Review on biodegradable pot: A new promising approach for sustainable agriculture

Abstract

Plastic waste is the most serious environmental problem in the last two decades. Plastic material derived from petroleum-based materials such as polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene creates serious environmental problems due to hard to decompose. Accumulation of plastic waste may reduce function and fertility of soil, as well as may harm organisms through the bioaccumulation and biomagnification. This review aims to investigate the latest work on biodegradable pot, including biomaterials and natural fiber applied for biodegradable pot, technical (physico-mechanical) properties, degradability in the environment (water and soil) and current applications in agriculture such as horticulture, floriculture, plantation, and agroforestry. Development and application of biodegradable pot are expected to be a new approach to achieve sustainable agricultural goals that take into account the elements of agriculture productivity and the environment.

Full text

AIP Conference Proceedings 2682, 030009 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0118270 2682, 030009
© 2023 Author(s).
Review on biodegradable pot: A new
promising approach for sustainable
agriculture
Cite as: AIP Conference Proceedings 2682, 030009 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0118270
Published Online: 07 February 2023
Jaka Darma Jaya, Agung Nugroho, Muthia Elma, et al.

Review on Biodegradable Pot:
A New Promising Approach for Sustainable Agriculture
Jaka Darma Jaya1, a), Agung Nugroho2, 4, b), Muthia Elma3, 4, c), Sunardi Sunardi4, d)
1 Department of Agroindustry, Tanah Laut State Polytechnics, Pelaihari, 70815, Indonesia
2 Department of Agro-industrial Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarbaru,
70714, Indonesia
3 Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Lambung Mangkurat University,
JL. A. Yani KM 36, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan 70714, Indonesia
4 Wetland-Based Materials Research Center, Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarbaru,
South Kalimantan 70714, Indonesia
a) jaka_dj@politala.ac.id
b) Corresponding author: anugroho@ulm.ac.id
c) melma@ulm.ac.id
d) sunardi@ulm.ac.id
Abstract. Plastic waste is the most serious environmental problem in the last two decades. Plastic material derived from
petroleum-based materials such as polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene creates serious environmental problems
due to hard to decompose. Accumulation of plastic waste may reduce function and fertility of soil, as well as may harm
organisms through the bioaccumulation and biomagnification. This review aims to investigate the latest work on
biodegradable pot, including biomaterials and natural fiber applied for biodegradable pot, technical (physico-mechanical)
properties, degradability in the environment (water and soil) and current applications in agriculture such as horticulture,
floriculture, plantation, and agroforestry. Development and application of biodegradable pot are expected to be a new
approach to achieve sustainable agricultural goals that take into account the elements of agriculture productivity and the
environment.
INTRODUCTION
The accumulation of plastic waste has become the most critical environmental problem in the last two decades.
One source of plastic waste is the use of plastic seed containers in the form of pots and polybags in the agricultural
process [1-3]. The use of plastic pots raises problems because they are not easily decomposed by natural means in the
environment, either by rainwater, solar heat, or decomposing microorganisms [2, 4]. On the other hand, increased
agricultural, plantation and forestry activities make the need for seedlings and planting containers even higher.
The development of alternative planting containers derived from organic materials or also called biodegradable
pots has become one of the alternative solutions to the problem of plastic waste originating from agriculture activities
(agroplastic). According to Beeks and Evans [5], biodegradable pots or biocontainer are planting containers made
from organic material (non-petroleum based) that are easily decomposed when placed in the soil or composting pile.
Biodegradability is the advantage of biodegradable pots compared to plastic planting containers because they do not
cause environmental problems in the future. This new approach in applying biodegradable pots is one of the keys to
achieving sustainable agriculture goals.
Scientific studies on biodegradable pots have attracted the attention of researchers and industries. The effort had
been carried out using variety of materials derived from waste and organic biomass such as peat, cow manure, wood
fiber, residual mushroom cultivation media, coconut fiber, banana peels, husks, palm oil fiber and straw [5-12]. On
the other hand, studies to find new raw materials (novel material) that are suitable and have a large abundance also
3rd Symposium on Industrial Science and Technology (SISTEC2021)
AIP Conf. Proc. 2682, 030009-1–030009-8; https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0118270
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-4326-6/$30.00
030009-1

continue to be carried out following the potential of each region.
This review explained the latest research of biodegradable pot, including material made up of biodegradable pot,
technical properties, degradability in the environment (water and soil), and current applications in agriculture such as
horticulture, floriculture, plantation, and agroforestry. The application of biodegradable pots in agriculture is expected
to be a new approach to achieve sustainable agricultural goals that take into account the elements of agriculture and
the environment in one goal.
BIODEGRADABLE POTS
Beeks and Evans [5] defines a biodegradable pot or biocontainer as a planting container based on organic material
(non-petroleum based) that is easily decomposed when placed in the ground or composting pile. Biodegradable pots
are classified into two groups, those that can be planted directly in the soil (plantable pots) and compostable pots.
Plantable pots are pots that allow the roots of plants to penetrate the walls of the pot and make it possible to be
transplanted to the land without breaking the pot. While compostable pots are pots that do not allow the transfer of
plants directly to the ground because the roots of the plants cannot easily penetrate the walls of the pot, so it is
necessary to release the pots at transference. However, this compostable plant pot will be easily decomposed if
transferred to a compost pile.
Improvement of biodegradable pots from organic materials and waste has attracted research interest (Table 1).
The use of various materials with consideration of their high abundance, low prices and their use that can reduce
environmental problems, was done to find appropriate material for biodegradable pot, in term of mechanical
properties, biodegradability ad other beneficial traits.
TABLE 1. Recent researches on biodegradable pot: material, scope of research and result
Naming Material Scope of Research Ref.
Biodegradable Seedling
Plug Tray
Main material:
Peat Moss, Wood fiber, Cow
manure
- Characterization
- Agronomy Application
- Biodegradability
[9]
Biodegradable Pot
Main material:
Banana peel
Other materials:
Tapioca, Glycerol, Vinegar
- Fabrication
- Tensile Test
- Biodegradability Test
- Total C & N analysis
[13]
Biodegradable Pot
Main material:
Tomato Waste, Flax Fiber
Other materials:
Sodium Alginate, Polygliserol,
Calcium chloride
- Physico-chemical
characterization
- Agronomic performance
[12]
Biocomposite for
flowerpot (BFP)
Main material:
Straw
Other materials:
Hydrolyzed soybean protein isolate
(HSPI); Urea/formaldehyde
copolymer-based adhesive);
ammonium chloride
- Fabrication
- Characterization
- Biodegradation
- Microbial diversity
[14]
Biocontainer
Main material:
Seaweed waste
Other materials:
Poly (3-hydroxy butyrate co-3-
hydroxyvalerate); Acetyl Tributyl
Citrate (plasticizer); Calcium
carbonate
- Fabrication
- Plant nursery experiments
- Field Experiments
[15,
16]
030009-2

Naming Material Scope of Research Ref.
Biodegradable Plant
Nursery Container
Main material:
Sawdust
Other materials:
Protein hydrolyzate (leather
industry waste); Polyethylene
glycol; epoxidized soybean oil;
Ethylene Diamin
- Manufacture (production)
- Characterization
- Application to plants
[17]
Growing Containers
Main material:
Peat, Poultry feathers, Paper
Other material:
paraffin wax (sealer)
- Characterization
- Need for water pot (water
usage)
- Microbial growth
-
Decomposition
[10]
Growing Container Main material:
Peat, Poultry feathers, Paper
Other material:
paraffin wax (sealer)
- Performance of potted
plant growth on irrigation
uniforms, non-uniform
irrigation and field
simulations
[18]
Biodegradable Container
Main material:
Residual substrate of mushroom
cultivation
- Agronomic performance
(germination, leaves, stem
height, fruit)
- Physico-chemical
characterization
[8]
Biodegradable poly(lactic
acid)/cellulose-based
superabsorbent hydrogel
composite material
Main material:
Polylactic acid
Other material:
Cellolose, KNO3
- Hydrogel sample
preparation
- Degree of swelling
- Release analysis
- Structural analysis
- Thermal analysis
-
Application to plants
[19]
Biodegradable Pot
Main material:
Biodegradable polyester; Plant fiber
- Agronomic
Characterization
- Technical
Characterization
[20]
Biocontainer
Rice husks, paper, Peat, Wood fiber,
Rice straw, Coconut coir
- Mechanical/physical
characterization
-
Algae/fungi biodiversity
[5]
Biodegradable pots have several advantages when compared to polybags or plastic pots. First, biodegradable pots
are more easily degraded in the soil than plastic pots, since they are composed of natural fibers that make it easier for
indigenous soil and aquatic microorganisms to make changes [13-15]. Second, biodegradable pots have pores that
are wide enough, and permeable walls that allowed plant roots to penetrate. This penetration happens, because
biodegradable pots are composed of natural fiber and matrix materials that are bound to one another, with a moulding
method that is adjusted to produce pots that are sturdy enough with pores that are not too tight. In plastic pots, plant
roots become circular because the roots cannot penetrate tight plastic pores. This causes stunted plant growth and
affects plant productivity [8, 10-15, 19, 21-24]. Third, biodegradable pots have economic advantages that can compete
with even cheaper plastic pots, because the raw material of biodegradable pots is mostly derived from agricultural
wastes which are cheap and easy to obtain around, such as peat, husk, grain, coconut fiber, and palm oil fiber. Fourth,
biodegradable pots composed of organic biomass have the potential to enrich soil nutrients and improve soil fertility.
MATERIALS FOR BIODEGRADABLE POTS
Biodegradable pots developed in research and industry are mostly in the form of biocomposites composed of
natural fibers as a reinforcement component (filler) and a matrix that can be in the form of adhesives, plasticizers,
030009-3

resins or epoxy. The challenge of determining the fiber as main constituent of biodegradable pots is the availability,
price and final characteristics of biodegradable pots that will be produced. Researches on biodegradable pots show
that a variety of organic biomass are potential to be used as material for biodegradable pot (Table 1).
Fiber is a reinforcing material from composite materials and the main part of the composite system that carries
structural loads. Composite materials are mostly produced with synthetic reinforcement and matrix materials such as
carbon fiber, aramid, glass, silica, carbonaceous char and titania nanoparticles are used for the production of composite
materials [25-31]. However, the issue of environmental sustainability requires more innovative solutions. Plant fiber
attracts the attention of researchers and industry because it has the potential to be used as a reinforcement material to
strengthen the biodegradable pot structure, beside other benefit from its nature which is easily degraded and
environmentally friendly. Plant fibers are lignocellulosic fibers formed from components of cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin. In addition to these 3 main components, plant fibers can also contain wax, pectin, starch, protein, inorganic
materials and others, depending on climate, type of plant, habitat, and other environmental factors [32].
PHYSICAL-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Quality of biodegradable pots is determined by the characteristics of biodegradable pots which mainly include
physical and mechanical properties. The final characteristics of biodegradable pots that are generally in the form of
biocomposite are determined by many factors such as the type of matrix material, type and direction of fiber,
production method and others [32]. The characteristics of the biodegradable pot are very dependent on the raw material
making up the biodegradable pot (Table 2).
TABLE 2. Physical (A) and mechanical characteristics (B) of biodegradable pot
Parameter Value Method Ref.
Physical
Water adsorption (%)
130
-
190
Sample weighing
[12]
316
-
476
Sample weighing
[9]
Density (g/cm
3
)
0.19
-
0,
43
Liquid displacement method
[12]
0,
14
-
0,
2
Sample weighing
[8]
0.81 Sample weighing [14]
Porosity (%)
21,
7
-
36,
1
Liquid displacement method
[12]
30
-
34
Subsequent volume reduction
[8]
Permeability
(ng s
−1
m
−1
Pa
−1
)
0.072-0.128 ASTM E 96–80 [12]
Mechanical
Tensile strength
(MPa)
0, 1-2, 0 ASTM D3039/D3039M-14 [9]
0,
46
-
1,
2
ASTM D790
[12]
21,
8
-
22,
3
ASTM D3039/D3039M
-
14
[20]
10
-
13
ASTM E83 (Instron)
[17]
Elongation at break
(%)
1-93 ASTM E83 (Instron) [17]
48,
5
-
48,
7
ASTM
D3039/D3039M
-
14
[20]
Young modulus
(MPa)
732-2050 ASTM E83 (Instron) [17]
62.51
-
97.08
ASTM E 96
–
80
[12]
48
-
97
ASTM D3039/D3039M
-
14
[9]
030009-4

DEGRADABILITY IN ENVIRONMENT
The environmental advantage of biodegradable pots is the ease of decomposition in nature. Degradation in the
environment can be through the mechanism of photodegradation, biodegradation and others. Ease of degradation
avoids the accumulation of abundant post-agricultural waste as happened with the use of plastic pots or polybags. It
attributed to its original composition of natural hydrocarbon fibers that facilitate soil and endogenous aquatic
microorganisms to degrade.
Biodegradable pot degradation depends on the internal conditions of pot (material and manufacturing process) and
the external environmental conditions (microorganisms, light, chemicals and minerals that interact with the
biodegradable pot). Biodegradable pots reportedly made from various material have various degradation period when
applied in land or water [13-15]. In detail, an overview of biodegradable pot degradation can be seen in Table 3.
TABLE 3. Degradability of biopot from different biomaterials
AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION
Biodegradable pots have been assessed for their wide application in agriculture, forestry, horticultural plantations,
floriculture and even aquaculture [14, 15, 19, 33]. Its application is also carried out both on long-lived (annual) plants
and short-lived plants [14, 33]. Research on agronomic applications was conducted to determine the effect of pots,
both the size and material of the potting constituents, on the agronomic performance of plants such as root length,
plant height, plant weight, branch growth, shoots and others. Observation results also show the influence of pots that
Experimental Conditions Method Degradability Duration Ref.
- Buried in clay (4% sand,
42% mud, 54% clay).
- Soil density 1.28 Mg / m3
with 33% humidity
Weight loss test < 15%
(cow manure)
1-7 week [9]
- Condition 1 (medium filled
pot)
- Condition 2 (empty pot)
Weight loss test 39.38a ±3.14%
BP 70% (empty pot)
51.66a ±0.79%
BP 50% (pot filled with
soil)
60 days [13]
Buried in soil CO2 emission 20% 60 days [12]
- Condition 1 (buried in soil)
-
Condition 2 (composting)
- Weight loss test
-
CO
2
emission
< 50% (weight)
24 g (CO2)
24
months
[14]
Soaked in sea water
(
salinated water
)
Weight loss test 19, 42±1, 18% 26
months
[15]
Buried in soil Weight loss test 20% 24 days [17]
Planted with tomatoes Weight loss test < 63% 16 weeks [10]
Planted with tomatoes Weight loss test 50% 140 days [8]
Heated high temperature Weight loss test 100% - [19]
Buried in soil Qualitative assessment
(score scale)
0 = no visible damage
5 = looks heavily
damaged
2, 8 4 months [20]
Planted in soil with regular
watering
Weight loss test 100%
(peat and cow manure)
Partially degraded
(Jerami serat kayu)
15 weeks [5]
Composted at a temperature of
58
°
C for 60 days
Cumulative CO2
emission
>60% 60 days [5]
030009-5

vary depending on the size and material making up the pot [9]. In more detail, the performance of biodegradable pot
applications in plants can be seen in Table 4.
TABLE 4. Agricultural applications of biodegradable pots
Plants for
application
Growth period
and Plant
Classification
Observed
Agronomic
Parameters
Results Ref.
- Tomato
- Chicory
short-lived
plants
(Horticulture)
- Plant Growth
- Fruit Yield
- Pot material is useful in modifying the water
retention capability of the soil
- But there is no significant effect on plant growth
and fruit yield of plants.
[19]
Tomato Short-lived
plants
(Horticulture)
- Seedling
establishment
- tomato
production
- Seedlings from the residual substrate were
comparable to the controls, in terms of
productivity.
- Better morphology of the plants cultivated in the
residual substrate showed that they tolerate stress
factors, e.g., drought or wind.
[8]
Gmelina
arborea
Roxb.
Perennial
plants
(Agroforestry)
- Height
- Diameter
-
Total biomass
- Biodegradable pot of mixed (50:50 v / v) paper
and compost with tannin adhesive showed the best
growth performance of Gmelina arborea
[33]
Flower
plant
Short-lived
plant
(Floriculture)
- Microbial
population
- During the process of degradation, the number of
bacteria and fungi on the surface of biodegradable
pot accelerate its degradation.
- Nitrate ion could also be formed by nitrobacteria,
which promoted plant growth
[14]
Poinsettia
(Euphorbia
pulcherrima
Willd.)
Perennial
plants
(Floriculture)
Plant traits:
Plant
Bracts
Stems
- Poinsettia cultivated in bio pots presented
biometrical traits and colorimetric characteristics
of leaves and bracts similar and in some cases
higher than those grown in PP conventional
containers.
- The mechanical characterization of pots
confirmed that containers made of 100%
biodegradable polyester are suitable for the 18-
week poinsettia cultivation cycle
[20]
- Marigold
- Vinca
- Geranium
- Impatiens
- Tomato
Short-lived
plant
(Floriculture
and
horticulture)
Dry shoot
weight
(under
uniform/non-
uniform
irrigation/fertili
zation and
simulated field
condition)
- The substrate in peat containers dried more
rapidly than the substrate in feather containers
- Container type did not significantly affect dry
shoot weights of plant
[18]
Pepper Short-lived
plant
(horticulture)
Root
development
- Biodegradable pots did not cause damage to the
plants but allowed to develop very dense and
active root hair
- During the transplanting operations, no transplant
shock and root deformation were
detected.
[12]
- Seagrass
plant
- Dune
plant
Perennial
plants
(Aquaculture)
Shoot/plant/ste
m number and
appearance
- Biodegradable pot significantly improved the
performance of seagrasses and dune plants in
nurseries.
[15]
030009-6

Plants for
application
Growth period
and Plant
Classification
Observed
Agronomic
Parameters
Results Ref.
Bean Short-lived
plant
(Horticulture)
Root length - Plug-cell size did not significantly affect seedling
height in any cases but affect to root length of
seedling
[9]
Not
mentioned
Not
mentioned
Not
mentioned
- F. equiseti GF191 treated soil in biodegradable
pot could protect tomato plants from FCRR
(pathogen)
[34]
Some of the benefits to be gained from biodegradable pot applications include:
Optimal root growth. Density and porosity of biodegradable pot allow the roots to penetrate the walls. This trait
is good for plants because the root growth process is not inhibited. The root has an essential role for plants because it
functions to absorb water, CO2 and nutrients. In some plants, the roots function to fix nitrogen, such as its function in
legume plants. Research shows that roots and pots affect plant growth and productivity [9, 35, 36] that is undoubtedly
related to the economic benefits of the industry.
Transfer seeds to land without demolition. Biodegradable pot wall that allows roots to penetrate, allowing plants
to be transplanted directly to the land without breaking the pot. This benefit can streamline labour and time [9].
Enriches soil nutrients. Some raw materials of biodegradable such as straw, soybean hydrolyzate, coconut fiber,
tomato waste, peat, palm fiber and livestock manure contain the nutrients needed by plants. Burying this material in
the field together with the transfer of plants bring the benefits to the soil, because it will enrich soil nutrients when
they are decomposed.
Land is spared from plastic contamination. Ease of degradation prevents land from contamination, such as
contamination that occurs after the use of plastic pots [9, 10, 12, 17].
Based on the description above, the application of biodegradable pots in agriculture is fascinating to be developed,
because it is very beneficial in term of agronomic and environmental aspects. A breakthrough is needed for the massive
introduction of this biodegradable pot in agriculture so that in the next step can support a sustainable agricultural
system.
SUMMARY
Biodegradable pot derived from organic biomass, primarily agricultural and plantation wastes, is a new green
technology and approach in agriculture that has the potential to reduce agroplastic waste accumulation. On the other
hand, this approach converts invaluable agricultural wastes into economically valuable products. With all the
advantages offered such as ease of degradation, enrich nutrients, and help soil amelioration, biodegradable pot is
exciting to be continuously studied and developed so that its utilization can be economically and technically
applicable, especially in the aim of supporting the achievement of sustainable agriculture goal.
REFERENCES
1. G. Santagata, M. Malinconico, B. Immirzi, E. Schettini, G.S. Mugnozza, G. Vox, Acta Hortic 1037, 921-928
(2014).
2. J.R. Jambeck, Q. Ji, Y.G. Zhang, D. Liu, D.M. Grossnickle, Z.X. Luo, Science 347 (6223), 768–771 (2015).
3. E.L. Ng, E. Huerta Lwanga, S.M. Eldridge, P. Johnston, H.W. Hu, V. Geissen, et al. Sci. Total Environ. 627,
1377–1388 (2018).
4. J. Akhir, Allaily, D. Syamsuwida, S.W. Budi, Rona Tek Pertan. 10(2), 1–11 (2017).
5. S.A Beeks and M.R. Evans, HortScience, 48(6), 732–737 (2013).
6. J.D. Jaya, M.I. Darmawan, A.G. Ilmannafian, L. Sanjaya, Teknol Agro-Industri. 6(2), 127–40 (2019).
7. J.D. Jaya, A.G. Ilmannafian, Maimunah, J. Sains dan Teknol Lingkung. 11(1), 1–10 (2019).
8. P.D. Postemsky, P.A. Marinangeli, N.R. Curvetto, Sci Hortic (Amsterdam) 201, 329–37 (2016).
9. X. Zhang, C. Wang, Y. Chen, Sci Hortic (Amsterdam) 249,177–184 (2019).
10. M.R. Evans and D. Karcher, HortScience, 39(5), 1008–1011 (2004).
11. J. Sahari and S.M. Sapuan, Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 30(2), 166–174 (2012).
12. E. Schettini, G. Santagata, M. Malinconico, B. Immirzi, G. Scarascia Mugnozza, G. Vox, Resour. Conserv.
030009-7

Recycl. 70, 9–19 (2013).
13. S.N.A.M. Rafee, Y.L. Lee, M.R. Jamalludin, N.A. Razak, N.L. Makhtar, R.I. Ismail, Acta Technol. Agric. 22(1),
1–4 (2019).
14. E. Sun, G. Liao, Q. Zhang, P. Qu, G. Wu, H. Huang, Compos Part B Eng. 165(November 2018), 193–198 (2019).
15. E. Balestri, F. Vallerini, M. Seggiani, P. Cinelli, V. Menicagli, C. Vannini, et al., J. Environ. Manage. 251(July),
109604 (2019).
16. M. Seggiani, P. Cinelli, E. Balestri, N. Mallegni, E. Stefanelli, A. Rossi, et al., Materials (Basel) 11(5), (2018).
17. L. Sartore, E. Schettini, F. Bignotti, S. Pandini, G. Vox, Polym. Compos. 39(8), 2743–2750 (2016).
18. M.R. Evans, D.L. Hensley, L.H. Bailey, R. Star, Plastic, Peat, and Processed Poultry Feather Fiber Growing
Containers, 39(5), 1012–1004 (2004).
19. P. Calcagnile, T. Sibillano, C. Giannini, A. Sannino, C. Demitri, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 136(21), 1–9 (2019).
20. D. Castronuovo, P. Picuno, C. Manera, A. Scopa, A. Sofo, V. Candido, Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam) 197, 150–156
(2015).
21. M.J. John, Environmental degradation in biocomposites [Internet],Biocomposites for High-Performance
Applications. (Elsevier Ltd.; 2017), pp. 181–194.
22. N. Saba, M. Jawaid, M.T.H. Sultan, O.Y. Alothman, Green Biocomposites for Structural Applications Green
composites (Springer International Publishing, 2017) pp. 1–27.
23. M. Seggiani, P. Cinelli, E. Balestri, N. Mallegni, E. Stefanelli, A. Rossi, et al., Materials (Basel) 11(5), 1–16
(2018).
24. B. Immirzi, and M. Malinconico, Acta Hort. 801, 195–202 (2008).
25. J. Nasser, L.A. Groo, L. Zhang, H. Sodano, Carbon N Y 158, 146–56 (2020).
26. P. Xue, S. Pauly, W. Gan, S. Jiang, H. Fan, Z. Ning, et al., J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 35(10), 2221–2226 (2019).
27. M. Elma and H. Setyawan, Synthesis of Silica Xerogels Obtained in Organic Catalyst via Sol Gel Route, in IOP
Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 175(1), 012008 (2018).
28. M. Elma, Fitriani, A. Rakhman, R. Hidayati, Silica P123 Membranes for Desalination of Wetland Saline Water
in South Kalimantan, in IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 175(1), 1–5 (2018).
29. M. Elma, N. Riskawati, Marhamah, Silica Membranes for Wetland Saline Water Desalination: Performance and
Long Term Stability, in IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 175(1): 1–7 (2018).
30. M. Elma, Hairullah, Z.L. Assyaifi, Desalination Process via Pervaporation of Wetland Saline Water, in IOP Conf
Ser Earth Environ. Sci. 175(1), 1–6 (2018).
31. D.K. Wang, M. Elma, J. Motuzas, W.C. Hou, D.R. Schmeda-Lopez, T. Zhang, et al., Carbon N Y 109, 182–191
(2016).
32. S. Yıldızhan, A. Çalık, M. Özcanlı, H. Serin, Eur. Mech. Sci. 2(3), 83–91 (2018).
33. S.W. Budi, A. Sukendro, L. Karlinasari, J. Agron. Indones. 40(3), 239–245 (2012).
34. H. Horinouchi, N. Katsuyama, Y. Taguchi, M. Hyakumachi, Crop Prot. 27(3–5), 859–864 (2008).
35. L.W. Carlson and F. Endean, Can. J. Res. 17, 221–224 (1976).
36. T.G. Kharkina and C.O. Ottosen, Physiol. Plant. 105(3), 434–441 (1999).
030009-8