a commercial agroforestry species. The amenability of this species to propagation by leafy stem cuttings in low-cost non-mist propagators was assessed in four separate experiments. These experiments evaluated the effects of (1) genotype (15 genotypes from two island provenances), (2) cutting position on the stock plant (apical, medial and basal), (3) cutting size (1-node/400 mm² and 2-node/800 mm² leaf area), (4) three propagation media [scoria (5 mm, air-filled porosity (AFP)—29%), vermiculite and perlite (1:1 v/v, AFP—46%) and vermiculite, perlite and peat (2:2:1 v/v/v, AFP—42%)], (5) indole-3-butyric (IBA) (3000, 4000 and 8000 ppm) and (6) irradiance in the propagator [daily light integral (DLI) 5.3, 3.9, 2.6, 2.2 mol m⁻² day⁻¹]. IBA, propagation media and cutting size had no significant effect on rooting percentage, root number or root growth. Evidence of provenance-based variation in rooting capacity was recorded with greater rooting success for genotypes from the island of Erromango compared with Tanna. Variation in adventitious root induction was also recorded between individual genotypes from Erromango across all four experiments. Cuttings collected from the apical and medial parts of the shoot on the stock plant had higher rooting percentage than those collected from the base. Differences in rooting capacity between apical and medial shoots were variable between experiments and may be attributed to different levels of hardening. The use of artificial shade (~ 70%) to achieve a mean DLI of between 2.6 and 3.9 mol m⁻² day⁻¹ increased rooting percentage compared to both lower (2.2 mol m⁻² day⁻¹ or ~ 90% shade) and higher (5.3 mol m⁻² day⁻¹ or ~ 50% shade) irradiance treatments. Leaf retention of cuttings in the propagator was positively associated with the percentage of cuttings with adventitious roots, with highest percentage in cuttings with full leaf retention, regardless of original cutting size. This study demonstrated S. austrocaledonicum seedlings can be successfully propagated by cuttings provided the propagation conditions are optimized for each genotype.
West Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) has long been exploited for its fragrant, sesquiterpene-rich heartwood; however sandalwood fragrance qualities vary substantially, which is of interest to the sandalwood industry. We investigated metabolite profiles of trees from the arid northern and southeastern and semi-arid southwestern regions of West Australia for patterns in composition and co-occurrence of sesquiterpenes. Total sesquiterpene content was similar across the entire sample collection; however sesquiterpene composition was highly variable. Northern populations contained the highest levels of desirable fragrance compounds, α- and β-santalol, as did individuals from the southwest. Southeastern populations were higher in E,E-farnesol, an undesired allergenic constituent, and low in santalols. These trees generally also contained higher levels of α-bisabolol. E,E-farnesol co-occurred with dendrolasin. Contrasting α-santalol and E,E-farnesol chemotypes revealed potential for future genetic tree improvement. Although chemical variation was evident both within and among regions, variation was generally lower within regions. Our results showed distinct patterns in chemical diversity of S. spicatum across its natural distribution, consistent with earlier investigations into sandalwood population genetics. These results are relevant for plantation tree improvement and conservation efforts.
Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is native species of Indonesia, especially in East Nusa Tenggara, is one
of the twenty two species of the genus Santalum in the world. Sandalwood is an important tree because it has
high economic value can produce sandal oil these can be used for perfumes, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and
are often used in religious ceremonies. In vitro particularly somatic embryogenesis has been widely applied
in the propagation of sandalwood. The Objective of this research is to obtain regeneration of sandalwood
through somatic embryogenesis using leaves explant from various clones. Medium for embryo induction is MS
(Murashige and Skoog, 1962) solid medium containing treatment of 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)
at various concentrations. To the media 0,15 mg /l kinetin, 40 g/l sucrose, and 2,5 g/l gelrite were added.
Culture were incubated in the dark. Medium for Embryo development (maturation) is MS solid medium
containing treatment of BAP (Benzyl-amino-purine) at various concentrations. To the media 0,01 mg /l NAA
(Napthalene-acetic-acid), 40 g/l sucrose, and 2,5 g/l gelrite were added. Culture were incubated in the light. To
study the specifi c structure of sandalwood somatic embryo early detection was conducted using histological
analysis. Results of anova showed that the clones, media, and interaction between clones with media did not
signifi cantly affect the development of sandalwood callus percentage. Results of anova showed that the clones
and BAP concentration signifi cantly effect to the embryo development of sandalwood.
Sandalwood (Santalum album Linn.) is an important tree species in peninsular India because of its high economic value and is the best endemic tree in the world. Past regulations and policies have been identified as the main cause for the decrease in Sandalwood population, particularly in southern parts of India. Stringent regulations and policies which excluded farming communities from growing sandalwood resulted in scarcity of Sandalwood which in turn increased demand-supply gap. Human intervention, however, has decreased sandalwood adaptation capability for its sustainability. Due to high value of sandalwood and its oil and rising demand in domestic and international markets, prices have skyrocketed. Smuggling of Sandalwood has created socio-economic and law and order problems in all Sandalwood producing states. Karnataka Forest (Amendment) Act, 2001 allows cultivation of sandalwood trees on private lands. This comes as a major policy change as far as sandalwood cultivation is concerned. Liberalization of policies of different States in southern parts of India encourages commercial plantation, but much remains in encouraging the corporate sector to embark on plantation of this economically important pride species. The severe shortage of sandalwood, hitting user industries like perfume, soaps and medicine, has encouraged the policy makers to make pragmatic changes in the policies and rules and make it more economical and to sustain this valued resource in India. The governments of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu amended the sandalwood laws in 2001 and 2002, respectively, and made the grower an owner of the wood. This amendment encouraged the farmers to take up cultivation on a commercial scale. This paper focuses on the policies in sustaining Sandalwood resources in India.
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) technique was employed to extract the essential oil from sandalwood (Santalum album L.). The optimal conditions for microwave-assisted extraction of sandalwood oil were determined by response surface methodology. A central composite design (CCD) was applied to evaluate the effects of three independent variables (microwave power (A: 400-800 W), plant material to solvent ratio (B: 0.10-0.20 g mL-1) and extraction time (C: 40-120 min)) on the extraction yield of sandalwood oil. The correlation analysis of the mathematical-regression model indicated that quadratic polynomial model could be employed to optimize the microwave extraction of sandalwood oil. The optimal extraction conditions of sandalwood oil was microwave power 558.071W, plant material to solvent ratio 0.100274 g mL-1 and extraction time 101.688 min. The maximum sandalwood oil yield was 0.655534 g/100g dry weight under these optimal conditions. Under the extraction condition, the experimental values agreed with the predicted results by analysis of variance. It indicated high fitness of the model used and the success of response surface methodology for optimizing and reflect the expected extraction condition.
Oil from sandalwood is commonly obtained by a conventional distillation process which requires great energy, significant amount of solvents, and quite a long process time. Therefore, the use of new 'green technique' for extracting essential oil with minimum/low energy, solvents, and time need to be considered. One extraction method which has been succesfully developed is microwave hydrodistillation method. This research employs a method developed from microwave hydrodistillation, that is microwave air-hydrodistillation for optimizing the extraction of essential oil. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of the presence and absence of additional air flow to the microwave hydrodistillation method. The material used in this study includes sandalwood powder. The extractions by microwave hydrodistillation and microwave air-hydrodistillation methods were done on the power of 600W; the ratio of the raw material to be extracted and the solvent was 0.05 g mL-1 and the extraction time was 120 minutes. In the extraction by microwave air-hydrodistillation, the rates of air flow used were 0.1, 0.5, 1.5, 3.0, and 5.0 L/min. The results of the research show that the extraction of sandalwood oil by microwave air-hydrodistillation is faster and produces higher yields and recovery accumulation compared to the extraction by microwave hydrodistillation method. The testing of the physical properties of the sandalwood oil indicates that essential oil obtained by microwave hydrodistillation and microwave air-hydrodistillation has the same quality (refractive index and specific gravity). Further, the testing of the chemical properties of the sandalwood oil shows that essential oil obtained by microwave air-hydrodistillation has better quality (flavor) compared to the oil obtained by microwave hydrodistillation.
The plant extracts of 17 commonly used Indian medicinal plants were examined for their possible regulatory effect on nitric oxide (NO) levels using sodium nitroprusside as an NO donor in vitro. Most of the plant extracts tested demonstrated direct scavenging of NO and exhibited significant activity. The potency of scavenging activity was in the following order: Alstonia scholaris > Cynodon dactylon > Morinda citrifolia > Tylophora indica > Tectona grandis > Aegle marmelos (leaf) > Momordica charantia > Phyllanthus niruri > Ocimum sanctum > Tinospora cordifolia (hexane extract) = Coleus ambonicus > Vitex negundo (alcoholic) > T cordifolia (dichloromethane extract) > T. cord folia (methanol extract) > Ipomoea digitata > V negundo (aqueous) > Boerhaavia diffusa > Eugenia jambolana (seed) > T. cord folia (aqueous extract) > V. negundo (dichloromethane/methanol extract) > Gingko biloba > Picrorrhiza kurroa > A. marmelos (fruit) > Santalum album > E. jambolana (leaf). All the extracts evaluated exhibited a dose-dependent NO scavenging activity. The A. scholaris bark showed its greatest NO scavenging effect of 81.86% at 250 mug/mL, as compared with G. biloba, where 54.9% scavenging was observed at a similar concentration. The present results suggest that these medicinal plants might be potent and novel therapeutic agents for scavenging of NO and the regulation of pathological conditions caused by excessive generation of NO and its oxidation product, peroxynitrite.
Main conclusion:
Sustainable resource preservation of Santalum species that yield commercially important forest products is needed. This review provides an understanding of their basic biology, propagation, hemi-parasitic nature, reproductive biology, and biotechnology. Many species of the genus Santalum (Santalaceae) have been exploited unremittingly for centuries, resulting in the extinction of one and the threatened status of three other species. This reduction in biodiversity of sandalwood has resulted from the commercial exploitation of its oil-rich fragrant heartwood. In a bid to conserve the remaining germplasm, biotechnology provides a feasible, and effective, means of propagating members of this genus. This review provides a detailed understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying the success or failure of traditional propagation, including a synopsis of the process of hemi-parasitism in S. album, and of the suitability of host plants to sustain the growth of seedlings and plants under forestry production. For the mass production of economically important metabolites, and to improve uniformity of essential oils, the use of clonal material of similar genetic background for cultivation is important. This review summarizes traditional methods of sandalwood production with complementary and more advanced in vitro technologies to provide a basis for researchers, conservationists and industry to implement sustainable programs of research and development for this revered genus.
Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) commonly known as Indian Sandalwood is one of the oldest and precious sources of natural fragrance with immense medicinal and commercial significance. S. album has been grown in India for the last 25 centuries and esteemed all over the world for its sweet, long-lasting and medicinally valued fragrant oil. Sandalwood and the essential oil derived from sandal heartwood have been used in various traditional systems of medicine, like Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicine in the treatment and prevention of wide range of ailments. The versatile therapeutic and healthcare importance of sandawood is attributed to the rich source of phytochemicals particularly sesquiterpeness. A thorough bibliographic investigation was carried out by analyzing worldwide accepted scientific database (Pub Med, SciFinder, Scopus, ACS and Web of Science), recognized books, Indexed as well as non indexed journals. Modern pharmacological studies have demonstrated a wide range of pharmacological activities ranging from antibacterial to anti-cancer. No significant toxicity has been indicated by sandalwood oil and its individual constituents; however, further study on chemical constituents and their mechanisms in exhibiting certain biological activities are needed to understand the full phytochemical profile and the complex pharmacological effects of this plant. The increased commercial exploitation of Sandalwood and low productivity of this endangered plant has raised the concern over its conservation and productivity enhancement through modern tools and techniques. The review discusses traditional uses, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and biological activities of sandalwood in order to divulge its medicinal and industrial worth and gaps requiring future research.
Effective management of tumorigenesis requires development of better anticancer agents with greater efficacy and fewer side-effects. Natural products are important sources for the development of chemotherapeutic agents and almost 60% of anticancer drugs are of natural origin. α-Santlol, a sesquiterpene isolated from Sandalwood, is known for a variety of therapeutic properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-viral and anti-bacterial activities. Cell line and animal studies reported chemopreventive effects of sandalwood oil and α-santalol without causing toxic side-effects. Our laboratory identified its anticancer effects in chemically-induced skin carcinogenesis in CD-1 and SENCAR mice, ultraviolet-B-induced skin carcinogenesis in SKH-1 mice and in vitro models of melanoma, non-melanoma, breast and prostate cancer. Its ability to induce cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in cancer cells is its most reported anticancer mechanism of action. The present review discusses studies that support the anticancer effect and the mode of action of sandalwood oil and α-santalol in carcinogenesis.
Copyright© 2015 International Institute of Anticancer Research (Dr. John G. Delinassios), All rights reserved.
Four commercial qualities of Hawaiian sandalwood oil produced from wood of Santalum paniculatum originating from the island of Hawaii ("The Big Island") were analyzed using GC and GC-MS. Main constituents of the oils were (Z)-α-santalol (34.5-40.4%) and (Z)-β-santalol (11.0-16.2%). An odor evaluation of the oils was carried out against East Indian sandalwood oil. In addition, the chemical composition of Hawaiian sandalwood oil was compared with four different Santalum species originating from East India, New Caledonia, Eastern Polynesia and Australia, respectively.
The essential oil of the fruits of Ferula badrakema was obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC, GC-MS and 13C-NMR spectroscopy. Seventy-four components, representing 98.2 % of the oil were characterized. The major components of the fruits oil were β-pinene (45.8 %), α-pinene (10.9 %), cis-isolongifolanone (4.1 %), β-phellandrene (2.7 %), myrcene (2.4 %), and carvacrol methyl ether (2.4 %). The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of the essential oil and α-pinene, β-pinene as authentic compounds were determined using broth dilution method against four bacteria and one fungus. The essential oil of the fruits was moderately active against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus as gram positive bacteria, and Candida albicans as fungal strain with 3.125 mg/ml, 12.5 mg/ml and 6.25 mg/ml MICs, respectively. The gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) appeared not to be susceptible to inhibitory effects of this essential oil.
Appropriate storage of essential oils is important to retain their quality until their marketing by the producers or their utilization in flavour and fragrance consumer products by the industry. Water, air, light are reported to influence the composition of essential oils during prolonged storage, if they are improperly stored. In India, aromatic crops are cultivated largely by small and marginal farmers with limited resources and traders often report that farmers bring essential oils mixed with different proportions of distillation water. A laboratory experiment was therefore, conducted to investigate the influence of presence of varying quantities of water for short storage periods, on the composition of major chemical constituents of the essential oils of four economically important aromatic crops namely, palmarosa {Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats. var. motia Burk., Family: Poaceae}, lemongrass {Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud) Wats., Family: Poaceae}, citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt., Family: Poaceae) and lemon-scented gum (Eucalyptus citriodora Hook., Family: Myrtaceae). Principal chemical constituents of the essential oils of palmarosa (geraniol: 80.1 – 84.2 %, geranyl acetate: 10.3 – 11.3 %, linalool: 3.4 – 3.5 %), lemongrass (citral: 73.3 – 75.9 %, geraniol: 5.3 – 5.6 %), citronella (citronellal: 35.1 – 37.9 %, citronellol: 18.0 – 19.0 %, geraniol: 16.8 – 17.5 %, linalool: 1.4 – 1.5 %) and lemon-scented gum (citronellal: 73.9 – 76.3 %, isopulegol: 4.9–6.8 %, citronellol: 5.0 – 5.5 %, linalool: 1.0 – 1.3 %) did not significantly differ during the short storage periods of 1 to 15 days in the presence of 10 % or 20 % (by volume of the essential oils) of water.
Medicinally, sandalwood oil (SO) has been attributed with antiinflammatory properties; however, mechanism(s) for this activity have not been elucidated. To examine how SOs affect inflammation, cytokine antibody arrays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to assess changes in production of cytokines and chemokines by co-cultured human dermal fibroblasts and neo-epidermal keratinocytes exposed to lipopolysaccharides and SOs from Western Australian and East Indian sandalwood trees or to the primary SO components, α-santalol and β-santalol. Lipopolysaccharides stimulated the release of 26 cytokines and chemokines, 20 of which were substantially suppressed by simultaneous exposure to either of the two sandalwood essential oils and to ibuprofen. The increased activity of East Indian SO correlated with increased santalol concentrations. Purified α-santalol and β-santalol equivalently suppressed production of five indicator cytokines/chemokines at concentrations proportional to the santalol concentrations of the oils. Purified α-santalol and β-santalol also suppressed lipopolysaccharide-induced production of the arachidonic acid metabolites, prostaglandin E2, and thromboxane B2, by the skin cell co-cultures. The ability of SOs to mimic ibuprofen non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs that act by inhibiting cyclooxygenases suggests a possible mechanism for the observed antiinflammatory properties of topically applied SOs and provides a rationale for use in products requiring antiinflammatory effects. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Sandalwood finds numerous applications in Ayurveda. The bioactive and fragrant constituents of the essential oil are sesquiterpenoid alcohols known as santalols. Typically, GC and GC-MS have been used to analyze santalols. However, there are no HPTLC-based methods available. Hence, we evaluated the sesquiterpenoids from sandalwood oil by means of an HPTLC method. Using a standard curve based on á-santalol (y=684.8x +5970, r2= 0.887), the sesquiterpenoids were quantified by HPTLC. Furthermore, solvent extracts of in vitro grown somatic embryos were analyzed for the first time to quantify sesquiterpenoids. The results obtained from HPTLC were compared against that of GC. We found out that, GC and HPTLC analyses could resolve 16 and 9 major constituents of sandalwood oil, respectively. Besides, the sesquiterpenoid content in somatic embryos was 55.75 ± 12.36 ng g-1 FW. The sesquiterpenoid alcohol content of sandalwood oil was 2.5 folds higher than somatic embryo. Furthermore, we showed that by using HPTLC derived spectral scans at 208 nm as fingerprints of á- and â- santalols, it could be helpful in identification of the constituents. We conclude that an HPTLC based analysis method allows routine identification of sesquiterpenoids. Additionally, the somatic embryos hold potential as an alternative bioresource for obtaining sesquiterpenoid constituents present in sandalwood oil.
VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) inhibitors, as efficient antiangiogenesis agents, have been applied in the cancer treatment. However, recently, most of these anticancer drugs have some adverse effects. Discovery of novel VEGFR2 inhibitors as anticancer drug candidates is still needed.
We used alpha-santalol and analyzed its inhibitory effects on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and Prostate tumor cells (PC-3 or LNCaP) in vitro. Tumor xenografts in nude mice were used to examine the in vivo activity of alpha-santalol.
alpha-santalol significantly inhibits HUVEC proliferation, migration, invasion, and tube formation. Western blot analysis indicated that alpha-santalol inhibited VEGF-induced phosphorylation of VEGFR2 kinase and the downstream protein kinases including AKT, ERK, FAK and Src, mTOR, and pS6K in HUVEC, PC-3 and LNCaP cells. alpha-santalol treatment inhibited ex vivo and in vivo angiogenesis as evident by rat aortic and sponge implant angiogenesis assay. alpha-santalol significantly reduced the volume and the weight of solid tumors in prostate xenograft mouse model. The antiangiogenic effect by CD31 immunohistochemical staining indicated that alpha-santalol inhibited tumorigenesis by targeting angiogenesis. Furthermore, alpha-santalol reduced the cell viability and induced apoptosis in PC-3 cells, which were correlated with the downregulation of AKT, mTOR and P70S6K expressions. Molecular docking simulation indicated that alpha-santalol form hydrogen bonds and aromatic interactions within the ATP-binding region of the VEGFR2 kinase unit.
alpha-santalol inhibits angiogenesis by targeting VEGFR2 regulated AKT/mTOR/P70S6K signaling pathway, and could be used as a potential drug candidate for cancer therapy.
Santalum album (Indian Sandalwood) is found in the mountainous regions of the intermediate zone of Sri Lanka. Few studies have been conducted on sandalwood ecology in this region, and ours is the first recorded study of essential oil content and chemical composition of heartwood. We harvested two trees with State permission and took cross-sections for analysis. We demonstrated a difference in the heartwood formation and oil yield of the trees. The composition of the oil was found to be consistent between trees and along the trunk of the tree. Main aromatic compounds were santalols and other compounds are recorded in lesser quantities. Results of this study comply with the other published work on sandalwood elsewhere. This initial study on S. album in Sri Lanka provided promising results for the future of sandalwood agroforestry.
Santalum album L. (Sandalwood) is one of the pharmacologically valued tree species. The essential oil derived from its heartwood has much more commercial importance, and is an active ingredient in various traditional medicine systems for the management and prevention of various illnesses all over the world. The versatile therapeutic and healthcare importance of Sandalwood is attributed to the rich source of phytochemicals, particularly sesquiterpenes. A variety of biological properties and impending health benefits of Sandalwood have been testified, including anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic activities, and protecting properties on the gastric mucosa, liver and nervous system. No significant toxicity has been indicated by Sandalwood oil or its individual constituents. The present chapter discusses traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Sandalwood. Also, it provides an understanding of Sandalwood oil extraction methods, chemistry of the compounds and their medicinal importance.
Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) tree flourishes well from the sea level up to above 1800 m altitude in different types of soils and climate. Sandalwood is a valuable forest tree, however, its disappearance from the natural habitat is at an alarming rate. Attempts have been taken to cultivate the species in farmlands to increase its production. The productive establishing of Sandalwood plantations and the increase of heartwood and oil extraction from these trees is very critical. The growth of Sandalwood is better in presence of a host plant, though it can grow without a host. Tree growth is the outcome of numerous and enormously complex processes, and it could be in terms of tree height, diameter at breast height, basal area or volume. In many instances, the growth takes place in a certain pattern, and it takes a considerable period to obtain information on growth behavior and to estimate expected yield based on the growth. Yield is proportional to heartwood girth which is dependent on site quality, type of soil, etc., and essential oil’s yield and quality vary depending on the area of cultivation and age of the plant. In this chapter, details of geo-climatic factors, climatic conditions, geology, topography and soil, where this tree species is habitually distributed are discussed, comprising natural regeneration, phenological details, and vegetative methods of propagation. Further, aspects of seed dormancy, seed germination, and host-sandalwood parasitism are also detailed. Silvicultural practices like inter-cultural operations and tree improvement are highlighted.
Santalum macgregorii (sandalwood), which is endemic to the southern part of Papua New Guinea (PNG), has been heavily exploited for its fragrant heartwood and is classified as threatened across its natural range. Domestication and smallholder agroforestry offer the means to preserve remaining diversity. This study was undertaken to understand the extent of remaining natural variation to support the species’s conservation and domestication. We evaluated morphological, heartwood and essential oil characters in 126 S. macgregorii trees in five populations (districts) in PNG’s Central, Gulf and Western provinces. The heartwood oil of this species is characterised by extreme tree-to-tree variation in key fragrant compounds. Proportions of individual compounds range from negligible to high for (Z)-α-santalol (0.5–51%), (Z)-β-santalol (0–24.2%), (Z)-nuciferol (0–40.5%) and (Z)-lanceol (0–72%). Despite the wide variation found within populations, an ordination of seven oil constituents revealed broad provenance-based variation in which trees from the eastern provinces (i.e. Central and Gulf) were more influenced by (Z)-nuciferol content and the trees from the Western Province site were more strongly influenced by (Z)-lanceol. The driver of this variation was the different associations between oil constituents, with (Z)-α- and (Z)-β-santalol both negatively correlated with (Z)-nuciferol for sites in the eastern provinces and (Z)-lanceol in Western Province. No evidence of distinct chemotypes was found, with continuous variation demonstrated across all major oil constituents. Of the trees surveyed with a basal diameter of >10 cm, 79% had heartwood. Mean heartwood percentage was 15.8% of basal area, with no significant differences between sites. Significant tree-to-tree variation in heartwood percentage (0–61%) was found. A modest positive correlation was found between stem and heartwood diameter (r = 0.39). Heartwood percentage and heartwood oil quality varied independently and, therefore, independent selection of these traits may be required for their simultaneous improvement. The population in Western Province is non-contiguous with those in the eastern part of the species distribution. It also has a distinct phenotype based on oil composition, leaf shape, flower colour and potential reproductive failure. It is possible that sandalwood in Western Province is more closely related to the proximal populations of S. lanceolatum in Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, than the more distant populations of S. macgregorii in PNG. While these phenotypic features do not necessarily discriminate a new species, molecular genetic research is required to determine the potential existence of a cryptic species of sandalwood. The implications of the variation found in S. macgregorii are discussed with respect to its domestication and conservation.
Indian sandalwood oil is an essential oil (EO) obtained from the heartwood of Santalum album L tree. Thirty-eight sandalwood (SW) EO samples, including ten samples from heartwood of S. album and twenty-eight trade samples of SW EOs, were assessed for refractive index (RI), relative density (RD) and α- and β-santalol content. RI and RD values were found within the ranges of 1.4554 to 1.5035 and 0.943 to 1.472 respectively. The percentage of α- and β-santalols in these samples ranged from 0 to 54.28 % and 0 to 25.94 % respectively. The EO samples with α- and β-santalol content from 48.2 to 54.28 % and 19.15 to 25.94 % respectively were comparable with the pure sandalwood EO as described in Indian Standard (IS329-2004). Only about less than one third of the commercial SW EOs met with IS329-2004. The statistical significant difference and prioritization analysis were checked by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test and Grey Relational Analysis method, respectively. The presence of the adulterants diethyl phthalate (DEP) and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in some of the EOs were ascertained and quantified by respective standard and regression curve of standard. Very high content of DEP (up to 4.4 x105 ppm) and DEHP (up to 8.0 x105 ppm) were detected in some of the commercially available sandalwood EOs. Thus, it is concluded that quality control and authentication for high valued sandalwood EO should mainly rely on its physical (RI and RD), chemical analysis (level of α- and β-santalol content).
Sandalwood (Santalum album) oil is an important export commodity in many countries. It is important for the industry to have a capacity for rapid and accurate determination of oil content and quality for commercial samples. The effect of extraction methods (i.e., steam-distillation, hydro-distillation, subcritical CO2 extraction and solvent extraction) on the oil yield and concentration of major components in a commercial sample was reported. The highest oil yield was obtained from subcritical CO2 (3.83 g/L) extraction followed by the solvent extraction (2.45–3.7 g/L), hydrodistillations (1.86–2.68 g/L) and steam distillation (1.60 g/L). The highest levels of α- and β-santalol were found in the oils extracted with subcritical CO2 (83%), ethyl alcohol (84%) and steam distillation (84%). Organoleptic properties were remarkable in case of subcritical CO2. FTIR analysis has shown the sharp peaks for santalol and santalene in the oil extracted by subcritical CO2. Three of the four solvent-extracted sandalwood oils were recorded as ‘less pleasant’ indicating the generally inferior note of oil derived from these methods. Given the highest yield, the highest level of santalols, it could be concluded that subcritical CO2 is the best technology for sandalwood oil extraction.
Sandalwood is one of the most highly valuable woods in the world. The wood and oil of sandal are widely used in cultural, religious, pharmaceutical and perfumery industries. The quality analysis from the identified sandal genetic resources recorded the presence of fourty five chemical constituents by GC-MS analysis. The predominance of α-santalol and β-santalol was evidenced and these were preferred in perfumery trade. Among the sources, the wood obtained from Tirupattur, Tamil Nadu and Mysore, Karnataka proved superior in terms of α-santalol and β-santalol content. This extends scope for deploying genetic resources from these two locations for commercial utilization.
Many skin conditions and diseases are characterized by inflammation, infection, and hyperplasia. Safe and effective topical treatment options that can be used longterm are needed. Traditional botanical medicines, which are often complex mixtures that exert their biological activities via multiple mechanisms of action, are being studied as potential new active ingredients in dermatology. Sandalwood album oil (SAO), also known as East Indian sandalwood oil (EISO), is an essential oil distilled from the Santalum album tree and has demonstrated biological activity as an anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and antiproliferative agent. Sandalwood album oil has also shown promise in clinical trials for treatment of acne, psoriasis, eczema, common warts, and molluscum contagiosum. The favorable safety profile, ease of topical use, and recent availability of pharmaceutical-grade sandalwood album oil support its broader use as the basis of novel therapies in dermatology.
Essential oils or volatile oils have been traditionally used in food and beverages since time immemorial and they also have applications in several other fields. Systematic cultivation strategies of essential oil-bearing plants are necessary to ascertain the steady supply of quality plant materials for essential oil production. There are about 400 plant species which are cultivated on a large commercial scale for production of essential oils. There are several factors influencing cultivation of aromatic plants. The present chapter illustratively deals with the cultivation-related factors and contemporary cultivation strategies of some important essential oil-bearing plants.
Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is a good organic material for soil amendment over a short period of time. Several studies have investigated the stability of soil aggregates in amended fields; however, few have attempted to clarify the formation of soil aggregates. In this study, we investigated soil aggregates in fields amended with fresh SMS (from Pleurotus ostreatus) (SMS field; SF) and those without amendment (control field; CF) in Brazil by soil morphological analysis. The results demonstrated that SF was dominated by the strong development of a granular microstructure in the A horizon (15–20 cm) and a spongy structure in the B horizon (45–50 cm and 70–75 cm). These horizons had a high porosity and a high fractal dimension. Therefore, these results suggest that the addition of fresh SMS changed the soil structure and the porosity in both topsoil and subsoil. In the A horizon of SF, the granules contained a large amount of SMS residues and excrement. In the B horizon of SF, we found a large amount of plectenchymae. These results suggest that soil structure formation was related to SMS and soil fauna in the A horizon and to fungi in the B horizon.
The sandal tree, also known as Chandana in India, is botanically Santalum album L belonging to family Santalaceae.The average yield of oil ranges from 4.5-2.5%. The sweet powerful and lasting odor makes Sandalwood oil useful in perfume industry. The fragrant parts of sandalwood oil constitutes of α- and β santalols . Sandalwood oil, the essential oil of santalum album L has been tested for invitro antiviral activity against Herpes simplex viruses-1 & 2. The sedative effect of sandalwood oil as well as HESP oil on albino mice of either sex in dose of 500/ 600 mg/kg. Skin cancer-and chemo preventive efficacy of α- Santalol. K.H Shankarnarayana et al investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of sandalwood oil as well as HESP oil against yeast induced pyrexia in albino rats. A significantly high antipyretic effect observed in case of sandalwood oil and HESP and astringent activity, making it useful as disinfectant in genitourinary and bronchial tracts, diuretic, expectorant and stimulant.
Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) has been almost entirely removed from the agricultural regions of Australia. Remaining stands, in the rangelands of Western Australia, are characterised by poor recruitment due to grazing of seedlings and lack of seed dispersal. The aim of this study was to determine whether reintroduced burrowing bettongs (Bettongia lesueur) would disperse sandalwood seed as part of a rangeland-restoration project. The bettongs removed most of the experimental seed within two days, scatter hoarded and cached seed near potential host plants. No broad conclusions can be made from this short-term study, but it has established that burrowing bettongs carry out an important ecosystem service, because moving sandalwood seeds away from the parent plant and close to a host plant is the primary means of promoting recruitment.
The fragrant heartwood oil of West Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) contains a mixture of sesquiterpene olefins and alcohols, including variable levels of the valuable sesquiterpene alcohols, α- and β-santalol, and often high levels of E,E-farnesol. Transcriptome analysis revealed sequences for a nearly complete set of genes of the sesquiterpenoid biosynthetic pathway in this commercially valuable sandalwood species. Transcriptome sequences were produced from heartwood xylem tissue of a farnesol-rich individual tree. From the assembly of 12,537 contigs, seven different terpene synthases (TPSs), several cytochromes P450, and allylic phosphatases were identified, as well as transcripts of the mevalonic acid and methylerythritol phosphate pathways. Five of the S. spicatum TPS sequences were previously unknown. The full-length cDNA of SspiTPS4 was cloned and the enzyme functionally characterized as a multi-product sesquisabinene B synthase, which complements previous characterization of santalene and bisabolol synthases in S. spicatum. While SspiTPS4 and previously cloned sandalwood TPSs do not explain the prevalence of E,E-farnesol in S. spicatum, the genes identified in this and previous work can form a basis for future studies on natural variation of sandalwood terpenoid oil profiles.
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
During February to November 2004, core samples were taken from 41 trees growing in three Santalum spicatum plantations in the Wheatbelt (W–W3: age 8–11 y); one S. spicatum plantation (aged 20–25 y) from Curtin University; one Santalum album plantation (aged 15 y) also from Curtin University; and two mature natural stands of S. spicatum (aged >50 y). Each tree was cored at 150 mm and 700 mm above ground to compare heartwood percentage; oil concentration; and α-santalol, β-santalol and t, t-farnesol contents within the oil. Oils were extracted from the whole core samples (heartwood + sapwood) using ethanol, and the chemical composition was determined using a gas chromatography flame ionisation detector (GC-FID) and a mass-selective detector (GC-MS).
Santalum spicatum from the three Wheatbelt plantations had significantly lower proportions of heartwood (28–48%) than those from Curtin University (61–69%) and the natural stands (64–79%), at 150 mm and 700 mm above the ground. Santalum album at age 15 y had 57–59% heartwood at both sampling heights.
The mean total extractable oil concentrations from S. spicatum plantations growing at Curtin University. W1 and W2 (2.2–3.6%), were similar to those from mature natural stands (2.3–3.1%), at both 150 mm and 700 mm. The mean oil concentration from W3 (0.7–0.8%), however, was significantly less than the mean oil concentration from mature S. spicatum. The S. album plantation had a mean oil concentration of 1.3–2.3%.
Within the oil, W1 and Curtin University plantations had α-santalol (5.5–27.3%) and β-santalol (2.1–10.5%) contents similar to or greater than those in the natural stands (3.1–8.0% α-santalol; 1.3–3.0% α-santalol), at both sampling heights. W2 had poor oil quality with only 0.1–2.4% α-santalol and 0–0.6% α-santalol. As expected, the S. album had significantly more α- and α-santalol within the oil than S. spicatum.
Mean t, t-farnesol content within the oil from W2 and W3 (28.3–38.7%) was significantly greater than within the oil from the mature S. spicatum (10.0–16.2%), at both sampling heights. Santalum album had the lowest t, t-farnesol content of only 0.1%.
The essential oil produced from the heartwood of Santalum album L. was analyzed using GC/MS. Forty-four constituents were identified: one monoterpene and 43 sesquiterpenes. 2,10-Bisaboladien-6-ol (= β-bisabolol/epi-β-bisabolol) was one of the trace compounds found in east Indian sandalwood oil. Chiral GC analysis showed that besides the main stereoisomer, which possessed an (R,R)-configuration, all three other isomers were also present.
Natural recruitment of sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) is generally low in pastoral regions of the Midwest and Goldfields, Western Australia. Harvesting of S, spicatum for the aromatic timber occurs in these regions, creating a need to develop management strategies to conserve the species. This paper examines sandalwood recruitment over three years within a natural stand of 32 ha, near Paynes Find, Western Australia. Santalum spzcatum recruitment success was compared between three establishment treatments, and between two fencing treatments (+I-). At age three years, mean survival of S. spicatum seedlings planted next to host trees (25%) was significantly higher than those planted at harvesting spots (2%) and beneath parent trees (0%). In the unfenced treatment, there was evidence of grazing and S, spicatum survival and growth were significantly lower than in the fenced treatment. However, fencing alone did not improve S. spicatum recruitment because natural seed dispersal was poor and survival beneath parent trees was low. De-stocking, combined with seed enriching host trees is recommended to dramatically improve S, spicatum recruitment in the Paynes Find region. Santalum spicatum seedling performance was compared growing next to three N2-fixing species (Acacia burkittii, A. tetragonophylla and A. ramulosa) and one non N2-fixing species (Hakea recurva). At age three years, S. spicatum survival was significantly higher next to A. burkittii (33%) than A. tetragonophylla (1 7%). Santalum spicatum survival next to A. ramulosa and H. recurva was 24-26%. Fencing improved S. spicatum survival next to A. burkittii, and to a lesser extent next to A. tetragonophylla and A. ramulosa. In contrast, survival of S, spicatum seedlings next to H. recurva was unaffected by fencing. Santalum spicatum growth next to each host species was slow and significantly higher in the fencing treatment. Foliar concentrations of N, P, K and Ca were the same across 5'. spicatum treatments, but the concentration of Mg varied. The foliar K:Ca ratio was also similar between S. spicatum treatments, ranging from 1.4 to 2.0. Key words: Santalum spicatum, recruitment, seed enrichment, host species, foliar nutrients