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Beyond East and West: The Making of Global Leadership
Abstract
This book chapter summarizes a qualitative phenomenological study that was conducted with 18 global leaders to identify the competencies that are found at the intersection of the global workplace, the significance of a global mindset, and how cultures impact global competencies. The 18 global leaders that were selected for this study have served on multiple global platforms for at least 10 years and represent India, China, several parts of Europe, the African continent, the Middle East, and South America. The findings of this study reveal multiple areas of development that clarify what is meant by global competencies to prepare and empower the next generation of global leaders. Global leadership must be a priority, as humans become more globally conscious and culturally connected than any other time in history because of advances in technology and globalization. There is an increased demand for cross-cultural collaboration and communication as the global economy advances and takes shape. However, the research focused on global leadership and what makes a global leader is nascent. This paper introduces a new leadership mental model that embraces both Eastern and Western modalities of leading with a focus on global leadership competencies. The difference between Eastern versus Western mentalities is illustrated well by three frameworks that are introduced in this book chapter. Michelle Gelfand’s theory of “cultural tightness and looseness” is a framework that depicts cultures who are “tight” as having strict norms and standards while “loose” cultures have more tolerance for deviant behaviors, divergent thinking, and isolated decision-making. Hofstede provides a framework on cultural dimensions that highlights the differences found when examining culture from a global lens. Edward Hall’s theory from anthropology describes the communication variants found in “high-context” and “low-context” societies, where expectations are either implicit or explicit. This paper introduces a holistic leadership approach towards Global Leadership theory. Findings conclude that global leaders have an ability to immerse their whole being into a new culture without passing judgment and can put their biases aside to learn for the sake of the greater good of humanity. Holistic Global Leaders also have a growth mindset which primes them for the constant growth and evolution of a global economy.
This chapter reports on an initiative funded by an NEH grant and implemented at Borough of Manhattan Community College, City University of New York. Faculty reflect on and define global competencies and subsequently enhance existing curricula by designing assignments that target the development of four targeted global competencies: Cultural understanding, responsible global citizenship, effective intercultural communication, and integrated reasoning. Participating faculty attended a series of seminars with invited scholars in global education, discussed challenging readings/issues in globalization, and pedagogical approaches to the integration of global competencies in coursework, and developed and implemented assignments for their courses in which they integrate at least two of the global competencies targeted by this initiative. This chapter reports on the initial stages of the program. El capítulo informa sobre una iniciativa auspiciada por una Beca del Fondo Nacional para las Humanidades (NEH), que fue implementada en el Community College del Borough de Manhattan de la Universidad de la Ciudad de Nueva York. El profesorado reflexiona y define los conocimientos globales para así mejorar /realzar el currículo mediante el diseño de tareas que se enfoquen en el desarrollo de cuatro competencias: el entendimiento cultural, el civismo global responsable, la comunicación intercultural eficaz, y la pedagogía integral. Los profesores, que participaron en los seminarios con invitados expertos en pedagogía global, comentaron lecturas y tópicos sobre la globalización, y estrategias pedagógicas para la incorporación de los conocimientos globales en las clases. También desarrollaron e implementaron tareas para los cursos en los cuales integraron por lo menos dos de los objetivos de esta iniciativa global. Este capítulo trata de las primeras etapas del programa. Palabras clave: Competencia global, acercando culturas, desarrollo professional, iniciativas de los colegios comunitarios College graduates in the 21 st century are entering the global marketplace, an international arena that requires skills and competencies to navigate the vast terrain of international commerce. It is the responsibility of colleges and universities to prepare students with the knowledge, skills and competencies required to compete in today's world. The integration of global competencies into the curriculum is thus critical to providing future graduates with the tools needed to live and work in a 1
Leader characteristics influence leadership styles, which cascade down through the management to the entire firm, affecting organizational and strategic outcomes. Asia’s unique socio-cultural contexts and philosophies breed indigenous leadership styles in the region, yet context-specific research on leader characteristics and leadership styles in Asia has been sparse. Our review answers the call to identify the distinct Asian context that has distinguished the leadership research in Asia from that of other regions. We identify power distance orientation and collectivist culture as the two of the most prominent contextual factors to consider in examining the role of leadership in Asia. Through this review, we aim to further our understanding of the current state of extant literature on leader characteristics and leadership styles and to suggest new avenues for scholars in Asia to advance existing theories of leadership research in the arena of organizational behavior and strategy.
Cultural intelligence (CQ), an individual's capability to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse situations and settings, has become the focus of a vibrant scholarly conversation and a flourishing area of multidisciplinary research. Since the introduction of the concept in 2002, substantial research has been conducted concerning its definition, the validation of its measurement, and the examination of its development and predictive capabilities. The present paper systematically reviews 73 conceptual and empirical articles published on CQ from 2002 to 2015 in management and international business journals as well as in education and psychology. The authors discuss two distinct conceptualizations of CQ, developments within the conceptual research, and opportunities for further theorizing. They also cluster the empirical studies based on how CQ was used and identify patterns, achievements and challenges within the literature. Finally, based on their analysis, they identify promising avenues for future research and propose specific questions that can further advance the scholarly conversation on CQ.
Previous research has investigated the relationship between cultural values and leadership. This research expands on this tradition and examines how the strength of social norms— or tightness–looseness—influences perceptions of effective leadership. Data from Gelfand, Raver, et al. were integrated with GLOBE's leadership research to examine the attributes of leaders seen as leading to effectiveness in tight and loose cultures. Analyses of data across 29 samples show that cultural tightness is positively related to the endorsement of autonomous leadership and negatively related to the endorsement of charismatic and team leadership, even controlling for in-group collectivism, power distance, and future orientation at the societal and organizational level of analysis. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Management scholarship has grown tremendously over the past 60 years. Most of our paradigms originated from North America in the 1950s to the 1980s, inspired by the empirical phenomena and cultural, philosophical, and research traditions of the time. Here following, we highlight the contextual differences between the East and the West in terms of institutions, philosophies, and cultural values and how they are manifest in contemporary management practices. Inspired by theory development in management studies over time, we offer insights into the conditions facilitating new theories, and how these might apply to emergent theories from the East. We discuss the contributions of the six papers included in this special research forum as exemplars of integrating Eastern concepts and contexts to enrich existing management theories. We highlight the difficulty with testing Eastern constructs as distinct from Western ones by discussing the properties of equivalence, salience, and infusion in constructs. We provide directions for future research and encourage an agentic view to creating new theories and paradigms.
Purpose ‐ The paper seeks to use the experience of the author, a veteran consultant and author of many articles on leadership, who aims to summarize several fundamental concepts that have shaped the current debate about leaders and leadership. The author's goal is to dispel some leadership myths and offer some advice to leaders about how to perform more effectively in their roles. Design/methodology/approach ‐ Taking the long view, the author concludes that leadership actually emerges or develops over time ‐ not at a unique specific instant. It seems to appear and then disappear; it is elusive. Findings ‐ Invisible forces act on the leadership process: the expectations of the followers, the culture of the organization and the circumstances. The task at hand and the context seem to dictate when and how leadership appears. The leadership dynamic thus depends on the situation. Practical implications ‐ The primary role of the leader must be to develop a culture that enables individuals to coalesce around the shared purpose of the enterprise. Originality/value ‐ Leaders act like Higgs bosons, activating and energizing the members of the organization as they interact. And like the boson, leadership may show up in the power it imparts to effective, committed followers.
We introduce the concept of “organizational terrorism” to describe dysfunctional leaders who are abusive and who treat organizational
members with contempt and disregard. After identifying the moral duties of leaders in organizations, we explain how organization
members respond to their dissatisfaction with organizations through Exit, Voice, Loyalty, or Neglect. We explain why exercising
voice is the most effective moral choice in dealing with dysfunctional leaders.
Keywordsorganizational terrorism-ethical leadership-exit-voice-loyalty-neglect-organizational citizenship
GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) is a research program focusing on culture and leadership in 61 nations. National cultures are examined in terms of nine dimensions: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance, humane orientation, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and gender egalitarianism. In a survey of thousands of middle managers in food processing, finance, and telecommunications industries in these countries, GLOBE compares their cultures and attributes of effective leadership. Six global leadership attributes are identified and discussed.
With data from 33 nations, we illustrate the differences between cultures that are tight (have many strong norms and a low tolerance of deviant behavior) versus loose (have weak social norms and a high tolerance of deviant behavior). Tightness-looseness is part of a complex, loosely integrated multilevel system that comprises distal ecological and historical threats (e.g., high population density, resource scarcity, a history of territorial conflict, and disease and environmental threats), broad versus narrow socialization in societal institutions (e.g., autocracy, media regulations), the strength of everyday recurring situations, and micro-level psychological affordances (e.g., prevention self-guides, high regulatory strength, need for structure). This research advances knowledge that can foster cross-cultural understanding in a world of increasing global interdependence and has implications for modeling cultural change.
Previous reviews of the literature on the relationship between age and job performance have largely focused on core task performance but have paid much less attention to other job behaviors that also contribute to productivity. The current study provides an expanded meta-analysis on the relationship between age and job performance that includes 10 dimensions of job performance: core task performance, creativity, performance in training programs, organizational citizenship behaviors, safety performance, general counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism. Results show that although age was largely unrelated to core task performance, creativity, and performance in training programs, it demonstrated stronger relationships with the other 7 performance dimensions. Results also highlight that the relationships of age with core task performance and with counterproductive work behaviors are curvilinear in nature and that several sample characteristics and data collection characteristics moderate age-performance relationships. The article concludes with a discussion of key research design issues that may further knowledge about the age-performance relationship in the future.
History of the leadership literature and the emergence of the field of global leadership.
Global leadership has been frequently heralded by writers and executives as the key to sustained competitive advantage on the part of organizations. In addition, it is clear that the possession of leadership qualities and the display of leader behavior are requirements for individuals attempting to progress in their careers. It is important for aspiring managers to learn about the nature of effective global leadership and how they can develop their own competencies in this area. This textbook provides an important overview of this key emerging area within business and management.
The future is here. It's multiethnic, multicultural, and multilingual. But are students ready for it? The world into which today's high school students will graduate is fundamentally different from the one in which many of us grew up. We're increasingly living in a globalized society that has a whole new set of challenges. Four trends have brought us here. The first trend is economic. The globalization of economies and the rise of Asia are central facts of the early 21st century. Since 1990, 3 billion people in China, India, and the former Soviet Union have moved from closed economies into a global one. The economies of China, India, and Japan, which represented 18 percent of the world's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2004, are expected to represent 50 percent of the world's GDP within 30 years (Wilson, 2005). One in five U.S. jobs is now tied to international trade, a proportion that will continue to increase (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). Moreover, most U.S. companies expect the majority of their growth to be in overseas markets, which means they will increasingly require a workforce with international competence. According to the Committee for Economic Development (2006), To compete successfully in the global marketplace, both U.S.-based multinational corporations as well as small businesses increasingly need employees with knowledge of foreign languages and cultures to market products to customers around the globe and to work effectively with foreign employees and partners in other countries. Science and technology are changing the world and represent a second trend. In The World Is Flat, Thomas Friedman (2005) describes how the "wiring of the world" and the digitization of production since 1998 are making it possible for people to do increasing amounts of work anywhere and anytime. Global production teams are becoming commonplace in business. In addition, scientific research, a key driver of innovation, will increasingly be conducted by international teams as other countries ramp-up their scientific capacity. The third trend involves health and security matters. Every major issue that people face—from environmental degradation and global warming, to pandemic diseases, to energy and water shortages, to terrorism and weapons proliferation—has an international dimension. Solving these problems will require international cooperation among governments, professional organizations, and corporations. Also, as the line between domestic and international affairs blurs, U.S. citizens will increasingly vote and act on issues—such as alternative energy sources or security measures linked to terrorism—that require a greater knowledge of the world. In response to this need, a 2006 report from the National Association of State Boards of Education recommends infusing classroom instruction with a strong global perspective and incorporating discussions of current local, national, and international issues and events.
While scholars have begun to develop the conceptual foundations of global leadership, few attempts have been made to unify the plethora of existing definitions. We argue that the lack of a precise, rigorous and commonly accepted definition of global leadership limits the field's conceptual and empirical progress. Building on recommended practice for construct definitions, we first review and critique existing definitions of global leadership. Second, we specifically focus on explicating the global construct encompassed by the global leadership phenomenon and propose three dimensions along which this sub-construct can be analyzed: complexity, flow, and presence. Finally, we offer a revised construct definition and conclude with implications for research and practice.
The Second Edition of this classic work, first published in 1981 and an international bestseller, explores the differences in thinking and social action that exist among members of more than 50 modern nations. Geert Hofstede argues that people carry "mental programs" which are developed in the family in early childhood and reinforced in schools and organizations, and that these programs contain components of national culture. They are expressed most clearly in the different values that predominate among people from different countries. Geert Hofstede has completely rewritten, revised and updated Cultures Consequences for the twenty-first century, he has broadened the book's cross-disciplinary appeal, expanded the coverage of countries examined from 40 to more than 50, reformulated his arguments and a large amount of new literature has been included. The book is structured around five major dimensions: power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism versus collectivism; masculinity versus femininity; and long term versus short-term orientation. --Publisher.
In an increasingly diverse business environment, managers must be able to navigate through the thicket of habits, gestures, and assumptions that define their coworkers' differences. Foreign cultures are everywhere--in other countries, certainly, but also in corporations, vocations, and regions. Interacting with individuals within them demands perceptiveness and adaptability. And the people who have those traits in abundance aren't necessarily the ones who enjoy the greatest social success in familiar settings. Cultural intelligence, or CQ, is the ability to make sense of unfamiliar contexts and then blend in. It has three components--the cognitive, the physical, and the emotional/motivational. While it shares many of the properties of emotional intelligence, CQ goes one step further by equipping a person to distinguish behaviors produced by the culture in question from behaviors that are peculiar to particular individuals and those found in all human beings. In their surveys of 2,000 managers in 60 countries, the authors found that most managers are not equally strong in all three of these areas of cultural intelligence. The authors have devised tools that show how to identify one's strengths, and they have developed training techniques to help people overcome weaknesses. They conclude that anyone reasonably alert, motivated, and poised can attain an acceptable CQ.
The GLOBE research program expanded the Hofstede model of five dimensions of national cultures to 18. A re-analysis based on GLOBE's 2004 summary book produced five meta-factors. One was significantly correlated with GNP/capita and, from the Hofstede dimensions, primarily with Power Distance. Three more correlated significantly with Hofstede's Individualism, Uncertainty Avoidance and Long-Term Orientation. The fifth included the few GLOBE questions that related to Hofstede's dimension of Masculinity versus Femininity. GLOBE's respondents’ minds classified the questions in a way that the researchers’ minds did not account for and which closely resembles the original Hofstede model. Journal of International Business Studies (2006) 37, 882–896. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400233
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