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Clary sage essential oil
Abstract
Clary sage is an aromatic essential oil-bearing herb. It is widely used in aromatherapy which helps to relieve stress, anxiety as well as support in women's menstrual health. It is useful not only in the medical sphere, but also in the agricultural, culinary, and cosmetic industries. Its biological properties, viz., antimicrobial, antianxiolytic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and cytotoxic, are well established in several studies. Essential oil can be obtained from its leaves and flowers using conventional and modern methods including, steam distillation, hydrodistillation, hydrodiffusion, solvent, subcritical water, microwave heating, and combination methods. Major compounds found in S. sclarea essential oil are monoterpene alcohols such as linalool, geraniol, nerol, α-terpineol; monoterpene esters such as linalyl acetate, neryl acetate; sesquiterpene hydrocarbons such as germacrene-D, α-copaene; oxygenated sequiterpenes such as caryophyllene oxide; and diterpenes such as sclareol. Salvia sclarea oil is safe to use, and there are no adverse effects reported so far. It is further gaining popularity as natural additive in foods, smart food packaging, and cosmetics as a result of recent and novel studies.
... Oil of the plant is used to produce alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, ice creams, confectionary and bakery products (Bose et al., 2001). Clary sage essential oil has anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic properties and has been used in food packaging and wound dressings (Hans et al., 2023). ...
Medicinal and aromatic plants or MAPs can be defined as plants containing compounds with medicinal and aromatic properties that can have a positive effect on the human or animal body. In addition, medicinal and aromatic plants are known to contain biologically active compounds. Bioactive components obtained from these plants can be used in various industrial applications. These plants are effectively used in several fields such as health protection, nutritional supplements, essential oils, inks, paints, lubricants, cosmetics, plastics, and nutrition. Essential oils have a wide range of uses in the pharmaceutical, food, feed, and other sectors. In addition, oils from various aromatic plants are also used as lubricants. Another application of medicinal and aromatic plants is fabric coloring. The extracts of these plants are used to color fabrics as a natural and environmentally friendly alternative, while their flowers, leaves, or roots are used to make perfumes in the cosmetics industry. They can also be used as natural packaging materials in the food industry to extend shelf life. Medicinal aromatic plants have increased interest in the industry by offering economically and environmentally sustainable alternatives. This chapter aims to identify and examine the various uses of compounds derived from medicinal aromatic plants.
Staphylococcus aureus, particularly multi-drug resistant strains, presents significant challenges in dairy farming due to its role in causing bovine mastitis, which leads to substantial economic losses and limited treatment options. Seeking alternative therapies, we investigated the potential of a topical formulation derived from the medicinal herb Salvia officinalis to combat S. aureus growth and biofilms associated with bovine mastitis. Through systematic extraction in different solvents and fractionation by column chromatography, we isolated and identified three key multicyclic terpenoids—ferruginol, sugiol, and sclareol—exhibiting significant antimicrobial activity. The formulation effectively inhibited biofilm formation, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 0.09 to 0.74 mg ml−1 against clinical S. aureus strains, comparable to or lower than those of the pure compounds. Moreover, it displayed robust anti-adhesive properties, reducing biofilm formation by 20%–79% at subinhibitory concentrations. Furthermore, the formulation successfully disrupted pre-existing biofilms, achieving reductions ranging from 30% to 82%. Cytotoxicity assays confirmed the safety of the formulation on mammary epithelial cells, with cell viability maintained at 100% at MIC. Our findings underscore the therapeutic potential of Sa. officinalis-derived compounds in managing bovine mastitis caused by S. aureus, emphasizing their antimicrobial efficacy and safety profile.
Salvia sclarea essential oil is used as an aromatic therapy for dysmenorrhea. Sclareol—one of the natural products isolated from S. sclarea—displays anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities; however, researchers have not yet evaluated the mechanism related to the pain-relieving effect of sclareol. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the potential effect of sclareol in ex vivo and in vivo dysmenorrhea models, as well as its possible mechanism. In the ex vivo study of uterine tissue from Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, the uterine contraction amplitude was observed and recorded. In the in vivo study, we measured the uterine contraction pressure of SD rats and performed writhing tests on mice. The uterine tissues from the writhing test subjects were collected and analyzed by Western blot. The results demonstrated that sclareol inhibited prostaglandin (PG) F2α-, oxytocin-, acetylcholine-, carbachol-, KCl-, and Bay K 8644-induced uterine contraction and possessed an analgesic effect in the writhing test. Sclareol affects the Ca2+ level and regulates oxytocin receptor (OTR), myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase, p-p38, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and phospho-myosin light chain 20 (p-MLC20) protein expression. Integrating these results, we suggest that sclareol is a potential alternative supplement for dysmenorrhea.
Clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) essentiial oil-ethanol-water system was investigated. The surface tension, density and refractive index of clary sage essential oil + ethanol (70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90% and 95%) solutions were mesuared. The chemical composition of solution (ratio 1:5, 1:6 and 1:7) was determined using GC/MS analysis. According the experimental results ternary phase diagrams were constructed. Comparative revue between experimental and calculated surface tension data was done. After analyses good correlation between two surface tension values was observed.
Essential oils have been used as remedies since ancient times for the treatment of numerous illnesses on account of their wide range of biological activities. Recent pre-clinical and clinical studies have shown varying pharmacological responses in the nervous system leading to anxiolytic, antidepressant, sedative, and anticonvulsant effects. Experimentation in animal models has evidenced the involvement of multiple neurotransmitter systems in the mode of action of essential oils, resulting in measurable physiological effects in the brain. Additionally, clinical trials have demonstrated the influence of essential oils in physiological parameters such as blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, brain waves composition, and cortisol serum levels with concomitant psychological effects. Although there is growing evidence of measurable effects of essential oils in animal brains, more clinical research is required to validate their influence in the human central nervous system. This will enable the development of essential oil-based drugs for the treatment of mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety and dementia. K E Y W O R D S clinical trials, essential oils, molecular pathways, nervous system, neuropharmacology
Objectives
This study was conducted to determine whether essential oils had anti-influenza A/WS/33 virus activity and whether there were specific compounds associated with this activity.
Methods
There were 63 essential oils evaluated for anti-influenza (A/WS/33 virus) activity using a cytopathic effect reduction method. The chemical composition of the anti-influenza essential oils was phytochemically analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
Results
The antiviral assays demonstrated that 11 of the 62 essential oils (100 μg/mL) possessed anti-influenza activity, reducing visible cytopathic effects of influenza A/WS/33 virus activity by > 30%. Furthermore, marjoram, clary sage and anise oils exhibited anti-influenza A/WS/33 virus activity of > 52.8%. However, oseltamivir (the anti-influenza A and B drug), showed cytotoxicity at the same concentration (100 μg/mL) as the essential oils. The chemical composition detected by GC–MS analysis, differed amongst the 3 most potent anti-viral essential oils (marjoram, clary sage and anise oils) except for linalool, which was detected in all 3 essential oils.
Conclusion
This study demonstrated anti-influenza activity in 11 essential oils tested, with marjoram, clary sage and anise essential oils being the most effective at reducing visible cytopathic effects of the A/WS/33 virus. All 3 oils contained linalool, suggesting that this may have anti-influenza activity. Further investigation is needed to characterize the antiviral activity of linalool against influenza A/WS/33 virus.
Salvia sclarea (SS) is characterized by its valuable essential oils (Eos) and potent biological activities. This study aimed at investigating the phytochemical composition of SS Eos collected in within the same week, from two different regions in Lebanon, Beirut (SS-Bt) and Taanayel (SS-Tl), utilizing GC-MS methods, and to explore their acute and subchronic antidiabetic potentials. Moreover, studying the phytochemical diversity of twenty SS Eos established on our work and literature descriptions in order to recognize the origin of the Lebanese active chemotype(s). The Eos have been obtained by hydro-distillation and identified via GC-MS analyses. Five chemotypes of SS Eos have been identified. The Lebanese Eos, SS-Bt and SS-Tl, studied here have shown evidence to belong to two different chemotypes 1 and 5, respectively. SS-Bt has shown to belong to chemotype 1, which is characterized by high linalool (LL) concentration (average 40.2%). On the other hand, SS-Tl has shown to belong to chemotype 5, which is characterized by high linalyl acetate (LA) concentration (average 50.4%). The acute and subchronic antidiabetic activities of these EOs have been monitored along with LL and LA, in order to find the most active chemotype. Chemotypes 1 (owned to high LL content), present at low altitude places of Lebanon and Poland, has shown significantly higher acute and subchronic antidiabetic activities than that of chemotype 5 (owned to high LA content). In conclusion, Salvia sclarea Eos have shown potential antidiabetic activities, and their Eos might be used in the future as a complementary or an alternative medicine in the management of diabetes and related complications.
Essential oils (EOs) of clary sage and black pepper induce changes in the morphology of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) electrospun fibres. The chemical composition of the oils is analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy; while the evaporation rate of the EOs and their main chemical components is characterised by Thermogravimetric Analysis. The addition of EOs generate thermodynamic instabilities during the electrospinning process, leading to the formation of fibres with either wrinkled (for clary sage oil) or nano-textured surfaces (for black pepper oil). The morphology of the PLA-EOs fibres is investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy. Together with a well-defined structure, the fibres produced also possess antibacterial activity, as demonstrated by viability loss tests conducted on E. coli and S. epidermidis. Bacteria inactivation efficiency of 76 and 100% is reported for the composite PLA/essential oils electrospun mats. The composite mats produced are promising in the biomedical field, where nanotopography offers physical cues to regulate cell behaviour, and the delivery of therapeutic compounds (essential oils) limits microbial growth.
Objectives
This pilot study using a quasi-experimental design was conducted to evaluate the feasibility (i.e., limited efficacy, practicality, and acceptability) of our intervention protocol involving inhalation of the scent of clary sage essential oil by pregnant women and measurement of their preinhalation and postinhalation oxytocin levels.
Results
Participants were women of singleton pregnancies between 38 and 40 gestation weeks (N = 11). The experiment group (n = 5) inhaled the scent of clary sage essential oil diluted 50-fold with 10 mL of odorless propylene glycol for 20 min. Regarding limited efficacy, the oxytocin level 15 min postinhalation increased in 3 women and was unmeasurable in 2. The control group (n = 6) inhaled similarly without the 50-fold dilution of clary sage essential oil. Their oxytocin level increased in 2 women, decreased in 2, and was unmeasurable in 2. Uterine contraction was not observed in both groups. Regarding practicality, 3 of the 11 women could not collect sufficient saliva. The cortisol level decreased in both groups postinhalation. The protocol had no negative effects. Regarding acceptability, burden of the protocol was not observed.
Trial registration The Clinical Trials Registry of University Hospital Medical Information Network in Japan—UMIN000017830. Registered: June 8, 2015
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-017-3053-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Over the last 10 years great research interest has been directed toward nanofibrous architectures produced by electrospinning bioactive plant extracts. The resulting structures possess antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant activity, which are attractive for biomedical applications and food industry. This review describes the diverse approaches that have been developed to produce electrospun nanofibres that are able to deliver naturally-derived chemical compounds in a controlled way and to prevent their degradation. The efficacy of those composite nanofibres as wound dressings, scaffolds for tissue engineering, and active food packaging systems will be discussed.
The effects of clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) oil (CS-oil), and its two main components, linalool (Lol) and linalyl acetate (LA), on cells of the eukaryotic human pathogen yeast Candida albicans were studied. Dynamic and thermodynamic properties of the plasma membrane were investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, with 5-doxylstearic acid (5-SASL) and 16-SASL as spin labels. The monitoring of the head group regions with 5-SASL revealed break-point frequency decrease in a temperature dependent manner of the plasma membrane between 9.55 and 13.15 °C in untreated, in CS-oil-, Lol- and LA-treated membranes. The results suggest a significant increase in fluidity of the treated plasma membranes close to the head groups. Comparison of the results observed with the two spin labels demonstrated that CS-oil and LA induced an increased level of fluidization at both depths of the plasma membrane. Whereas Lol treatment induced a less (1 %) ordered bilayer organization in the superficial regions and an increased (10 %) order of the membrane leaflet in deeper layers. Acute toxicity tests and EPR results indicated that both the apoptotic and the effects exerted on the plasma membrane fluidity depended on the composition and chemical structure of the examined materials. In comparison with the control, treatment with CS-oil, Lol or LA induced 13.0, 12.3 and 26.4 % loss respectively, of the metabolites absorbing at 260 nm, as a biological consequence of the plasma membrane fluidizing effects. Our results confirmed that clary sage oil causes plasma membrane perturbations which leads to cell apoptosis process.
A field study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of lavender for phytoremediation of contaminated soils. The experiment was performed on an agricultural fields contaminated by the Non-Ferrous-Metal Works near Plovdiv, Bulgaria. The concentrations of Pb, Zn and Cd in lavender (roots, stems, leaves and inflorescences) and in the essential oils of lavender were determined. Lavender is a plant which is tolerant to heavy metals and can be grown on contaminated soils, and which can be referred to the hyperaccumulators of lead and the accumulators of cadmium and zinc, and can be successfully used in the phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils. Favorable is also the fact that heavy metals do not influence the development of the lavender, as well as on the quality and quantity of the essential oil. The possibility of further industrial processing will make lavender economically interesting crops for farmers of phytoextraction technology.
Essential oils are volatile compounds extracted from mostly leaves and nonwoody parts of plants. Extracted essential oils possess scent-producing compounds including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, phenols, oxides, esters, aldehydes, and ketones. Plants use these compounds for protection from various plant-feeding arthropods (e.g., insects and mites). Modes of action of essential oils vary include neurotoxicity, regulation of insect growth, deterioration of the waxy layers of the insect cuticle, impeding digestive enzymes, and inhibition of glutathione-S-transferase. Currently, only a few essential oil-based pesticides have been commercialized for agricultural use although many essential oils have been found to be very effective as pesticides. Because essential oils are environmentally friendly they can play an important role as pesticides in integrated pest management and organic farming. In this chapter, modes of action of essential oils, essential oils for arthropod pest management, and advantages and disadvantages of essential oils as pesticides are presented and discussed.
Salvia sclarea L., thanks to its essential oil profile, is cultivated in several countries in the Mediterranean Basin. Plant density and weed control are important cultural techniques that could affect flower yield of this species, while postharvest management includes factors that might affect essential oil quality, depending on whether the essential oil is extracted from fresh or dried inflorescences. Thus, the present study aimed at investigating cultural techniques on clary sage inflorescences and oil yield and the postharvest management on the essential oil quality. The field experiment consisted of testing 1 ) two plant densities (4.76 plants/m2; 3.17 plants/m 2) and 2) two weed control techniques (manual vs. mulching). The inflorescences were split into two postharvest managements: a) fresh samples for direct essential oil extraction and b) 50°C dried samples for essential oil extraction. The interaction between weed control and plant density did not significantly affect any biometrical parameter, nor did the main factors. However, the weed control resulted fundamental to overcome the critical period after transplanting, when the plantlets are not competitive. Postharvest management only significantly influenced essential oil content (P = 0.010) and 10 of the 19 compounds. The essential oil content distilled from dried herb was 0.02% (w/w) referred to fresh material, with a decrease of ca. 50% respect to the essential oil distilled from the fresh herb. The main compounds found in the clary sage essential oil were linalyl acetate, linalool and germacrene D, and constituted about 80% of essential oil. The first two compounds were significantly influenced by the drying process, whilst germacrene D was not influenced (mean value 10.38%). The reduction in linalool ( 12.52% to 3.10%) was followed by an increase in linalyl acetate (57.13% to 68.40%) that is the linalool ester form. The essential oil distilled from clary sage resulted similar to the essential oil composition found in Lavandula angustifolia L, reported to have an antifungal activity. The two main monoterpenes found in clary sage should be verified for antimicrobial activity, thus clary sage essential oil could be exploited in the food industry as a natural preservative. As regards the postharvest management tested, the drying process is a fundamental factor affecting the quantity and the quality of the essential oil extracted. The present work demonstrates that 50°C, the most commercial temperature used for drying, is not a suitable temperature to preserve the terpene fraction of the clary sage essential oil.
Essential oil obtained from Salvia sclarea L. leaves was tested for hepatoprotective, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene down regulation and cytotoxic activities. Histopathology of liver tissue showed severe inflammation and necrosis after treatment with 1.5μg lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/30g body weight of BALB/c mice. A decrease in inflammation was observed with the treatment of different concentrations of essential oil. Necrosis and infiltration of hepatocytes were barely seen at 100μg of oil. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis showed down regulation of iNOS at transcriptional level. Growth of HeLa cells was inhibited by the oil with an IC50 of 80.69±0.01μg/mL. Propidium iodide (PI) staining revealed the presence of apoptosis in oil treated cells. The findings indicate that S. sclarea essential oil is a promising natural source which may be useful for herbal medicine preparation.
Nowadays, essential oils are recognized as safe substances and can be used as antibacterial additives. Salvia sclarea is one of the most important aromatic plants cultivated world-wide as a source of essential oils. In addition to being flavoring foods, Salvia sclarea essential oil can also act as antimicrobials and preservatives against food spoilage. Understanding more about the antibacterial performance and possible mechanism of Salvia sclarea essential oil will be helpful for its application in the future. But so far few related researches have been reported.
In our study, Salvia sclarea oil showed obvious antibacterial activity against all tested bacterial strains. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericide concentration (MBC) of seven pathogens were 0.05 and 0.1 % respectively. In addition, Salvia sclarea oil also exhibited a significant inhibitory effect on the growth of Escherichia coli (E. coli) in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and meats. After treated with Salvia sclarea oil, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images can clearly see the damage of cell membrane; the intracellular ATP concentrations of E. coli and S. aureus reduced 98.27 and 69.61 % respectively, compared to the control groups; the nuclear DNA content of E. coli and S. aureus was significantly reduced to 48.32 and 50.77 % respectively. In addition, there was massive leakage of cellular material when E. coli and S. aureus were exposed to Salvia sclarea oil.
Salvia sclarea essential oil damaged the cell membrane and changed the cell membrane permeability, leading to the release of some cytoplasm such as macromolecular substances, ATP and DNA. In general, the antimicrobial action of Salvia sclarea essential oil is not only attributable to a unique pathway, but also involves a series of events both on the cell surface and within the cytoplasm. Therefore, more experiments need to be done to fully understand the antimicrobial mechanism of Salvia sclarea essential oil.
Nowadays, use of alternative and complementary therapies with mainstream medicine has gained the momentum. Aromatherapy is one of the complementary therapies which use essential oils as the major therapeutic agents to treat several diseases. The essential or volatile oils are extracted from the flowers, barks, stem, leaves, roots, fruits and other parts of the plant by various methods. It came into existence after the scientists deciphered the antiseptic and skin permeability properties of essential oils. Inhalation, local application and baths are the major methods used in aromatherapy that utilize these oils to penetrate the human skin surface with marked aura. Once the oils are in the system, they remodulate themselves and work in a friendly manner at the site of malfunction or at the affected area. This type of therapy utilizes various permutation and combinations to get relief from numerous ailments like depression, indigestion, headache, insomnia, muscular pain, respiratory problems, skin ailments, swollen joints, urine associated complications etc. The essential oils are found to be more beneficial when other aspects of life and diet are given due consideration. This review explores the information available in the literature regarding therapeutic, medical, cosmetic, psychological, olfactory, massage aromatherapy, safety issues and different plants used in aromatherapy. All the available information was compiled from electronic databases such as Academic Journals, Ethnobotany, Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, and library search.
This article discusses findings from a large evaluative study on the use of aromatherapy in childbirth (Burns et al, 1999). The sample involved 8058 mothers and took place on the delivery suite of a busy teaching unit. A primary objective was to examine whether aromatherapy could facilitate maternal coping mechanisms during labour by improving mothers’ sense of wellbeing, reducing anxiety and fear and influencing the perception of pain. Mothers consistently rated the administration of aromatherapy positively. Aromatherapy was found to be an inexpensive choice for mothers. Only 100 mothers reported minor side-effects associated with essential oil administration. This study provides a valuable insight into the potential for the use of a aromatherapy in midwifery practice.
Introduction: Four aromatic plants used in traditional "bush" medicine on Abaco Island, Bahamas were studied. Amyris elemifera (Rutaceae), "white torch", is taken as a febrifuge and applied to sores and wounds, to treat influenza, and as an external bath and general tonic. Eugenia axillaris (Myrtaceae), "white stopper", is used as an aphrodisiac, as well as to treat diarrhea and for bathing women after childbirth. Lantana involucrata (Verbenaceae), "wild sage", is used to treat itching of the skin, measles and chicken pox. Myrica cerifera (Myricaceae), "bayberry", is taken as a general tonic and diuretic. Methods: The leaf essential oils of the four aromatic plants were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC-MS. The antimicrobial activity against Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger, and the in-vitro cytotoxicity of the oils on MDA-MB-231, MCF7, Hs 578T, Hep G2, and PC-3 human tumor cells have also been examined. Results: The most abundant components of Amyris elemifera were limonene (45.0%) and linalool (20.8%). Eugenia axillaris leaf oil was largely composed of α-pinene (15.5%) and dihydroagarofuran (9.2%). The leaf oil of Lantana involucrata was made up largely of germacrene D (21.1%), α-humulene (15.2%), and β-caryophyllene (13.7%). The most abundant essential oil components of Myrica cerifera were 1,8-cineole (30.7%) and α-terpineol (14.2%). L. involucrata leaf oil showed slight antibacterial activity against B. cereus and Staph. aureus and was weakly cytotoxic against our panel of cell lines. Neither A. elemifera, E. axillaris, nor M. cerifera leaf oils were appreciably antimicrobial or cytotoxic. Conclusions: The reported biological activities of the major constituents of A. elemifera leaf oil are consistent with the ethnopharmacological uses of this plant. The major components in the leaf oil and slight antimicrobial activity are consistent with the ethnobotanical use of L. involucrata to treat itching skin.
Although Salvia sclarea (clary sage) is widely used in aromatherapy and has antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, its mechanisms of action remain poorly understood. We therefore assessed whether clary sage is effective in treating endothelial dysfunction induced by chronic immobilization stress in rats.
Rats were intraperitoneally injected with almond oil, clary sage oil (5%, 10% or 20%), or nifedipine once daily, followed by immobilization stress (2 h/day) for 14 days. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate (HR) were measured, as were serum concentrations of corticosterone (CORT); a biomarker of chronic stress, malondialdehyde (MDA); a biomarker of oxidative stress. Nitric oxide production was assessed by nitrite assays, and eNOS level, a biomarker of endothelial dysfunction, was measured by western blotting. Endothelial dysfunction was also assayed by measuring the effect of clary sage on the contraction of rat aortae.
Treatment with 5% (p = 0.029), 10% (p = 0.008), and 20% (p = 0.008) clary sage significantly reduced SBP and treatment with 20% clary sage significantly reduced HR (p = 0.039) compared with the chronic immobilization stress group. Clary sage decreased CORT serum concentration (10%, p = 0.026; 20%, p = 0.012) and MDA (10%, p = 0.007; 20%, p = 0.027), findings similar to those observed with nifedipine. In addition, 20% clary sage significantly increased nitric oxide production (p <0.001) and eNOS expression level (p <0.001) and relaxed aortic rings in rats subjected to chronic immobilization stress.
Clary sage treatment of rats subjected to immobilization stress contributed to their recovery from endothelial dysfunction by increasing NO production and eNOS level as well as by decreasing oxidative stress. Appropriate concentration of clary sage may result in recovery from endothelial dysfunction. These findings indicate that clary sage oil may be effective in the prevention and treatment of stress-induced cardiovascular diseases.
The essential oils of seeds of Salvia verbenaca, Salvia officinalis, and Salvia sclarea were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and GC-mass spectrometry. The oil yields (w/w) were 0.050, 0.047, and 0.045% in S. verbenaca, S. sclarea, and S. officinalis, respectively. Seventy-five compounds were identified. The essential oil composition of S. verbenaca seeds showed that over 57% of the detected compounds were oxygenated monoterpenes followed by sesquiterpenes (24.04%) and labdane type diterpenes (5.61%). The main essential oil constituents were camphor (38.94%), caryophyllene oxide (7.28%), and 13-epi-manool (5.61%), while those of essential oil of S. officinalis were α-thujone (14.77%), camphor (13.08%), and 1,8-cineole (6.66%). In samples of S. sclarea, essential oil consists mainly of linalool (24.25%), α-thujene (7.48%), linalyl acetate (6.90%), germacrene-D (5.88%), bicyclogermacrene (4.29%), and α-copaene (4.08%). This variability leads to a large range of naturally occurring volatile compounds with valuable industrial and pharmaceutical outlets.
The selection of an appropriate non-hazardous solvent or solvent system is essential to determine the rheological properties and electrospinnability of the solution, the productivity, and the morphology of nanofibres. In this study, poly lactic acid (PLA) solutions were prepared in various pure solvents and binary-solvent systems to investigate the effect of different solution properties on nanofibre morphology and diameter. Viscosity, conductivity and surface tension of each solution were measured. Nanofibre morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Of all the solvent systems used acetone/dimethylformamide gave the highest fibre productivity and finest defect-free nanofibres. Therefore this solvent system was studied in more detail, varying the solvent ratio. Also the polymer concentration in this solvent system was varied to investigate the effect on nanofibre morphology and solution properties. Morphological investigations were done in correlation with rheological measurements: beaded nanofibrous structures were collected from solutions with concentration around the critical chain entanglement concentration (C-e), while defect-free nanofibres were produced when the concentration was increased to about twice the entanglement concentration. Further investigation of the effect of the PLA concentration on the elastic (G') and the plastic (G") moduli showed a sudden increase of the elastic moduli (G') at the critical chain entanglement concentration. The results showed that the solvent properties, boiling point, viscosity, conductivity and surface tension, have a significant effect on process productivity, morphology and diameter distribution of the PLA nanofibres. (C) 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Essential oils are concentrated liquids of complex mixtures of volatile compounds and can be extracted from several plant organs. Essential oils are a good source of several bioactive compounds, which possess antioxidative and antimicrobial properties. In addition, some essential oils have been used as medicine. Furthermore, the uses of essential oils have received increasing attention as the natural additives for the shelf-life extension of food products, due to the risk in using synthetic preservatives. Essential oils can be incorporated into packaging, in which they can provide multifunctions termed “active or smart packaging.” Those essential oils are able to modify the matrix of packaging materials, thereby rendering the improved properties. This review covers up-to-date literatures on essential oils including sources, chemical composition, extraction methods, bioactivities, and their applications, particularly with the emphasis on preservation and the shelf-life extension of food products.
Abstract: The essential oil from the aerial parts of Salvia sclarea L., growing wild in Tajikistan, were obtained
by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography – mass spectrometry. A total of 59 compounds were identified representing 94.2% of total oil composition. Major components of the essential oil were linalyl acetate (39.2%), linalool (12.5%), germacrene D (11.4%), �-terpineol (5.5%), geranyl acetate (3.5%), and (E)-caryophyllene (2.4%). The chemical composition, the large concentrations of linalool and linalyl acetate, and a cluster analysis based on principal components; of Tajik S. sclarea oil reveal it to be comparable to commercial S. sclarea oils.
The extraction of an essential oil from discarded tobacco leaves using a combination of solvent extraction and steam distillation (SE–SD) was investigated. The effect of different parameters, such as temperature, extraction time and liquid–solid ratio, on the extraction yield was investigated using the Response Surface Method (RSM) with the Box–Behnken Design (BBD) method. The temperature and liquid–solid ratio were found to have a significant effect on the yield of extract (oleoresin). A yield of 3.38 ± 0.03% of the oleoresin (final essential oil yield was 0.89%) could be extracted under the following optimized conditions: a temperature of 41 °C, a liquid–solid ratio of 6.27 mL/g and a time of 5 h. Composition and characteristics of the discarded tobacco essential oils and oleoresins obtained by SE–SD, hydrodistillation and solvent extraction were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometric detection, to allow the extraction methods to be compared. The results showed that the same compounds were largely present in the different tobacco essential oils, but their relative concentrations differed. General characteristics of the extracts obtained from the three extraction methods showed that the SE–SD essential oil was of better quality and therefore of higher value. Thus, SE–SD is the optimum process for the extraction of high quality essential oil from discarded tobacco.
The composition of the essential oils obtained from different parts of both wild and cultivated forms of Salvia sclarea L. were investigated by both GC and GC/MS. The principal components of the oils were linalool (22–32%) and linalyl acetate (25–51%). It was found that the oil composition was not influenced by the part of the plant from which oil was obtained, except for the leaves. Oil composition was not influenced by plant parts (except for the leaves), state of plant maturity, location of cultivation site, whether the plant was wild or cultivated, year of harvest, color of bracts or cultivation conditions.
Flora of Turkey is rich and diverse with well over 11 000 flowering taxa recorded in the 9-volume set of Prof. Davis's monumental work and its two supplements. Chemical diversity among the flowering plants of Turkey is well documented in the recently published volume 11 of the Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands.
Among the aromatic taxa, remarkable examples can be found in families such as Labiatae, Compositae, Umbelliferae, etc. The occurrence of volatile chemicals in aromatic plants is not only an indication of chemical diversity but may also help solve taxonomical problems is comprehensively studied genera. Aromatic diversity is illustrated with examples from genera such as Sideritis, Salvia, Thymus, Origanum, Satureja, Thymbra, Mentha, Micromeria, Ziziphora, Calamintha, Cyclotrichium, Acinos, Echinophora, Ferulago, Heracleum, Pimpinella, Tanacetum, and Betula.
The economic implications of aromatic biodiversity and the importance of bioprospecting are highlighted.
Antimicrobial activities of two blended essential oil preparations comprising lavender oil, petigrain oil, clary sage oil, ylang ylang oil and jasmine oil were evaluated against various pathogenic microorganisms. Both preparations showed antimicrobial activity in the agar disc diffusion assay against the Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6538 and S. epidermidis isolated strain, the fungus, Candida albicans ATCC10231, and the Gram-negative bacterium, Escherichia coli ATCC25922, but showed no activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC9027. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of these preparations was evaluated. By the broth microdilution assay, preparation 1, comprising lavender oil, clary sage oil, and ylang ylang oil (volume ratio 3:4:3), exhibited stronger antimicrobial activity than preparation 2, which was composed of petigrain oil, clary sage oil, and jasmine oil (volume ratio 3:4:3). Moreover, the sum of the fractional inhibitory concentrations (Sigma fic) of preparation 1 expressed a synergistic antimicrobial effect against the tested microorganisms (Sigma fic<l). The blended essential oil preparations, characterized for their components by GC/MS, contained linalyl acetate, and linalool as major components. Our experiments showed that the differential antimicrobial effect of either blended oil preparations or single/pure essential oils may be influenced by the amount of linalool and linalyl acetate, and the number of active components in either the blended preparations or single/pure essential oils. In addition, blended oil preparations expressed synergistic antimicrobial effect by the accumulation of active components such as linalool and linalyl acetate and combining active constituents of more than one oil.
Rosemary [Rosmarinus officinalis. L. (Lamiaceae)] essential oil has insecticidal properties and is the active ingredient in a number of commercial insecticides. Like other plant essential oils, the chemical composition of rosemary oil can vary based on genotype, geography, climate, and method of preparation. This study explored the relationship between chemical composition and insecticidal activity of 10 commercial samples of rosemary oil, based on laboratory bioassays with two agricultural pests, the armyworm Pseudaletia unipuncta. Haworth (Noctuidae) and the cabbage looper Trichoplusia ni. Hübner (Noctuidae). Nine major terpenoid constituents of rosemary oil were quantified in the samples by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The major constituents were 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, β-pinene, and camphor; on average 1,8-cineole made up 52% of the oil by weight. Bioassayed individually, camphor was the most toxic compound to the armyworm (LD50 = 189.4 μ g larva− 1) whereas μ-terpineol was the most toxic to the looper (LD50 = 128.5 μ g larva− 1). LD50 values for the ten rosemary oils ranged from 167.1 to 372.1 μ g larva− 1in the armyworm and from 58.9 to 335.9 μ g larva− 1 in the looper. Correlation analysis comparing rosemary oil toxicity to chemical composition revealed slight but significant correlation for d.-limonene and α-terpineol in bioassays with the looper but no correlations between constituents and toxicity with the armyworm. An “artificial” rosemary oil was prepared by mixing the nine major constituents in proportions reflecting the average proportion of each constituent in the 10 commercial oils. In the armyworm, this “artificial” oil was significantly less toxic than five of the intact oils; in the looper, the artificial oil was less toxic than three of the intact oils. Our results suggest that toxicity of rosemary oil, at least to lepidopteran larvae, is a consequence of the combined (and possibly synergistic) effects of several chemical constituents, with no individual compound making a dominating contribution.
Salvia sclarea or “clary sage” is an aromatic plant that is used for various ailments especially among the women. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the biological activities of clary sage oil with emphasis on its application in women health. The information of this study was extracted by key words of clary sage, S. sclarea, biological activities in references books and electronic resources. The results of investigation exhibited that the chemical composition of clary sage influenced from various ecological, geographical and environmental conditions, but linalool and linalyl acetate is known as main components of clary sage oil. Clary sage oil is used in aromatherapy for women during the menstrual cycle, childbirth and menopause. The modern clinical investigations confirmed the efficacy of clary sage oil as anti-stress, anti-depression and analgesic agents in primary dysmenorrhea. The anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory effects of clary sage have been confirmed. Furthermore, clary sage oil is known as safe oil with no adverse effects. Designing the large clinical study to evaluate the oral efficacy of clary sage oil for women ailments is essential for future studies.
Six essential oils (from oregano, thyme, clove, lavender, clary sage, and arborvitae) exhibited
different antibacterial and antifungal properties. Antimicrobial activity was shown against pathogenic
(Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria
monocytogenes, and Enterococcus faecalis) and environmental bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Arthrobacter
protophormiae, Pseudomonas fragi) and fungi (Chaetomium globosum, Penicillium chrysogenum,
Cladosporium cladosporoides, Alternaria alternata, and Aspergillus fumigatus). Oregano, thyme,
clove and arborvitae showed very strong antibacterial activity against all tested strains at both full
strength and reduced concentrations. These essential oils showed different fungistatic and fungicidal
activities when tested by direct application and in the vapor phase. The genotoxic effects of these oils
on HEL 12469 human embryo lung cells were evaluated using an alkaline comet assay for the first time,
revealing that none of the oils induced significant DNA damage in vitro after 24 h. This study provides
novel approaches for assessing the antimicrobial potential of essential oils in both direct contact and
the vapor phase and also demonstrates the valuable properties of the phenol-free arborvitae oil. These
results suggest that all the tested essential oils might be used as broad-spectrum anti-microbial agents
for decontaminating an indoor environment.
Here the effect of tea tree and manuka essential oils (EOs) on the mechanical properties and antibacterial activity of electrospun polylactic acid (PLA) fibres is investigated. It is found that the essential oils work as plasticisers for PLA, lowering the glass transition temperature of the resulting composite fibres up to 60% and increasing elongation-at-break and tensile strength up to 12 times. Manuka EO is particularly successful in blocking the formation of biofilms of Staphylococcus epidermidis that is typically involved in nosocomial infections associated with implanted devices. The results demonstrate that natural extracts can be used to control the mechanical behaviour of PLA fibres and to confer antibacterial activity.
Salvia sclarea is one of the important aromatic crop of the world, but very less information is available on the effect of elevated [CO2] and temperature on growth, essential oil content and composition of this crop and realistic data from field experiments are lacking. Therefore, an experiment was conducted at ambient (390 μmol mol−1 CO2) and elevated [CO2] under Free Air [CO2] Enrichment (FACE, 550 ± 30 μmol mol−1 [CO2]) and elevated temperature under Free Air Temperature Increment (FATI, 2.5–3.0 °C above ambient) facilities at the CSIR- Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), Palampur, India during 2013–2014. Different growth and yield parameters of the plant viz. dry biomass accumulation, number of leaves/plant, plant height, leaf area/plant and essential oil composition were studied. Total dry biomass production was 162.4% and 21.4% higher in FATI and FACE, respectively, as compared to ambient (control). Number of leaves/plant and leaf area/plant increased by 58.0% and 64.9% in FATI but decreased by 16.8% and 30.9% in FACE compared to ambient, respectively. Among different photosynthetic pigments, glutathione content was found to be increased by 18.3% in the FACE along with induction of antioxidative enzymes. In addition, under FATI condition violaxanthin and neoxanthin were found to be decreased by 23% and 18%, while de-epoxidation state increased by 16% over ambient. However, in case of essential oil components, linalyl acetate and linalool content were found significantly higher in FATI and FACE, respectively.
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
Salvia sclarea L., clary, is an aromatic plant traditionally used in folk medicine for the treatment of various diseases and conditions. Although it has been primarily used as a stomachic, there are data on traditional use of S. sclarea as an agent against gingivitis, stomatitis and aphthae.
Aim of the study:
The aim of the study was to examine the effect of the S. sclarea ethanolic extract on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced periodontitis in rats from the immunological and histopathological standpoint.
Material and methods:
Periodontal inflammation in rats was induced by repeated injections of LPS from Escherichia coli into the interdental papilla between the first and second right maxillary molars. The extract was administered two times a day by oral gavage (200mg/kg body weight). The inflammatory status was assessed by the measurements of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) of gingival tissues and descriptive analysis of histological sections of periodontium. Chemical characterization of the extract was determined using high performance liquid chromatography system (HPLC). Antioxidant activity of the extract was estimated with two in vitro complementary methods: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and β-carotene/linoleic acid models.
Results:
Treatment with S. sclarea extract, compared to the untreated group of the rats, significantly diminished the process of inflammation decreasing the levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, reducing the gingival tissue lesions and preserving bone alveolar resorption. Considerably smaller number of inflammatory cells and larger number of fibroblasts was noticed. The administration of the extract three days earlier did not have significant preventive effects. Rosmarinic acid was the predominant compound in the extract. The extract showed strong antioxidant effects in both test systems.
Conclusions:
S. sclarea extract manifested anti-inflammatory effect in LPS-induced periodontitis suggesting that it may have a role as a therapeutic agent in periodontal diseases. Having in mind that overproduction of reactive oxygen species is connected to periodontitis, the strong antioxidant capacity may be contributable to anti-inflammatory properties of the extract.
Aromatic plant species of genus Salvia are important medicinal plants, highly recommended due to a range of therapeutic properties: antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antimicrobial, carminative, antidiabetic. The present study attempts to compare the antioxidant and the antibacterial activity of the methanol extracts obtained by maceration, from Salvia sclarea, Salvia lavandulifolia, Salvia officinalis Purpurascens, Salvia officinalis Tricolor and Salvia officinalis Icterina. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by the DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical method. Furthermore, the antibacterial effect of the extract was tested against five bacterial strains using the disk-diffusion method. Salvia officinalis Tricolor extract possesses the strongest antioxidant activity. Moreover, all extracts showed antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria tested ( Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus) and against one Gram-negative bacteria ( Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Salmonella Typhimurium was found to be resistant to Salvia sclarea extract and Escherichia coli to the extract from Salvia officinalis Purpurascens.
Wild populations of Croatian clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) were examined for variability to determine cultivation suitability in Croatia and Israel for breeding purposes. Phenotypic variability (coefficient of variation; %) was recorded for inflorescence weight (39.6%), inflorescence yield (52.8%), and essential oil yield (67.6%) when grown in Croatia. Associations were identified between inflorescence yield and essential oil yield (r = 0.9; P < 0.0001), inflorescence weight and inflorescence yield (r = 0.8; P < 0.0001), and inflorescence weight and inflorescence length (r = 0.6; P = 0.0056), suggesting that populations with elongated inflorescence are indirectly associated with higher essential oil yield. In Israel, the populations reached full bloom between the end of May and early June, corresponding on average to 397.5 days post planting. Linalyl acetate, linalool, α–terpineol, sclareol, and geranyl acetate were the leading essential oil components in both Croatia and Israel. The principal compounds in the oil were linalyl acetate (48.5%) and linalool (17.7%), signifying that the Croatian populations were of the linalool chemotype. A two-way ANOVA indicated an interaction between growing location (Croatia vs. Israel) and population for linalool (P = 0.02), α–terpineol (P = 0.007), and linalyl acetate (P = 0.09); evidence of an environmental effect on essential oil composition. The variation observed suggested that the wild population of clary sage in Croatia had the genetic heterogeneity essential for breeding. Nevertheless, the differences in essential oil composition between Croatia and Israel suggest that breeding efforts should be separately focused for each agriculture production system.
An experiment was conducted in rainfed sub-temperate hills of Uttrakhand with a Clarysage (Salvia sclarea Linn.) genotype EC314327, introduced from Germany, by applying three organic manures, viz. Farmyard manure (FYM), leaf manure (LM) and ash (20 t/ha each) and an NPK dose of 150:80:100 kg/ha along with control. Results indicated that maximum spike yield (104.67g/plant) and 6.61kg/plotwereobtained with application of NPK followed by FYM (81.33g and 5.96kg, respectively). Harvesting of inflorescence at complete petal-fall stage (during late July) was the best time in relation to essential oil percentage.
The present work evaluates the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of clary sage (CS) Salvia sclarea L. Antimicrobial, total antioxidant, DPPH radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging and metal chelating activities, reducing power, and total contents of phenolic compounds of dried herb samples extracted with chloroform and acetone were studied. The chloroform extract had stronger total antioxidant activity than the acetone extract and exhibited 93 and 68% inhibition of linoleic acid peroxidation, respectively, a-Tocopherol, quercetin, butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene were used as standard antioxidants. Antimicrobial activities of both CS extracts were examined by means of disk-diffusion methods with 11 microbial species (Bacillus megaterium NRS, Proteus vulgaris FMC 1, Listeria monocytogenes BRIE 1, Bacillus cereus FMC 19, Staphylococcus aureus FÜ, Bacillus brevis FMC 3, Klebsiella pneumoniae FMC 5, Micrococcus luteus LA 2971, Pseudomonas aeruginosa DSM 50071, Escherichia coli DM and Mycobacterium smegmatis CCM 2067) and 4 fungal species (Penicillum frequentans, Fusarium equiseti, Aspergillus candidus and Byssochlamys fulves). Both CS extracts were effective in inhibiting the growth of the organisms except for Escherichia coli DM. The antifungal activity of each of the above extracts is lower than the antimicrobial activity.
Clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) is an industrial crop grown for its high value essential oil, widely used in perfumery and cosmetic industries. In the present work, agromorphological characteristics, essential oil content and composition and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were studied to estimate the relationships among 11 clary sage accessions, with a known variety CIM-Chandni grown in northern Indian plains. The clary sage accessions were distinguished on the basis of agro-morphological traits and essential oil constituents. As a consequence, these were grouped into dwarf, medium and tall; early and late maturing; low, medium and high yielding. Maximum genotypic coefficient of variation was recorded for spike weight plant-1 followed by spike length and plant height. In general, the genotypic correlation was higher than phenotypic. Significant positive genotypic correlation was recorded for plant height with spike length, days to flowering with days to maturity and spike weight plant-1, spike length with oil content. A high direct positive effect on oil content was because of spike length. The variety CIM-Chandni showed genetic similarity with all its progenies except SS1. Accession SS1 selected as a distinct and best performing genotype based on agro-morphic, quantitative, qualitative traits and RAPD profiling.
The purpose of this study was to examine the antidepressant-like effects of clary sage oil on human beings by comparing the neurotransmitter level change in plasma. The voluntary participants were 22 menopausal women in 50's. Subjects were classified into normal and depression tendency groups using each of Korean version of Beck Depression Inventory-I (KBDI-I), KBDI-II, and Korean version of Self-rating Depression Scale. Then, the changes in neurotransmitter concentrations were compared between two groups. After inhalation of clary sage oil, cortisol levels were significantly decreased while 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) concentration was significantly increased. Thyroid stimulating hormone was also reduced in all groups but not statistically significantly. The different change rate of 5-HT concentration between normal and depression tendency groups was variable according to the depression measurement inventory. When using KBDI-I and KBDI-II, 5-HT increased by 341% and 828% for the normal group and 484% and 257% for the depression tendency group, respectively. The change rate of cortisol was greater in depression tendency groups compared with normal groups, and this difference was statistically significant when using KBDI-II (31% vs. 16% reduction) and Self-rating Depression Scale inventory (36% vs. 8.3% reduction). Among three inventories, only KBDI-II differentiated normal and depression tendency groups with significantly different cortisol level. Finally, clary sage oil has antidepressant-like effect, and KBDI-II inventory may be the most sensitive and valid tool in screening for depression status or severity. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A new process design and operation for steam distillation of essential oils that increases oil yield and reduces loss of polar compounds in wastewater was developed. A packed bed of the raw materials, as opposed to hydrodistillation, was used. The packed bed sits above the steam source and only steam passes through it without the boiling water mixing with vegetable raw material, as is the case in hydrodistillation. The method also addresses one of the most difficult problems in steam distillation, that of determining the optimum amount of steam required for distillation of a given mass of vegetable material. The process design requires that minimum steam be passed through the packed bed so that there is minimum water in the distillate. The less the water (as aqueous fraction of the distillate) there is in the distillate, the less the water-soluble compounds that will be dissolved into the aqueous fraction of the condensate. This minimum steam flow was and can experimentally be determined. In theory, it is the steam flow rate that will develop a pressure drop with lowest steam transport across the packed bed.
Salvia officinalis (SO) and Thymus vulgaris (TV) are medicinal plants well known for their curative powers. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for these abilities of sage and thyme have not been fully understood yet. In this study we investigated the composition and the quantitative estimation of plant extracts, the protective effects of plant extracts against hydrogen peroxide- and 2,3-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone-induced DNA damage, and levels of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione) in human HepG2 cells. To measure antioxidative activity of plant extracts we used three assays: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS). The results showed that the oxidant-induced DNA lesions were significantly reduced in cells pre-treated with the plant extracts studied. The observed DNA-protective activity could be explained by both elevation of GPx activity in cells pre-treated with SO and TV and antioxidant activity of SO and TV.
Extraction of essential oil from Cuminum cyminum seeds using a combination of organic solvent with low boiling point and steam distillation was explored. The effect of different parameters, such as particle size (40, 60, 80mesh), temperature (°C) 10, 15, 20 and extraction time (3, 5, 8h), on the extraction yield was investigated using three-level orthogonal array design. The experimental results showed that the temperature had the largest effect on the yield of the extract (oleoresin), followed by extraction time and particle size. The optimum parameters, such as temperature, particle size, and extraction time were in turn 20°C, 80mesh, and 8h. Essential oil of C. cyminum seeds obtained by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), hydrodistillation (HD), combination technology of organic solvent with low boiling point and steam distillation (OS-SD) were further analysed by gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric detection to compare the extraction methods. Forty-five compounds in the C. cyminum essential oil were identified, showing that the composition of the extraction by different methods was mostly similar, whereas relative concentration of the identified compounds was apparently different. General characteristics of the C. cyminum essential oil obtained by different methods were further compared, and OS-SD was considered as the optimum process among the three processes to obtain C. cyminum essential oil for high quality, simple technology and low cost.
A thermodynamic model based on the Peng–Robinson equation of state was developed in order to perform high-pressure phase equilibria calculations for the system carbon dioxide–lemon essential oil. The multicomponent natural oil was simulated by a mixture of three key components, one for each relevant class of compounds (monoterpenes, monoterpene oxygenated derivatives and sesquiterpenes). Firstly the proposed model was validated on semi-batch experimental data and then it was used to simulate the behaviour of a continuously operated countercurrent column. Experiments on deterpenation process on a packed column, operating as a stripping section, were carried out in the temperature range 50–70°C and pressure range 8.7–11.2MPa. The comparison between experimental results and process simulation demonstrated that the proposed model is capable of reliable predictions on the behaviour of the countercurrent continuous deterpenation process. Furthermore, an average height equivalent to a theoretical plate of about 40cm was estimated, for the stated packing and operating conditions. A case study for the production of 10-fold high quality oil, with strict specifications for the recovery of oxygenated compounds (99%), was investigated by simulations of a continuous countercurrent process with an external reflux. The linkage between the number of theoretical stages, the reflux ratio and the solvent to feed ratio was investigated throughout the above-mentioned pressure and temperature ranges. Operating conditions at higher pressure and temperature proved to be more favourable. As an example, operating a 20 theoretical stage column at 70°C and 11.2MPa, it is possible to attain process specifications with a solvent to feed ratio of about 63.
The essential oil produced by steam distillation and the volatile concentrate obtained by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) from freshly harvested finely cut flowering tops of the clary sage were analyzed by GC and GC/MS. The concentration of linalool, myrcene, p-cymene, α-terpineol, neryl acetate and geranyl acetate was higher in the distilled oil than in the oil obtained by SFE. The ratio of linalyl acetate to linalool in the distilled oil and in the SFE extract was 0.7 and 9.6, respectively. Only the SFE extract was found to contain sclareol.
Isolation of carrot fruit (Daucus carrota L., cultivar ‘‘Chanteney”) essential oil by supercritical carbon dioxide was investigated from
the pretreatment of herbaceous matrix and extraction conditions to the chemical composition of obtained extract and its antimicrobial
activity. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of the supercritical extract, as well as of the essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation,
were done by GC/FID and GC/MS methods. Antimicrobial properties of both samples were investigated against ten species of microorganisms.
Experimental results showed that the particle size had no influence on the extraction process. The highest yield was obtained
at 40 �C and 10 MPa. The main component of the supercritical extract, as well as of the essential oil was carotol. The supercritical extract
was characterized by the presence of heavier molecular weight compounds, while some lighter compounds, e.g. pinenes, were not
detected. The supercritical extract and the essential oil were the most effective against Gram-positive bacteria.
The chemical composition of the essential oils obtained from the flowers and leaves of Salvia sclarea L. (Lamiaceae) cultivated in Slovak Republic have been studied by GC and GC/MS methods, which resulted in the identification of 34 and 23 components, respectively. The major constituents in the flower oil were linalool (18.9%), linalyl acetate (13.7%), sclareol (15.7%), α-terpineol (6.5%), germacrene D (5.0%) and geranyl acetate (4.3%), while the major components in the leaf oil were germacrene D (28.8%), bicyclogermacrene (12.5%), spathulenol (10.1%), caryophyl-lene oxide (6.2%) and α-copaene (6.0%).
The analysis of the volatile components in the essential oil of Salvia sclarea L. (Labiatae) by GC and GC-MS demonstrated the presence of at least 72 compounds. They correspond to 97.2% of the oil. The major compounds were linalool, linalyl acetate, terpineol, neryl acetate, geraniol, geranyl acetate, nerol, and sclareol.