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Plants, people and fire: Phytolith and FTIR analyses of the post-Howiesons Poort occupations at Border Cave (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa)

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Abstract

Border Cave is a well-known South African Middle and Early Later Stone Age site located in KwaZulu-Natal. The site has exceptional plant preservation, unparalleled in the African Middle Stone Age archaeological record. This study focuses on the phytolith and FTIR analysis of two Members (2 BS and 2 WA) of the under-documented post-Howiesons Poort occupations dating to~60 ka. These members contain complex successions of vertically overlapping, interdigitating light brown sediments, plant bedding and combustion features of various sizes. The complexity and distinctiveness of these deposits provide an excellent opportunity for the study of plant exploitation strategies and their associated human behaviour. Our taphonomic assessment inferred, through the variability of phytolith properties and minerals composing archaeological layers, that specific occupations suffered more physical weathering than others, for example in the form of trampling. The preservation of fragile and highly soluble phy-toliths (eudicot leaf phytoliths) and the high frequencies of articulated phytoliths indicates that some bedding deposits experienced little disturbance after their deposition. Not all bedding layers dating to ⁓60 ka show, from a phytolith perspective, the same plant composition, which could be explained in terms of changes in human preference for the use of plants over time to construct bedding or because distinct types of living floors are represented. Finally, the systematic application of phytoliths and FTIR to the complex archaeological sequence of Border Cave confirm these analyses can be used in the future to identify bedding deposits not visible to the naked eye, and behavioural patterns obscured by diagenetic or biased processes during sampling.

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Thesis
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The book presents new data on the IR spectra of minerals and on the Raman spectra of more than 2000 mineral species. It also includes examples of IR spectroscopy applications to investigate minerals, and discusses the most important potential applications of Raman spectroscopy in mineralogical research. The book serves as a reference resource and a methodological guide for mineralogists, petrologists and technologists working in the field of inorganic materials.
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A comprehensive checklist of 2902 vascular plant species for Namaqualand (Western and Northern Cape Provinces of South Africa) is presented, in which the local traditional and contemporary human uses of 384 taxa are indicated. Information was obtained through a literature study and extensive field survey work, including rigorous and detailed interviews and field walks. Of the total of 383 useful plant species, 240 are used in traditional medicine, 185 are edible, and 216 are used in crafts and other miscellaneous uses. Several species are used in more than one of the three main use categories. A total of 119 vascular plant families is represented in Namaqualand, of which 78 include species that are used locally for medicine, food and crafts. Species from 66 families are used for medicinal purposes, 53 include edible species and 57 include species used for crafts and other miscellaneous uses. The families that contribute the highest numbers of useful plant species are Asteraceae (51 spp.), Geraniaceae (23 spp.), Aizoaceae (22 spp.), Apocynaceae (18 spp.), Iridaceae (17 spp.), Asphodelaceae (13 spp.), Fabaceae (13 spp.), Lamiaceae (11 spp.), Apiaceae (10 spp.) and Amaryllidaceae (9 spp.). There are 45 new species-records of plants with human uses and 147 newly reported uses (38 medicinal, 51 edible and 58 crafts and miscellaneous uses). The checklist was used for a regression analysis of the total number of available plant species per family (as independent variable) and the total number of species per family that are used in Namaqualand (as dependent variable). Residual values of predicted vs actual numbers of species show an over-representation of especially Asteraceae (+ 21), Geraniaceae (+ 16) and Apocynaceae (+ 11) and an under-representation of Aizoaceae (− 17), Hyacinthaceae (− 7) and Poaceae (− 6). The inventory data and results are not only of importance in understanding the broader plant use patterns of the Khoi-San legacy in the Succulent Karoo Biome, but also contribute to the conservation of the cultural heritage of the people of Namaqualand, and as a source of ethnobotanical data for future research and comparative analyses.
Article
The ethnobotany of Sekhukhuneland and the plants used by rural Bapedi people for their everyday needs have not yet been systematically recorded. Available information is mostly focussed on medicinal plants that are used by traditional healers. The aim of this study was to accurately record extant indigenous knowledge on the most important useful plants within Central Sekhukhuneland. The study was conducted from 2015 to 2017 in three rural villages: Frisgewaght, Ga-Moretsele/Tsehlwaneng and Ga-Sekhele. A total of 27 participants of different age groups were interviewed using the matrix method and a flip-file of composite photographs of 152 local useful plants. Sixty-six species (44%) had food uses, 71 (46%) had medicinal uses and 62 (40%) had various craft uses. A total 185 use-records (107 medicinal, 21 food and 57 other) and 98 vernacular names were newly recorded at the time the study was completed. We used the Species Popularity Index (SPI) to quantify the relative importance of the species in the three communities, as well as the Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI) to assess the level of indigenous knowledge amongst the participants. The study revealed that a rich local culture of everyday plant uses that have not yet been systematically recorded.
Article
An ethnobotanical survey was undertaken from May 2015 to May 2016 to identify grasses used in traditional medicine in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Indigenous knowledge was obtained from sixty traditional healers through questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. Thereafter, the different grass species were collected and identified at the herbarium at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. Voucher specimens were also kept for preservation and future material reference. The survey revealed that 13 grass species are used for medicinal purposes; these grasses are mostly used as mixtures with other medicinal plants. The documented grass species are mostly used to cure skin diseases, body pains, urinary tract infections, teething troubles, body cleansing, skin diseases, bleeding and eye infections. In this study, the most commonly and frequently mentioned grass species were the Cymbopogon species which are used for skin disease and body cleansing. The 13 grass species identified were evaluated for antibacterial activity against six bacterial strains (Staphylococcus aureus, drug resistant S. aureus, drug resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae, multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus faecalis). Coix lacryma-jobi root and leaf hexane extracts, Setaria megaphylla root dichloromethane extract and Cynodon dactylon whole plant hexane, dichloromethane and methanol extracts had the highest antibacterial activity (0.6 mg/ml) against S. aureus. Cymbopogon species root (dichloromethane) extract had moderate activity (1.3 mg/ml) against three bacterial strains (S. aureus, multi-drug-resistant E. coli and E. faecalis). Overall, these findings partially validate the use of grasses in South African traditional medicine and highlight their potential as remedies against bacterial-related infections.
Article
This paper employs new phytolith evidence to consider how Early Epipaleolithic people at the site of Kharaneh IV (Azraq Basin, Jordan) used local plant resources to construct their huts, and furnish their indoor space. Forty-five sediment samples from Structure 1 were compared to previously published results (10 sediment samples) from the well-preserved site of Ohalo II (Hut 1) (adjacent to Sea of Galilee, Israel). Our results demonstrate that similar plant resources were employed in both sites’ hut constructions, including the heavy use of wetland sedge and reed resources. Interpreting the extensive use of wetland resources in hut construction at Kharaneh IV required the use of new ethnographic analogs focused on wetland-based adaptations, such as Northern Paiute ‘tule technology’ from the American Great Basin. The phytolith evidence shows that woody and shrubby dicots were employed, likely to construct the hut frame. Phragmites culm may also have been used to frame the structure. While a variety of grasses, wetland reeds, and importantly sedge resources, were used as part of the hut superstructure, perhaps as bundled thatching to cover the frame. In the interior these resources were employed as a loose floor covering or matting to increase the comfort of the living space. Our broader findings emphasize that Early Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers were increasingly investing in ‘place’. Indeed, the construction of these early homes may even have enhanced the ecological productivity and social meaning of the Azraq Landscape.
Article
Proxy evidence from archaeological sites in the present summer-rainfall region of the subcontinent suggests that increased and more seasonal rainfall there is likely to accompany predicted anthropogenic temperature rises during the next half-century. It is considered possible that the scale and rapidity of those expected climatic shifts and the concomitant ongoing growth in human numbers could cause severe biosphere stresses and accelerating losses in biological diversity by the year AD 2040. -Authors
Article
The Middle to Late Pleistocene spring site of Florisbad, South Africa, is the name site of the Florisian Land Mammal Age (LMA), and it has produced a large collection of fossil bones from different sedimentary contexts. The largest of these faunal assemblages derives from vertically intrusive dormant spring vents and is taphonomically distinct from specimens associated with a Middle Stone Age occupational horizon. The Florisbad faunal assemblages include several extinct and extant animal species, mainly grazing ungulates that represent a highly productive open grassland environment. The Florisian LMA was characterized by substantially wetter conditions compared to the Holocene. Geological evidence at Florisbad and the characteristic occurrence of water-dependent species, such as lechwe, waterbuck, hippopotamus and a variety of water birds, reflect the presence of a vast intermittent paleolake forming during the wet phases of the Middle and Late Pleistocene. During dry phases, the area of spring activity was not inundated and provided a suitable habitat for both humans and animals. Bones collected from different sedimentary contexts exhibit a number of post-depositional alterations that reflect specific diagenetic processes, which led to fossilization. Two contrasting hypotheses regarding these processes, based on morphological studies of bones and groundwater chemistry, were proposed in the past. The first identified spring water as a major fossilization agent, whereas the second saw it as a medium conducive to bone dissolution. Using Fourier Transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and micro-spectrometry (μFTIR), we determined the mineralogical composition of these bones. We show here that specimens from inactive paleo-spring vents are characterized by the formation of carbonate fluorapatite on the outer surface of cortical bone, and locally exhibit authigenic calcite crystals, as opposed to bones collected from non-spring contexts at the site. The nucleation of carbonate fluorapatite is linked to the high fluoride content of the alkaline spring water, thus confirming its key role in the fossilization process of bones recovered from paleo-spring vents. Therefore, our results support the first of the two hypotheses advanced in the past.
Article
There is evidence that hunter-gatherer societies of both the Middle and the Later Stone Ages in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) used many plant species, particularly those with underground storage organs (USOs), as sources of carbohydrate. In the CFR, USOs - mostly monocotoledon geophytes - are particularly diverse and abundant. However, little is known about which species were targeted by hunter-gatherers. Here we use, for the first time in the CFR, ethnobotanical methods to survey the use of indigenous edible plant species amongst contemporary people of Khoe-San descent, in an attempt to gain insight on hunter-gatherer resource use. Specifically we surveyed 18 participants living in rural areas around Still Bay. They identified 58 indigenous edible plant species (from a potential list of over 140). The identified species had 69 uses, almost half of which were for fruit and a quarter for vegetable foodstuffs. Plants bearing USOs comprised only 12% of uses. As a group, species that produced fruit had the highest popularity, followed by nectar producing species and lastly plants with USOs. The popularity of this last-mentioned group was largely underpinned by the strong preference for the tubers from two Cyphia species. Knowledge of edible geophytes belonging to the Iridaceae was low, despite that these species were widely documented as important carbohydrate sources in the ethnographic, historical and archaeological literature. Shrubs were the most frequent growth form 34% of edible plant species identified by the survey group. Geophytes and trees both comprised 21% of species identified. Species of Thicket Biome affinity dominated the sample (52%) followed by the Fynbos Biome (38%); wetlands contributed the remainder at 10%. The diverse array of different biomes, each with their own suite of edible plant resources, would have been important for sustaining hunter-gatherer communities on the Cape south coast. With the exception of the edible apical meristems of palmiet (Prionium serratum), which occurs rarely in the study area, the survey failed to identify species that could have formed a staple source of carbohydrate for the pre-colonial Khoe-San peoples of the Cape south coast. This is almost certainly due to the loss of hunter-gatherer lifestyles after colonisation in the 1700s and the concomitant introduction of cereal crops.
Article
A survey of the remains of food plants from archaeological contexts in South Africa shows that geophytes, primarily corms and bulbs, were a major food resource. Geophyte gathering can be documented directly in well preserved remains dating to almost 30 000 years ago and indirectly through the context and association of carbonized remains in sites dating to the beginning of the Late Pleistocene more than 100 000 years ago. Variations in the natural productivity of geophytes due to environmental forcing in the Holocene and the Late Pleistocene has been a constraint on the distributions and densities of Middle and Later Stone Age forager populations. Acheulian populations of the Middle Pleistocene may not have had the same reliance on geophytes as a food resource.
Article
This list contains 227 radiocarbon dates pertaining to the western part of southern Africa, between Luanda (9°S) in the north and the Orange R (29°S) in the south. Unless otherwise stated, all samples are pretreated with hot diluted hydrochloric acid. Most samples were analyzed in two counters described previously (R, 1971, v 13, p 378), but a few dates are included from mini-counter which requires only 60mg carbon (Vogel & Behrens, 1976). Ages are calculated with the conventional half-life of 5568 yr. Corrections for variation in isotope fractionation, based on 13C analysis of measured GO2, are applied to all dates. This is also done for dates on marine shell, but since no correction is made for the apparent age of surface ocean water, these appear about 400 yr too old as listed. Some comparisons between charcoal and shell indicate that apparent age of shell from the west coast of southern Africa is about 440 yr: The most probable historic date for samples with radiocarbon ages of less than 400 yr is deduced from the calibration curve for the Southern Hemisphere (R, 1970, v 12, p 466) and given in comments. An interesting pattern is emerging in the geographic distribution of the archaeologic dates for the region. In figure 1 a histogram of the ar-chaeologic dates in this list plus those in Deacon (1966), Vogel (1970) and Vogel & Marais (1971) is presented. As has been pointed out by Wendt (1975) there are no dates between 5100 BP and 2300 BP for the region be-tween the Orange R and Windhoek, while there are several N of Wind-hoek. This gap must probably be interpreted as a period of sparse or no occupation of the area. It may be noted that, during the preceding period, from 9000 to 5000 BP, no sites are known on the interior plateau of South Africa, while at the same time the coastal region and escarpment were well occupied (Deacon, 1974). Inquiry into the reasons for such pattern-ing will increase our understanding of the human ecology on the sub-continent. For additional dates for sites excavated by W E Wendt, see Freundlich, Schwabedisseu, and Wendt (1980). The most important result with regard to the geologic section is the accumulation of dates between 36,000 and 28,000 BP and at ca 21,000 yr. The samples represent slightly moister conditions in the Namib desert during these two periods.
Article
Certain aspects of the formation processes of simple, flat archaeological combustion structures such as those present in the Middle Palaeolithic record remain unexplained. Such kind of combustion structures are commonly affected by postdepositional agents and often, their only distinct, well preserved component is a thin black lens on the ground. Hence, understanding the nature of this black lens is essential towards archaeological interpretation. From an interdisciplinary microstratigraphic approach, we present a case study in which for an entire experimental series of flat combustion structures the black layer represents the fire-altered topsoil on which the fire was made. Parallel analysis of archaeological Middle Palaeolithic combustion structures from the site of El Salt (Alicante, Spain) reveal similar patterns, leading to significant implications for archaeological interpretation. In the light of these results, special attention must be paid to the formation processes of flat Middle Palaeolithic combustion features, as black layers and the material contained in them are not necessarily linked with combustion but with preceding activities or events. In such cases, black layers represent intact remnants of occupation surfaces, concealing significant behavioural and palaeoenvironmental information relevant to the reconstruction of Middle Palaeolithic societies.
Article
A study of the hearths and ash layers preserved in Hayonim and Kebara caves, Israel, showed that they are composed of one or several different minerals. These include the polymorph of CaCO3, calcite, a variety of phosphate minerals and a suite of siliceous minerals. The major component of the latter are siliceous aggregates that are present in wood. Detailed studies of the mineral associations in these fossil ash layers, as well as in fresh wood ash, using optical and scanning electron microscopy in the back scattered electron mode together with elemental analyses, showed that ash in these caves undergoes a series of diagenetic changes. The best preserved ash layers resemble fresh ash and are composed mainly of calcite with minor amounts of siliceous minerals. The calcite reacts with phosphate-rich solutions to form carbonated apatite and with time the latter dissolves and a variety of other phosphate-containing minerals form. With each diagenetic change, some of the more soluble minerals are lost and ultimately only the ash-derived siliceous minerals remain. In both caves there are local accumulations of such siliceous minerals that are metres thick. In fact ash-derived minerals in general are major components of the sediments in both Kebara and Hayonim caves. Their diagenesis involves a hugh reduction in volume, which in turn may have important effects on the geological structures and stratigraphy of the sediments. The changing mineralogy of the sediments due to diagenesis complicates the use of present-day estimates of radiation content of the sediments for correcting age estimates by thermoluminescence and electron spin resonance. Finally, the presence of the relatively stable ash-derived siliceous minerals in a sedimentary layer in other caves, could be a useful means of identifying the presence of ash in other archaeological sites where macroscopic hearth features are absent.
Article
The oldest anatomically modern human remains are beyond the range of radiocarbon dating, and associated deposits lack material suitable for most other dating methods. Consequently, age estimates for early human skeletal material and correlative stratigraphic horizons in southern Africa are frequently based on paleoclimatic correlations to the deep-sea record and extrapolated sedimentation rates, both of which incorporate a number of untested assumptions. Here we focus on one substage of the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa, the Howiesons Poort industry, a distinctive culture-stratigraphic marker in sequences south of the Zambezi. Anatomically modern human skeletal material has been found associated with, or even older than the Howiesons Poort layer in stratified deposits at Border Cave and Klasies River main site. We have dated or bracketed the Howiesons Poort horizon at Border Cave, Boomplaas Cave and Apollo 11 Cave, three stratified cave sites in southern Africa, based on the extent of isoleucine epimerization in associated ostrich eggshells. We conclude that the Howiesons Poort lithic industry is bracketed by limiting dates of 56 and 80ka, and is most likely centered on 66±5ka. Anatomically modern human remains in deeper levels are more than 100ka old, lending support to the hypothesis of an African origin for Homo sapiens.
Article
Small, discrete hearths and large combustion features occur between 65,000 and 58,000 years ago at Sibudu. Some hearths have concave bases, but most are flat. There are no stone foundations or surrounds. The hearths are generally well-preserved with white ash tops, black centres and rubefied bases. Bone fragments, lithics and other cultural items are normally intermixed around hearths and specific activities cannot usually be distinguished. However, this is not always the case, and ochre powder production is associated with some hearths, while others seem to have been used for site maintenance.
Article
An interpretation of the archaeological record, in particular that of a prehistoric cave site, is complicated by the diversity of depositional and post-depositional processes that affect the material deposited. Here we propose to use the authigenic minerals that form in situ within the cave sediments to reconstruct the ancient chemical environments in the sediments. This can be done by experimentally determining the conditions under which each of the authigenic minerals are stable. Although this information is not available to date for minerals formed in a prehistoric cave, we present calculated stability field data for the relevant minerals. The results clearly demonstrate the feasibility of this approach. This information, particularly if based on measurements of real authigenic cave minerals, will facilitate an assessment of the completeness of the cave archaeological record. This is particularly important for determining whether or not the distributions of archaeologically important materials, such as bones, teeth, plant phytoliths, charcoal and ash, reflect their original burial distributions or were altered as a result of secondary diagenetic processes.
Article
SEVERAL radiocarbon dates have recently become available which necessitate a rather drastic revision of the chronology of the Stone Age south of the Limpopo River1. An important consequence of the new time scale is that there is now strong evidence to suggest a very early appearance of Homo sapiens sapiens in Africa—considerably earlier than in the Middle East and Europe. It thus seems possible to envisage the continent of Africa as the area where much of modern man's early evolutionary development took place.
Article
Infrared spectrometry is a well-established method for the identification of minerals. Due to its simplicity and the short time required to obtain a result, it can be practiced on-site during excavation using portable infrared spectrometers. However, the identification of a mineral may not be sufficient. For example, a lime plaster floor and a crushed chalk surface have a similar appearance and are composed of the same mineral – calcite. Here we exploit differences in the infrared spectra of geogenic, biogenic and pyrogenic calcites for the identification of each calcite type. The infrared calcite spectrum has three characteristic peaks in the region of 400–4000 cm−1, designated ν2, ν3, and ν4. When a calcite sample is ground, as part of the measurement preparation procedure, some grinding dependent changes will be revealed in the infrared spectrum. With additional grinding, the ν3 peak narrows and the heights of the ν2 and ν4 peaks decrease, when both are normalized to the ν3 height. By plotting the normalized heights of the ν2versus the ν4 of several grindings of the same sample, a characteristic trend line is formed for each calcite type. The trend lines of geogenic calcites have the shallowest slopes and highest ν4 values when compared to pyrogenic calcites, which can be further divided to ash and plaster/mortar samples. This method can assist in distinguishing between the various calcites, and provide insights into homogeneity and preservation state of the calcitic materials in question. Also available in Memorial University Research Repository at http://research.library.mun.ca/6251/