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Estimated End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Battery Resources for Potential Recycling in Bangladesh
Abstract
This study analyzes open access data on the input and generation of end-of-life lithium-ion batteryLithium-ion battery waste supply for a potential commercial battery recyclingBattery recycling industry in BangladeshBangladesh.. Four main sources were identified in the battery waste pool: mobile phones, laptop and tablet PCs, small handheld devices, and hybrid electric vehicles. Their predicted generation rate and volume by type were forecasted to the year 2041 based on the available historic data and assumptions. Such batteries contain commercially recoverable quantity of base metals like Co, Ni, and Mn as well as other common metals like Li, Cu, Al, and Fe. These metals are in high demand for Bangladesh where urban mining and ‘informal recyclingRecycling’ currently present challenges to public health, ecological safety, and resource efficiency. A precise estimate of secondary resource inventory, cumulative growth, and economic forecasting of battery waste can pave the way for ‘formal recyclingRecycling’ which will attract national and international investments.
... The research gap identified in this study lies in the lack of comprehensive data on mobile phone e-waste generation and metal recovery in India. Similar studies have been conducted in countries like Turkey [31], Bangladesh [49], Indonesia [50], and Australia [51]. India lacks detailed collection data on mobile phone e-waste and its economic potential. ...
This study analyses Indian export–import and domestic production data of mobile phones and smartphones to quantify historically generated e-waste from discarded devices over a 20-year period (2001–2021). An exponential time smoothing method was used to forecast the waste generation trends for 2022–2035. The metal recovery and embedded values of the metals (precious metals, base metals, and rare earth battery metals) in the PCBs and displays of mobile phones and smartphones were assessed for the same period. The findings indicate that in the PCBs, Au and Pd contribute the most, while Ag is the dominant contributor in displays of mobile phones. The potential economic value of metals varies mainly because of the fluctuating prices of metals in the international market.
To meet climate targets, it is essential to establish a closed-loop system for the critical raw materials used in lithium-ion batteries, necessitating robust planning and forecasting methods for end-of-life battery volumes. Recycling end-of-life automotive batteries is crucial for establishing sustainable circulating flows of raw materials to reduce the use of virgin resources, particularly in the context of electromobility and energy storage. An accurate forecast of the availability of end-of-life automotive batteries for recycling is essential to determine the timing and the business potential of end-of-life battery treatment, driving the appropriate investments by policy makers and industry in battery recycling technologies and facilities. This paper presents a novel methodological framework incorporating multi-metric modeling with a distinct geographical focus and selected statistical approaches, collectively directed towards stakeholder-oriented end-of-life traction battery forecasts. We further benchmark the existing models based on the period under consideration, the geographical scope, the metrics employed, and the statistical techniques applied. This yields a novel recommendation framework for policy makers and industry to provide guidance on how to model end-of-life battery volumes. The recommendation framework links the required modeling approaches with relevant stakeholders, such as car repair shops, disassemblers, recyclers, logistics companies, and policy makers. The framework is validated through a case study for end-of-life automotive battery forecasting. The objective of this study is therefore not only to support the ramp-up of the battery recycling industry with a synthesized forecasting framework, but also to provide precise recommendations to the different industries. The findings of our study yield the core conclusion that global modelings with sophisticated statistical approaches, such as the Weibull approach, should be employed across a range of stakeholder-oriented metrics, including weight, capacity, and the number of end-of-life electric vehicle batteries.
Lithium-ion battery datasheets, also known as specification sheets, are documents that battery manufacturers provide to define the battery’s function, operational limit, performance, reliability, safety, cautions, prohibitions, and warranty. Product manufacturers and customers rely on the datasheets for battery selection and battery management. However, battery datasheets often have ambiguous and, in many cases, misleading terminology and data. This paper reviews and evaluates the datasheets of 25 different lithium-ion battery types from eleven major battery manufacturers. Issues that customers may face are discussed, and recommendations for developing an informative and valuable datasheet that will help customers procure suitable batteries are presented.
Smartphones are available on the market with a variety of design characteristics and purchase prices. Recent trends show that their replacement cycle has become on average shorter than two years, which comes with associated environmental impacts that could be mitigated through a prolonged use of such devices. This paper analyses limiting states and design trends affecting the durability of smartphones, and identifies reliability and repairability measures to extend the product lifetime. Technical trade-offs between reliability and repairability aspects are also discussed.
Smartphones are often replaced prematurely because of socio-economic and technical reasons. Specific hardware parts (e.g. display, battery, back cover), as well as software, can be critical. Increasing the reliability of smartphones can reduce the occurrence of early replacements. Apart from the bottom-line consideration of reliability aspects for electronics, this can be pursued through the design of devices which: i) are resistant to mechanical stresses; ii) implement durable batteries; iii) offer sufficient adaptability to future conditions of use (e.g. in terms of software/firmware updates, memory and storage capacity). However, if and when failures occur, repairs have to be rapid and economically viable. This can be facilitated through modular design concepts, ease of disassembly of key parts, availability of spare parts and repair services. As common elements of the two strategies, easily-available instructions on use, maintenance and repair are also needed.
The analysis of devices on the market suggests that it is possible to design satisfactorily reliable devices without compromising repairability excessively. However, trade-offs between these two aspects can occur. Considerations about reliability and/or repairability should be integrated in the design of all smartphones.
The findings of this paper can be used by decision makers (e.g. manufacturers, designers, consumers and policy makers) interested in improving the durability of smartphones. This is particularly timely considering the policy attention on smartphones at the EU level.
The world is shifting to electric vehicles to mitigate climate change. Here, we quantify the future demand for key battery materials, considering potential electric vehicle fleet and battery chemistry developments as well as second-use and recycling of electric vehicle batteries. We find that in a lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide dominated battery scenario , demand is estimated to increase by factors of 18-20 for lithium, 17-19 for cobalt, 28-31 for nickel, and 15-20 for most other materials from 2020 to 2050, requiring a drastic expansion of lithium, cobalt, and nickel supply chains and likely additional resource discovery. However, uncertainties are large. Key factors are the development of the electric vehicles fleet and battery capacity requirements per vehicle. If other battery chemistries were used at large scale, e.g. lithium iron phosphate or novel lithium-sulphur or lithium-air batteries, the demand for cobalt and nickel would be substantially smaller. Closed-loop recycling plays a minor, but increasingly important role for reducing primary material demand until 2050, however, advances in recycling are necessary to economically recover battery-grade materials from end-of-life batteries. Second-use of electric vehicles batteries further delays recycling potentials.
The study presents data on the state of health of smartphone and tablet lithium-ion batteries that were used in devices in the field for up to several years. Data was retrieved from the coconutBattery database, which contains thousands of datasets on batteries from several device models from the same manufacturer. The durability of batteries in the sample data was found to be quite high. Even batteries that had been in the field for several years and had endured hundreds of charging cycles were able to retain a relatively high state of health. However, several major limitations in regard to generalizability of the findings were identified. Furthermore, the cycle frequency of smartphone and tablet batteries in the field is presented, which may be useful to support life cycle assessments and carbon footprinting of such product groups.
In Bangladesh, there is a growing concern of generation of e-waste and its subsequent handling and disposal. E-waste and its reuse and recycling processes can cause significant environmental and health hazards. At present, there is a lack of awareness about the hazards of electronic waste in Bangladesh. The electronic waste is reused, broken down for parts or disposed of completely. The present informal practice of recycling is not carried out safely and it becomes a danger to human health and the surrounding environment. This paper will share the trend of usage of electronic equipments and what is being done at the end of lifetime of the equipments. It will also share what hazards have been created from this electronic waste, what are the present dumping practices and what rules are in place for dumping. It will also identify the level of awareness regarding e-waste and to determine a way to reduce environmental hazards.
This paper explores three-lifetime models for the commercial Lithium-Ion Batteries, namely, Weibull, Lognormal and Normal distributions. A comparative study is performed on the censored data of an accelerated lifetime test (ALT) to select the best of the proposed models. Although the three models fit the real experimental data and provide similar estimations to the mean time to failure of the batteries, the effect of censoring in estimating the parameters of the distributions is entirely different. The work uses three standard criteria to determine the preferable model. In brief, it is found that the lognormal distribution is the best among the three suggested models.
Smartphone technology development has led to a phenomenal increase in its use worldwide, triggering the development of efficient and safe lithium batteries to support advanced smartphones. Lithium ion batteries have many advantages such as high energy density, long lifetime, small size, low weight, no memory effect, and a slow loss of energy. Since new lithium batteries have been continually developed along with new smartphones, the batteries have high potentials to incur environmental impacts associated with rare, precious, and toxic metals. Thus, this study evaluates and compares metal-derived environmental impact potentials from smartphone lithium batteries taking into account battery model replacements, in order to figure out the environmental effect of battery technology development. The concentrations of metals in the batteries were analyzed to determine whether the batteries would be classified as hazardous waste. Life cycle impact assessment methods are used to evaluate resource depletion, human health toxicity, and eco-toxicity potentials from metals. The results showed that the technological development of the batteries did not contribute to reducing hazardous waste potentials. However, it significantly decreased resource depletion and toxicity potentials because the masses of metals were overall reduced over the battery model replacements. This study can be used to provide environmental information for manufacturers to produce low-impact lithium batteries and for e-waste policy makers to effectively manage and recover hazardous and toxic metals in waste batteries.
Currently, only a few countries have a uniform measurement system for waste electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste or WEEE). However, there is already substantial data available for both developed and less-developed countries that relate to e-waste statistics. In order to improve comparability between countries, a sound measurement framework is proposed that integrates available statistical data and non-statistical data sources into e-waste statistics. The framework captures the most important elements of e-waste and is relevant to all countries that aim to gather data and compile statistics on e-waste. Finally, indicators can be constructed from the framework, which provide a useful overview of the size of the market for electronic and electrical products within a country, as well as its e-waste generated and e-waste collection performance, and serve as a resource for policymaking. The concepts of the measurement framework have been followed by the EU and have resulted in the official adoption of the common methodology to track the collection and recycling target for article 7 in the EU WEEE Directive. Next to that, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD), and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) have used the measurement framework in pilots to gather data on e-waste globally. The methods have been applied successfully for the first Global E-waste Monitor published by the United Nations University, the second Global E-waste Monitor published by the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership, and two regional e-waste monitors co-authored by the United Nations University. This measurement framework is presented along with a classification of e-waste. Though the classification is, at this stage, stand-alone, it links to multiple data sources and data formats, such as the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS) and the EU WEEE Directive reporting. Relevant data for the construction of the indicators might be already available in the countries’ databases. The guidelines also give methods, country examples, and information to an open source script that helps countries to make their own estimates if no data is available. In addition to the full measuring framework, minimum requirements are proposed to collect and report on e-waste statistics for countries that are embarking on this type of data gathering for the first time.
The Australian recycling landscape for lithium-ion batteries is in transition. Previously, disposal to landfill and export of wastes for processing were the primary recycling pathways, with little or no emphasis on local and onshore processing of these wastes. However, there are now significant policy and regulation, economic, social, technical and environmental drivers for the development of an onshore processing industry for lithium-ion battery wastes. This study aimed to define the current and future landscapes of the lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling industry in Australia. A desktop review supplemented with key stakeholder interviews to identify the critical industrial and strategic drivers as well as challenges and constraints for the development of the industry. When considering the projected growth in consumption and demand for portable equipment and electronic vehicles, the potential economic gains for LIB materials, the lack of infrastructure and capacity to process these wastes and developing policy and regulation regarding their management, Australia is in the perfect position to drive technology development and innovation to support this newly developing industry. Research associated with economic modelling, materials tracking and clear regulations associated with waste disposal and product stewardship are required to support Australia's transition to recycling of LIB and other batteries onshore.
Use of vehicles with electric drive, which could reduce our oil dependence, will depend on lithium-ion batteries. But is there enough lithium? Will we need to import it from a new cartel? Are there other materials with supply constraints? We project the maximum demand for lithium and other materials if electric-drive vehicles expanded their market share rapidly, estimating material demand per vehicle for four battery chemistries. Total demand for the United States is based on market shares from an Argonne scenario that reflects high demand for electric-drive vehicles, and total demand for the rest of the world is based on a similar International Energy Agency scenario. Total material demand is then compared to estimates of production and reserves, and the quantity that could be recovered by recycling, to evaluate the adequacy of supply. We also identify producing countries to examine potential dependencies on unstable regions or future cartels.
There are relatively few publications that assess capacity decline in enough commercial cells to quantify cell-to-cell variation, but those that do show a surprisingly wide variability. Capacity curves cross each other often, a challenge for efforts to measure the state of health and predict the remaining useful life (RUL) of individual cells. We analyze capacity fade statistics for 24 commercial pouch cells, providing an estimate for the time to 5% failure. Our data indicate that RUL predictions based on remaining capacity or internal resistance are accurate only once the cells have already sorted themselves into “better” and “worse” ones. Analysis of our failure data, using maximum likelihood techniques, provide uniformly good fits for a variety of definitions of failure with normal and with 2- and 3-parameter Weibull probability density functions, but we argue against using a 3-parameter Weibull function for our data. pdf fitting parameters appear to converge after about 15 failures, although business objectives should ultimately determine whether data from a given number of batteries provides sufficient confidence to end lifecycle testing. Increased efforts to make batteries with more consistent lifetimes should lead to improvements in battery cost and safety.
The lithium ion (Li-ion) battery industry has been growing exponentially since its initial inception in the late 20th century. As battery materials evolve, the applications for Li-ion batteries have become even more diverse. To date, the main source of Li-ion battery use varies from consumer portable electronics to electric/hybrid electric vehicles. However, even with the continued rise of Li-ion battery development and commercialization, the recycling industry is lagging; approximately 95% of Li-ion batteries are landfilled instead of recycled upon reaching end of life. Industrialized recycling processes are limited and only capable of recovering secondary raw materials, not suitable for direct reuse in new batteries. Most technologies are also reliant on high concentrations of cobalt to be profitable, and intense battery sortation is necessary prior to processing. For this reason, it is critical that a new recycling process be commercialized that is capable of recovering more valuable materials at a higher efficiency. A new technology has been developed by the researchers at Worcester Polytechnic Institute which is capable of recovering LiNixMnyCozO2 cathode material from a hydrometallurgical process, making the recycling system as a whole more economically viable. By implementing a flexible recycling system that is closed-loop, recycling of Li-ion batteries will become more prevalent saving millions of pounds of batteries from entering the waste stream each year.
Use of vehicles with electric drive, which could reduce our oil dependence, will depend on lithium-ion batteries. But is there enough lithium? Will we need to import it from a new cartel? Are there other materials with supply constraints? We project the maximum demand for lithium and other materials if electric-drive vehicles expanded their market share rapidly, estimating material demand per vehicle for four battery chemistries. Total demand for the United States is based on market shares from an Argonne scenario that reflects high demand for electric-drive vehicles, and total demand for the rest of the world is based on a similar International Energy Agency scenario. Total material demand is then compared to estimates of production and reserves, and the quantity that could be recovered by recycling, to evaluate the adequacy of supply. We also identify producing countries to examine potential dependencies on unstable regions or future cartels.
Product lifespans of electric and electronic products are in decline, with detrimental environmental consequences. This research maps the environmental impacts of refrigerators and laptops against their increasing energy efficiency over time, and finds that product life extension is the preferred strategy in both cases: refrigerators bought in 2011 should be used for 20 years instead of 14, and laptops for at least 7 years instead of 4. Designers however lack expertise to design for product life extension (through longer product life, refurbishment, remanufacturing) and product recycling. The paper explores a range of product life extension strategies and concludes that tailored approaches are needed. One of the main research challenges is to determine when to apply which product life extension strategy.
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