![Histopathology of nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH), compared to normal liver (left), histologic features of NASH include steatosis ballooning, and lobular inflammation (middle), and is often paired with the pathological changes NASH fibrosis (right), and hepatocellular carcinoma. Adopted from: Roeb and Weiskirchen, [52].](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368268798/figure/fig2/AS:11431281117819159@1675555484131/Histopathology-of-nonalcoholic-Steatohepatitis-NASH-compared-to-normal-liver-left_Q320.jpg)
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Chapter
Health Risk of Food Additives:
Recent Developments and Trends
in the Food Sector
Mary M. Mwale
Abstract
Certain chemical substances have been recognized and used for centuries through
different cultures and civilizations either to enhance or preserve flavor, freshness,
appearance, taste, texture or keeping quality attributes of foods. Many of these sub-
stances are of little or no nutritive value, but are added in small quantities during food
processing, seasoning, packaging, storage, or display of both human and animal foods
for a specific desired effect. Food additives provide an opportunity to feed the world
through sustaining availability of convenient nutritious and affordable food for
human consumption, while also providing an avenue to minimize food loss and waste.
Sustained research innovations and advancement in food technology that began in the
20th century have led to introduction of over 3000 natural and artificially made
substances that are added to food during preparation or processing to impart specific
desirable characteristics. However, although use of food additives has contributed to
the rapid growth of the food industry, this has also brought other unwanted health
consequences that are of public health concern. This chapter explores the important
role of food additives in the food industry, recent developments and trends and in the
food sector to uncover some health risks associated with certain food additives to
promote safe use and minimize negative health consequences.
Keywords: food, food additives, health risks, technology
1. Introduction
Food as a basic need of life provides us with nutrients to thrive and be productive.
Selection of nutritious foods is bound to continue, so long as people want to live
healthy and remain productive. Food additives provide an opportunity to feed the
world sustainably and an avenue to minimize food loss and waste [1]. Food additives
have been used through different cultures and civilizations to improve or maintain the
nutritive value of food, improve the freshness, prolong the shelf-life and availability
making seasonal foods available throughout the year; bringing convenience- cheap,
time saving, ready to eat foods [2].
Food additives have become very common and central to modern food industry.
The ready-to- eat food that is not prepared at home, but is available in the market may
1
often contain some kind of additives so that their quality in terms of appearance,
texture, taste and flavor attributes are guaranteed or maintained [3]. Many low-calorie
snacks and ready-to-eat convenience foods would not be possible without the use of
food additives. Rapid population growth and the growing changes in food preferences
and taste have sustained demand for quality food and will continue to influence the
supply of nutritious safe food. This will further drive the need for greater use of food
additives and introduction of new ones in the food industry [2].
Since the 20th century, sustained research innovations and advancement in food
technology have led to introduction of over 3000 natural and artificially made sub-
stances that are added to food during preparation or processing to impart specific
desirable characteristics [3, 4]. Many of these substances are of little no nutritive
value, but are added in small quantities during processing, seasoning, packaging,
storage, or display of both human and animal foods. Food additives have also proved
useful for maintaining the distribution network for food and introduced convenience
through ready to serve safe, wholesome and appealing foods from farm to fork.
Chemistry is central to the history of how we produce, store and consume food,
preservation, flavoring, pest control and quality testing.
The improvements in understanding of food chemistry and advancements in food
technology have led to commercialization of many naturally occurring or artificially
synthesized food additives, which together with the emergence of new processing
technologies have greatly contributed to the rapid growth of the food industry [2, 5].
The commercialization of food additives has also been driven by consumer taste and
preferences, nutrition consciousness, as well as improvement in marketing
techniques.
The rising concerns about the technological advancements in the food industry
and growing scientific evidence of some associated risks have created the need for
regulations primarily to protect human health. Through the years, debate continues
on whether food additives are appropriate for use due to inconsistencies in
research studies and sometimes controversies over public health risks. Food manu-
facturers must comply with food safety standards as set by the relevant regulatory
authorities. Manufacturers are encouraged to seek certification before use of any
form of food additive to comply with standards for consumer products [2, 6].
Several studies have indicated negative effects of some synthetic food additives on
human health thereby raising consumer dissatisfaction and calling for stricter regula-
tion of their use in food products. However, there is a general lack of knowledge
among the populace about the functions of the commonly used additives in processed
foods [7].
This chapter delves in to the benefits and health risks of food additives as a result
of growing and indiscriminate use by the food industry, recent developments and
trends in view of rising consumer concerns.
1.1 Defining food additives
A food additive is any substance that is not normally consumed as a food on its
own, but is intentionally added to food in small quantities such that it does not define
or constitute a major part of the food regardless of whether it has nutritive value or
not to produce a specific desirable effect [3, 8]. The purpose of food additives may be
to enhance or maintain some food characteristics that consumers demand; whether
physical, chemical, biological, or sensorial characteristics [9]. A food additive may be
a naturally occurring or artificially manufactured substance, but when added to food
2
Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
it does not meet the threshold to qualify as a main part or a characteristic nutritional
ingredient of that food other than the specific desirable effect it imparts.
The Food and Drug Administration of United States in collaboration with the Food
Protection Committee has defined food additive as a substance or their mixture that
other than basic foodstuffs and are present in food as a result of any aspect of
production, processing, storage or packaging.
According to Codex Alimentarius [8], food additive means any substance not
normally consumed as a food by itself and not normally used as a typical ingredient of
the food, whether it has nutritive value or not, the intentional addition to food for a
technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, prep-
aration, treatment, packing, packaging, transport, or holding of such food results
reasonably expected to result (directly or indirectly) in it or its by-products becoming
a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such foods [8]. The term
does not include contaminants, or substances added to food for maintaining or
improving nutritional qualities.
1.2 Classification of food additives
Food additives are classified as direct, meaning intentionally added to foods for a
particular purpose during processing, or indirect implying not added, but found
during or after food has been processed and becoming part of the food during han-
dling, packaging or storage [10]. Some chemical substances indirectly get in touch or
into our foods through exposure to the environment from packaging material or a
result of chemical reactions of the components in the packaged food product [11].
1.2.1 Direct food additives
Direct food additives are naturally occurring, or artificially manufactured substances
that are intentionally added to food for a specific desirable quality or characteristic
whether physical, chemical, biological, or sensorial that consumers demand [9].
1.2.2 Indirect food additives
Indirect food additives are not intentionally added and do not perform any tech-
nical function in food. They may be regarded as contaminants as they get into food
unintentionally, through food contamination, or arise from chemical and biochemical
interactions in food during processing or storage resulting in higher concentrations
than is permitted [12]. Indirect food contaminants are a matter of concern as the high
concentrations in food and water pose serious public health risks. The results may be
inflammation and enteric infections conveyed through consumption of the contami-
nated foods, and the daunting task of treating or protecting individuals from the
harmfulness of food contaminants.
The phrase chemical contamination indicates the presence of a chemical where it
should not be [11, 13]. A chemical hazard may originate from the plate, packaging
material, air, water, soil, disinfectants, detergents, pesticides, of from excess levels of
metals in or on contaminated meat, vegetables and fruits, infected animals, among
others [12, 14–16]. However, this chapter does not describe food contaminants as they
are not regarded as additives.
Food processing can lay the foundation for contamination of food by introducing
undesirable contaminants and compounds formed in the food during preparation-
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baking, roasting, canning, heating, fermentation, or hydrolysis; preservation, or
transportation. Indirect food contaminants can originate from migration of chemical
compounds from plastic food containers or bags when heated; and printed closed
packaging materials, glue and adhesives [13]. This is of concern as high concentration
in food and water pose serious public health risks especially when the level of migrant
chemical is significant [14, 16–18]. The growth in agribusiness and globalizations have
aided the increasing risk and challenge that has become a global problem [19].
2. Categories of food additives
Food additives are categorized based on how they function. There are four general
categories of food additives: nutritive additives, preservatives, processing agents, and
sensory agents [2]. However, these classifications are not strict, as many additives fall
into more than one category. The following sections explain the five main categories
(Figure 1).
2.1 Nutritive additives
This category of additives is used for the purpose of restoring nutrients, mainly
essential micronutrients, lost or degraded during food processing. The process is termed
fortification or enrichment as is done purposely to add nutrients to foods, food supple-
ments, or substitutes used to correct or prevent dietary deficiencies [20]. Fortification
of commonly eaten foods and condiments is recognized as an effective medium to long-
term solution to alleviate specific micronutrient deficiencies to improve quality of lives
and accelerate development at a low cost. For instance, in the process of milling wheat
to produce white flour, the germ, bran and endosperm get separated, thereby removing
the vitamins and minerals rich part of the grain. In order to restore the nutritive value
thiamine, nicotinic acid, iron and calcium, are added to the flour [21].
The fortification of foods began way back in 1924 when iodine was added to table
salt for the prevention of goiter [22]. Later fat soluble vitamins were added to fats and
oils, dairy and cereal products to improve their nutritional value. Vitamins A and D
are still added to dairy and cereal products; Iron and several of the B vitamins are
added to flour, cereals, baked goods, and pasta; and vitamin C is added to fruit
beverages, cereals, dairy products, canned citrus fruits and confectioneries for
enrichment to make up the loss of the vitamin during processing. Other nutritional
additives include the essential fatty acid linoleic acid, minerals such as calcium and
iron, and dietary fiber [23].
Figure 1.
Generalized categories of food additives.
4
Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
Fortification of food with water-soluble vitamins- Vitamin C and the Vitamin B
group- thiamin, riboflavin, niacin/niacinamide, pyridoxine, cyanocobalamin, folic
acid, pantothenic acid and biotin can remain stable for at least 1 year when sealed in
unopened containers. The fat-soluble vitamins, Vitamin A and the pro-Vitamin A
(Beta-Carotene) are the most labile being sensitive to oxygen, light and heat. The
alcohol form of Vitamin E is useful as an antioxidant, but for purposes of nutrition
should be in the esterified form, purchased as Vitamin E acetate [22]. Vitamin K is
seldom used as a food additive other than in infant formulae and meal replacements.
Micronutrients are essential for a normal and healthy life and the safe or tolerable
limits for vitamins and essential trace elements have been established by Codex
Alimentarius Commission (CAC) [3]. Overuse of some micronutrients can be dan-
gerous as may lead to toxicity or nutrient–nutrient interactions causing adverse reac-
tions and interfering with nutritional benefits of a routine diet [24]. Food additives
standards and regulations to protect the health of the consumers and to ensure fair
practices in the food trade have been developed and is subjected to monitoring by
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) [2]. Hence, food manufacturers are obliged
to indicate the type of additives used in their food products.
2.2 Health risks associated with nutritive additives
Unlike water-soluble vitamins, fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K nutrients can be
stored in your liver and fatty tissues. Overuse or excessive consumption can result in
toxicity. General symptoms of micronutrient (Vitamins and minerals) toxicity include
cardiac arrhythmias, headache, nausea and vomiting, and in severe cases, headaches,
seizures, general body pain, weakness, shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, diar-
rhea, fever, metallic taste, high blood pressure, no urine output, and high doses may
cause nutrient-nutrient interactions such as between iron and copper, changes in skin,
hair and nails, and birth defects among other symptoms. On the other hand, continu-
ous overuse of nutritive sweeteners and fatty acid additives may cause overweight and
obesity, precursors for many related non-communicable diseases.
2.3 Processing agents
Food processing agents are substances that are added to foods primarily to aid or
facilitate the processing of a specific food product; or to maintain the desired charac-
teristics of a product such as consistency, color, safety, quality and nutritive value of
the product [4, 25]. Food-processing agents perform valuable functions making them
indispensable in processing, and are considered extremely safe when used as
recommended in small quantities/volumes for safety without altering the taste or
appearance of the finished product. They are commonly used in a wide variety of
products including confectionery, jams, jellies, bakery, meat and meat products to
improve product quality and consistency; enhance nutrition; help maintain product
wholesomeness; enhance shelf life; help in packing and transportation. The use of a
processing aid can unintentionally introduce a “residue”into the final processed
material, resulting in an indirect food additive [26].
A processing aid may be natural or synthetic in origin, but must be approved by
the relevant recognized institutional authority prior to commercial use [2]. Processing
agents should be evaluated from the standpoint of food safety, efficiency and ethics,
which every manufacturer should identify, disclose and explore. Most ethical consid-
erations for processing aids are centered around consumers/personal, cultural, or
5
Health Risk of Food Additives: Recent Developments and Trends in the Food Sector
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109484
religious beliefs on diets such as kosher, halal or vegetarian, around which particular
concerns are valid. Therefore, it is important to give full disclosure of the type of
additive processing aid used for consumer to act on informed judgment of a food
product from a personal, cultural, religious, or public health point of view such as
kosher, halal, vegetarian, low fat, or safety aspects; and to avoid adverse reactions. For
instance, a vegetarian might want to avoid foods that have contacted processing aids
made from animal fat or any such by product.
The sections below describe the types of processing aids:
2.3.1 Emulsifying agents
An emulsifying agent is used to maintain homogeneity or uniform dispersion of
one liquid in another and give foods a good texture. Emulsifiers give foods a good
texture and homogeneity by making it possible for immiscible liquids, such as water
and oils, to mix well without any separation during storage or before use and prevent
coalescence of oil droplets promoting the separation of the oil phase from the aqueous
phase such as in ice-creams or mayonnaise. The basic structure of an emulsifying
agent includes a hydrophobic portion of a long-chain fatty acid that attaches to the oil
phase, and a hydrophilic portion which may be charged or uncharged and dissolves in
the aqueous phase of the liquid. This configuration forms a dispersion of small oil
droplets, resulting in a stabilized oil-in-water emulsion.
Emulsifiers also act to prevent the formation of ice and sugar crystals in foods in case
of temperature changes such as in ice cream with sugar; can be used to encapsulate flavor
compounds; and improve volume, fineness and uniformity of processed baked products.
The stabilization of foam in a food product occurs by a similar mechanism except
that the oil phase is replaced by a gas phase. Silicone is identified as an antifoaming
agent for beverages and lecithin is a common emulsifying agent.
2.3.2 Stabilizers and thickeners
Stabilizers and thickeners are used as gelling agents to increases the smoothness,
viscosity or consistency of food products such as in dressings, frozen desserts, con-
fectionaries, pudding mixes, jams and jellies by acting as stabilizing or thickening
emulsions. Examples are pectin, gelatin, carrageenan, and gums (arabic, guar, locust
bean). Gelatin with gums is commonly used to eliminate suspended particles in apple
juice. In case of Vegans foods, Agar-agar is used as a substitute for gelatin. Most
stabilizing and thickening agents are polysaccharides (starches or gums), or proteins
such as gelatin. The mechanism of action is by adsorbing to the outer surface of oil
droplets thereby increasing the viscosity of the water phase. However the use of a
thickener or stabilizer must be authorized by the recognized food safety regulatory
institution such as FDA and EFSA, before use [27].
2.4 Miscellaneous agents
2.4.1 Chelating agents
Chelating agents, also known as sequestering agents are used in processing to
protect food products from specific enzymatic reactions that cause deterioration dur-
ing processing and storage. The mode of actions is mainly the binding of any minerals
that may be present in food, such as calcium and Magnesium, which are necessary as
6
Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
cofactors for the enzymatic activity. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is used
as a chelating agent in dressings, mayonnaise, sauces, dried bananas; and potassium
bromate used for conditioning flour.
2.4.2 Humectants
Moisture in food can be controlled by dehydration or chemically binding it with
humectants. Humectants are hygroscopic substances used for moisture control in
foods to prevent foods from drying out, and also prevent crystallization of sugar
contained in confectionaries. The hygroscopic substances stabilize product properties
by binding the moisture that is contained in the food and by absorbing moisture from
the air making foods remain fresh for longer and are preserved [28]. Water activity
has an influence on the physical and sensory properties and accelerates chemical
changes that may make the foodstuff unfit for consumption. Bacterial and fungal
growth is influenced by the water activity of the food and affects the shelf life of food.
The shelf life of intermediate moisture foods is limited because of fungal and bacterial
growth. The higher the free water in food the higher the water activity, hence faster
microbial growth and spoilage.
Glycerol has a moisture control effect and is used as a humectant in confectionery
such as marshmallows, soft candies, chocolates and chewing gum. Further, cookies do
not dry out so quickly, and meat and fish products have a longer shelf life. Cellulose
ground to fine powder is a raw material obtained from plant fibers such as wheat, oat
and bamboo and is used as a natural humectant. It can be used in bakery, confection-
ery, processed meats and fish products. Cellulose powder is preferred because when
used it does not affect the color or sensory properties of the food. The benefits include
extended shelf life, improved stability and viscosity, texture is maintained and growth
of microorganisms is slowed down. Some individuals show sensitivity to humectants,
especially when ingested in large amounts. Symptoms are nausea or diarrhea and large
doses of sugar alcohols may have a laxative effect. As a food additive, powdered
cellulose is labeled E 460ii.
2.4.3 Anticaking agents
Anticaking agents stop powders and granulated ingredients from clumping. They
can be derived from natural sources or manufactured from chemical or artificial
ingredients [28].
2.4.4 Rennet
Rennet is used in cheese making to separate curd and whey, and Xylanase is used
in dough to increase its flexibility.
2.4.5 Ozone
Ozone is an antimicrobial that is used in chilled water to prevent microbial activity.
Ozonated water offers benefits in both clinical and industrial spaces, from preventing
cancer and fighting free radicals in the body due to its potential antioxidant and
antimicrobial properties that can also support dental health and food preservation and
safety [29]. The mechanism of actions of Ozone is by inactivation of bacteria, viruses,
7
Health Risk of Food Additives: Recent Developments and Trends in the Food Sector
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109484
fungi, yeast and protozoa, stimulation of oxygen metabolism, activation of the
immune system [29].
2.4.6 pH control agents
Chemical and biological reactions are optimized within certain PH ranges. Citric
acid, and lactic acid are used for either controlling or changing the acid–base balance
of foods or to get specific flavors or colors. The acids are commonly used in cheese
making, confectionaries, jams and jellies. In yoghurt making, Streptococcus
thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus are used to produce
lactic acid bacteria that decreases pH causing milk protein to coagulate [30]. Rennet is
used in cheese making to separate curd and whey, and fermented yoghurt is known to
have positive effects on gut microbiome on building immunity [25, 31].
2.5 Preserving agents
Preserving agents are substances that are added to a food to prevent or delay
undesirable changes caused by the action of microorganisms, enzymes and/or physical
agents in contact with food [32]. Food preservation is one of the oldest technologies
used by humans for centuries- salt, vinegar, and sugar, perfected through use of
chemicals the most effective type in preservation for longer periods [33, 34].
Preservatives help to keep food safe, and/or wholesome. The high utilization of
preserving agents by the food industry is due to the growing demand for chemically
stable, safe and durable foods [32]. The most commonly used preservatives are: sulfur
dioxide, sodium benzoate, sorbic acid, propionic acid, nitrites and sodium and potas-
sium nitrates [35]. Food preservatives are classified into two main groups: antioxi-
dants and antimicrobials.
2.5.1 Antioxidants
Antioxidants are chemical compounds that delay or prevent the deterioration of
foods by oxidative mechanisms. They act as free radicle scavengers, metal chelators,
and enzyme inhibitors. Hence, they slow down the auto-oxidation of foods to preserve
the flavor and appearance such as in baked foods by preventing the fats and oils from
going rancid; minimizing the damage to some amino acids and vitamins in fat foods,
and keeping fresh fruits and vegetables from turning brown when exposed to air.
Examples area ascorbic acid, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), citric acid, sulfites, tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) and
tocopherols. Tocopherols are used in processed meats as an alternative to using
nitrites, potatoes and some baked products.
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) is fat soluble, water soluble, white solid and
volatile. It is heat stable and mildly alkaline (Figure 2).
TBHQ acts as an antioxidant and is added to processed foods to extend the shelf
life, prevent iron containing foods from discoloration and rancidity of fats and oils
[36]. TBHQ is a light-colored crystalline product with a slight odor and is found in a
wide range of processed products including vegetable oils and animal fats, snack
crackers, noodles, in fast and frozen foods, and fish in products. It is often used in
combination with other additives like propyl gallate, butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA), and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). The chemicals are closely related and
are usually discussed together as TBHQ forms when the body metabolizes BHA.
8
Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
However, recently TBHQ has gained a controversial reputation [36]. Recent studies
on TBHQ have linked it to development of tumors, vision disturbances, liver enlarge-
ment, neurotoxic effects, convulsions, and paralysis in laboratory animals. BHA and
TBHQ are both suspected to affect human behavior, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Behavior (ADHD). Its safe limits are still under investigation and close monitoring by
FDA.
2.5.2 Antimicrobials
Antimicrobials are preservative compounds that inhibit the growth of spoilage and
pathogenic microorganisms in food. The excess water in the foods can cause the
growth of bacteria, fungi, molds and yeasts developing undesirable characteristics.
Antimicrobials control the growth of pathogenic microbes, or reduce the activity of
the spoilage micro-organisms [37] to maintain the quality and consistency, palatabil-
ity, wholesomeness, and nutritional value of the foods. It also controls pH changes,
provides leavening and color, and enhances food flavor.
Antimicrobials are used in combination with other preservation techniques, such
as refrigeration. An example is common salt also recognized as sodium chloride
(NaCl), the oldest known antimicrobial agent. Organic acids such as acetic acid,
benzoic acid, propionic, and sorbic acid are applied for control of growth of microor-
ganisms in low PH foods.
Chemical preservative compounds have been introduced in the industry and work
more effectively than the natural antimicrobials [17]. Examples are nitrates and
nitrites commonly are used to inhibit bacterium Clostridium botulinum in meats and
meat products, such as ham and bacon. Sulfur dioxide (SO
2)
and sulfites act as
antimicrobial agents, structure modifiers, antioxidants, and enzyme inhibitors. They
are used for the control of spoilage microorganisms in dried fruits and vegetables,
juices, sugar syrups, wines, beer and, pickles. Some microorganisms produce Nisin
that inhibits bacterial growth and natamycin that acts against molds and yeast. Ben-
zoates, sorbates potassium and sodium salts, propionates act against bread molds and
spore forming bacteria responsible for ropiness in bread and mycotoxins in flour.
Their mode of action is by disruption of cell membrane function, or inhibition of
enzymatic actions; binding sterols groups in fungus, cell membrane of molds, yeasts,
and some bacteria); and inhibits spore germination (yeasts, molds, some bacteria).
Others active compounds are propionic acid, sorbic acid, sulfites and sulfur dioxide,
Ozone, Ammonium hydroxide, Salt, Chlorine, Nitrates, nitrites, acetic acid, benzoic
Figure 2.
Molecular structure of TBHQ , BHA and BHT.
9
Health Risk of Food Additives: Recent Developments and Trends in the Food Sector
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109484
acid. For instance, ozone is an antimicrobial that is used in chilled water to prevent
microbial activity. Table 1 explains the mechanism of action for various antimicro-
bials (Table 2).
2.5.3 Health effects of antimicrobials
The gut microbiota is vital for normal development, functioning and priming of
the human adaptive immune system. Prolonged use or misuse of antibiotics can have
Common name
allura red AC gelatin, puddings, dairy products, confections, beverages
brilliant blue FCF beverages, confections, icings, syrups, dairy products
erythrosine maraschino cherries
fast green FCF beverages, puddings, ice cream, sherbet, confections
indigo carmine confections, ice cream, bakery products
sunset yellow FCF bakery products, ice cream, sauces, cereals, beverages
tartrazine beverages, cereals, bakery products, ice cream, sauces
Table 1.
Examples of synthetic food colorants.
Antimicrobials
Acetic acid disrupts cell membrane function (bacteria, yeasts, some molds)
Benzoic acid disrupts cell membrane function/inhibits enzymes (molds, yeasts, some bacteria)
Natamycin binds sterol groups in fungal cell membrane (molds, yeasts)
Nisin disrupts cell membrane function (gram-positive bacteria, lactic acid-producing
bacteria)
Nitrates, nitrites inhibits enzymes/disrupts cell membrane function (bacteria, primarily Clostridium
botulinum)
Propionic acid disrupts cell membrane function (molds, some bacteria)
Sorbic acid disrupts cell membrane function/inhibits enzymes/inhibits bacterial spore
germination (yeasts, molds, some bacteria)
Sorbic acid is widely used to inhibit yeast and molds in processed cheese, wine, fruit
juices, and some baked goods (pastries).
sulfites and sulfur
dioxide
inhibits enzymes/forms addition compounds (bacteria, yeasts, molds)
Ozone Antimicrobial that is used in chilled water.
Ammonium
hydroxide
Antimicrobial function in meat
Salt. Decrease water activity to improve shelf life of fish (seafood), and meat
Chlorine Organic acid washes Antimicrobial function for fruit and vegetable washes Sodium
sterol lactylate - Strengthens dough for Frozen dough (e.g. waffles and pancakes)
Source: Bakers journal—a primer on preservatives.
Table 2.
Antimicrobials and mechanism of action.
10
Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
negative effects on the gut microbiota, including reduced species diversity,
altered metabolic activity, and the selection of antibiotic-resistant organisms.
This in turn can lead to antibiotic-associated diarrhea and recurrent Clostridioides
difficile infections [38]. Food antimicrobials are nontherapeutic because they are
not intended to cure disease and have been shown to introduce antimicrobial
resistance in Humans and livestock [39]. However, elimination of non-therapeutic
antimicrobials may reduce the growing environmental load of resistance genes.
Studies have indicated elevated antibiotic resistance in bacteria associated with
animals fed on feed containing antimicrobials, which spreads to other animals and
humans either directly or indirectly via the food chain, water, air, and manure and
sludge-fertilized soils [39].
Further, antimicrobial agents may disturb the gut microflora of the humans and
livestock resulting in increased incidences of infections [40]. Various gut cells are
controlled by regulatory mechanisms that counter the effect of inflammatory sub-
stances. Any defect in this mechanism can favor the development of chronic intestinal
disorders, such as Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, the principal forms of inflam-
matory bowel diseases. Diet quality including broad use of food additives can perturb
gut homeostasis, thereby promoting tissue-damaging inflammatory responses and
increases susceptibility to infections [40].
2.5.4 Health effects of antioxidants
Antioxidants protect the body by neutralizing unstable molecules, called free rad-
icals, and can lower the chances of developing certain disease conditions. However,
when too many free radicals build up in the body, they can cause serious damage to
body cells as scavenging for ions, or may cause oxidative stress, setting the trajectory
for disease development [41, 42]. Free radicals are any molecular species capable of
independent existence that contains an unpaired electron in an atomic orbital. This
makes them unstable and highly reactive and behaves as either oxidants or reluctant
in the body and can damage biologically relevant molecules such as DNA, proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids in the nucleus, or in the membranes of cells. Studies indicate
that such reactions accelerate cell damage and homeostatic disruptions [41], and
conditions like cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure, and diabetes can develop.
Hence, misuse of antioxidants should be avoided to avoid oxidative stress and reap the
beneficial functional properties when consumed responsibly.
High molecular-weight Phthalate esters are used in a wide range of consumer items
and in industrial food processing [9, 43]. Phthalates are used to make vinyl plastics for
a variety of applications, including flooring, clear food wrap, and flexible plastic
tubing often used throughout food manufacturing. Di-2-ethylhexylphthalate (DEHP),
which belongs to the High molecular-weight group, is of special importance since
DEHP-containing plastics are extensively used in industrial food processing.
Laboratory studies have associated metabolites of phthalates Di-2-ethylhex-
ylphthalate (DEHP) with oxidative stress, which appears to reduce insulin-dependent
stimulation of insulin-signaling elements and glucose transport activity, as well as
endothelial relaxant nitric oxide [43]. This appears to promote vasoconstriction,
platelet adhesion and the release of proinflammatory cytokines effects that may
potentially cause arrhythmia, alter metabolic profiles, and cause cardiac myocyte
malfunction [44]. Exposure to PFOA and PFOS has been linked to negative health
consequences such as a diminished immunological response to vaccinations,
metabolic changes, and low birth weight [45].
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DEHP is an endocrine disruptor and ovarian toxicant. Diisononyl phthalate
(DiNP), a DEHP replacement, is a rising human toxicant due to its increased use as a
DEHP substitute. The Diisononyl phthalate (DiNP) urinary metabolites were detected
in 98% of population in the 2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) [46]. A cross-sectional data of the National Health and Nutrition Exami-
nation Survey (NHANES) from 2009 to 2012 [47] the metabolite concentrations
Diisononylphthalate (DINP) and diisodecyl (DIDP) commonly used as food additive
have been linked to insulin resistance and systolic blood pressure z scores in children
and adolescents [48]. Thyroid hormone is important for brain development and other
functions in early life. Significant changes in normal hormone concentrations can have
long-term cognitive implications. High maternal nitrite-cured meat consumption has
also been related to an increased incidence of infantile brain cancers, particularly
astroglial tumors [49].
Ozonated water has antioxidant properties and offers benefits in both clinical and
industrial spaces as it has potential of fighting off free radicals in the body and
preventing cancer. Ozonated water can be used to support dental health; and food
preservation and safety through inactivation of bacteria, viruses, fungi, yeast and
protozoa; stimulation of oxygen metabolism, activation of the immune system [29].
2.6 Sensory agents
2.6.1 Sweetening agents
These are substances that give a sweet taste to food. Carbohydrate sweeteners are
also called nutritive sweeteners, and are the most popular as they provide high-quality
sweet taste, are generally tolerable, and have an acceptable texture and shape. Sucrose
commonly known as “table sugar”, is the most popular sweetener in foods and plays
an important role in some body functions. Sucrose is a naturally occurring non-
reducing disaccharide compound composed of two molecules, glucose and fructose
only. Sucrose is produced commercially from sugar cane, sugar beets and various
other plants through a refinement process, but is also found naturally in fruits, vege-
tables, and nuts (Figure 3).
2.6.1.1 Nutritive sweeteners
Sucrose a white odorless solid substance that has a sweet taste is the most common
sweetener. When broken down sucrose yields one glucose and one fructose molecule.
Figure 3.
Molecular structures of sucrose and fructose—monomers and dissacharides.
12
Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
Human body cells directly use glucose molecule. Glucose is absorbed into the blood-
stream immediately and used directly to make energy ATP (Adenosine Triphos-
phate), or stored as glycogen. Fructose is absorbed via the hepatic portal and
converted to fat in the liver and can be further converted to yield energy through
further chemical process when needed [50].
Nutritive sweeteners fall under the food group carbohydrates. All carbohydrates,
including sugar, contain the same three elements: carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are the simplest of the saccharides, considered
simple sugars, containing one and two monomers respectively. Sucrose is a disaccha-
ride consisting of 12 carbon atoms, 11 oxygen atoms, and 22 hydrogen atoms, chemical
formula is C
12
H
22
O
11
.
Oligosaccharides fall between simple sugars (monosaccharides) and polysaccha-
rides (starches), and contain three to ten monomers linked together. Polysaccharides
are the complex carbohydrates composed of large number of monomers. Oligosac-
charides are a type of carbohydrate that also act as prebiotics, providing food for the
good bacteria in the gut [51]. A healthy balance of gut bacteria can boost human
immune system and contributes to overall health [31].
2.6.1.2 Health effects of nutritive sweeteners
Sugar contains calories which give energy to the body when consumed, can be
harmful when consumed in high quantities. Too much sugar can induce undesirable
changes in osmotic pressure in body cells, insulin rush and intolerance reactions in
diabetic patients. However, consumption of too much fructose is harmful to health.
Fructose, when consumed is converted and stored as fat in the liver eventually causing
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) Figure 4, precursor for metabolic diseases.
High fructose consumption as contained in soft drinks and its exclusive hepatic
metabolism, has been associated with excessive hepatic energy, simple steatosis and
hepatic fat accumulation known as Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) [52].
NAFLD is associated with initiation of liver cells damage and metabolic syndrome,
chronic diseases that include non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity,
dyslipidemia, insulin resistance/diabetes type 2, arterial hypertension, and
Figure 4.
Histopathology of nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH), compared to normal liver (left), histologic features of
NASH include steatosis ballooning, and lobular inflammation (middle), and is often paired with the pathological
changes NASH fibrosis (right), and hepatocellular carcinoma. Adopted from: Roeb and Weiskirchen, [52].
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hyperuricemia [52]. The latest recommendations by WHO is to minimize added
nutritive sugar intake to below 10 percent of free sugars per day, based on RNI.
2.6.1.3 Artificial sweeteners (sugar substitutes)
Artificial sweeteners are low-calorie or calorie-free chemical substances used as
substitutes for table sugar to sweeten foods and drinks [2]. A sugar substitute is a food
additive that provides a sweet taste like that of table sugar or more intense. Artificial
sweeteners are not carbohydrates, but are referred to as ‘intense sweeteners’because
they are many times sweeter than table sugar and are low in calories. Some artificial
sweetening agents, are so intense that dextrose or maltodextrin is added to reduce the
intensity of the sweetness. Examples are: Aspartame, Acesulfame K, Saccharine,
Sucralose, Sorbitol, Stevia and Xylitol (Table 3 and Figure 5) [50].
Aspartame, one of the most widely used artificial sweeteners is the methyl ester of
dipeptide derived from aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is about 100,100 times
sweeter than sucrose. Aspartame is unstable at cooking temperature and can be used
as a sugar substitute for cold foods and soft drinks. Alitame is high potency sweetness
and is more heat stable compared to aspartame, but is difficult to control the sweet-
ness of the food to which they are added. Sucralose, a colorless trichloro derivative of
sucrose has an appearance and taste similar to table sugar and stable at cooking
temperatures.
Artificial sweeteners are obtained from the substitutes of synthetic sugar, but can
also be derived from natural substances, such as herbs or natural sugars. The sweet-
eners are used directly in foods such as puddings, dairy products, candy, soft drinks,
baked goods, jams and many other foods and beverages as they are highly water
soluble and heat stable. The interaction between the receptor and sweetener accounts
for the sweetness of an artificial sweetener or food product [53].
Common
name
Number of times
sweeter than
sucrose
kcal/g Commercial uses
Acesulfame-
K
200 0 Baked goods, frozen desserts, candies, beverages, cough
drops, breath mints
Alitame 2000 1.4 Baked goods, hot and cold beverages, milk products, frozen
desserts and mixes, fruit preparations, chewing gums and
candies, tabletop sweeteners, toiletries, pharmaceuticals
Aspartame 200 4 General-purpose foods
Cyclamate 30 0 Tabletop sweetener, beverages
Neotame 7000–13,000 0 Baked goods, soft drinks, chewing gum, frosting, frozen
desserts, jams, jellies, gelatins, puddings, processed fruit
and fruit juices, toppings, syrups
Saccharin 200–700 0 Tabletop sweetener, baked goods, soft drinks, jams,
chewing gum
Sucralose 600 0 Tabletop sweetener, beverages, chewing gum, frozen
desserts, fruit juices, gelatins
* FDA, Food and Drug Administration; *GRAS, generally recognized as safe. Source: Krishnasamy, [50], Artificial
Sweeteners (Weight Management Book).
Table 3.
Commonly used types of artificial sweeteners, intensity of sweetness, and commercial uses.
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Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
Artificial sweeteners are attractive substitutes for sugar, because they are water
soluble and do not add calories to the food significantly nor increase blood sugar
levels. They can also be used in combination with starch starch-based sweeteners
without altering the physical properties of the food.
2.6.1.4 Health effects of artificial sweeteners
Artificial sweeteners have been critically evaluated by the US Food and Drug
Authority (FDA) and European Food Safety Regulatory Agency (EFSA) and what is
commercialized are GRAS within the acceptable limits.
There is rising concern over high consumption of nutritive sweeteners/sugars
commonly associated with overweight and obesity, a risk factor for metabolic
comorbidities- diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular
disease [54]. However, improved nutrition consciousness has increasingly diverted
interests towards increased intake of artificial sweeteners [50]. While artificial sweet-
eners have no nutritive value and will not critically affect blood sugar, some studies
have liked saccharin, acesulfame-K (Ace-K) and aspartame to negative health effects
[23, 50, 54]. This three have been found to induce DNA damage in human peripheral
lymphocytes [50, 54]. While artificial sweeteners have some health benefits, in nor-
mal concentrations the Ace-K is broken down to acetoacetic acid and acetoacetamide-
N-sulfonic acid, which are known to be toxic in high amounts. The toxicity symptoms
of Ace-K are headache, depression, nausea, mental confusion, liver and kidney
Figure 5.
Molecular structures of some commonly used artificial sweeteners.
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malfunction effects [50, 54, 55]. Although low consumption of artificial sweeteners
causes mild symptoms, at high concentrations can induce threatening brain damage
[55]. Aspartame causes gastrointestinal problems and is toxic to humans at high
levels [23].
2.6.2 Flavoring agents
The flavor sensation of food results from the stimulation of specialized cells the
taste buds located on the tongue, mouth, throat and olfactory cells for smell in the
nasal cavity from which more than 10,000 different stimuli can be detected [53]. The
taste cells are specific to five flavor molecules from which the sweet, salty, bitter, sour
and umami taste sensations get fine-tuned and expressed [53]. Flavoring substances
are used to impart taste and/or smell to food and are used in a wide variety of foods
from confectionery and soft drinks to cereals, cakes and yoghurts, in comparatively
small amounts.
A flavor additive is a single chemical or blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic
origin added to food to enhance natural flavor; introduce a new flavor, or to replace
flavor that may be lost during processing of a food product. Natural flavorings are
extracted from plants, spices, herbs, animals, or microbial fermentations, but artificial
flavorings are derived from synthetic compounds chemically formulated to act as
natural flavorings.
Over 1200 flavoring compounds are known, making them the largest group of
food additives for commercial use in the food industry. Artificial flavorings are
preferred for commercial purposes, because of the scarcity, higher cost, and
insufficient potency of natural flavorings.
Flavor enhancers originated from Far- East-Asia when seaweed was found to
enhance the flavors of soup stocks that were generally bland. Seaweed contains
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) also known as Monosodium L- glutamate, a sodium
salt of glutamic acid that elicits a unique flavor in food known as umami (a different
flavor from bitter, salty, sour, sweet). Since then, Monosodium glutamate Figure 6,is
commonly used to intensify the natural flavor of certain foods, mainly broths, soups,
canned and frozen vegetables, spice blends, gravies, meats, poultry, seafood, and
sauces.
MSG is now produced commercially from bacterial fermentation of starch and
molasses, and reaction with ammonium salts. Other compounds used as flavor
enhancers include the 50-ribonucleotides, inosine monophosphate (IMP), guanosine
monophosphate (GMP), yeast extract, and hydrolyzed vegetable protein.
2.6.3 Health effects of food flavorings
Extravagant use of MSG is not desireable as when ingested in large amounts it may
produce negative physical reactions such as burning sensations, facial tightness or
pressure, and a tingling sensation in some individuals [56]. MSG may also cause
increased sodium in in blood, undesirable for salt sensitive hypertensive individuals.
Further, monosodium glutamate reportedly elicits harmful effects of in children
affecting brain development. Foods that contain salicylates have been proven to cause
tinnitus, vertigo, insomnia, hearing loss, behavioral changes in children and others.
Other effects of flavor enhancers are: migraines, asthma, fatigue, nausea, dizziness,
numbness, heart palpitations, depression, shakes, skin irritation, hyperactivity, brain
damage, nervous system damage, obesity and diabetes [9, 56].
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Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
2.7 Food colorants
Food color is important, because humans have evolved to notice it. Besides food
aroma, sound and texture, color is an extremely important characteristic of food as it
directly influences the perception of both flavor, taste of a food product and reaction
as it enhances flavors and stimulates the appetite.
Food coloring has been around for centuries, since 1500 B. C when the Romans
used natural food colourings extracted from mulberries, flowers, carrots, beets pome-
granates, saffron and wine. The first artificial food coloring was made from coal tar in
1856, but today most food dyes are mainly petroleum-based [57]. Food color is also the
easiest way to determine if a food is fresh, spoiled or toxic. However, food colorants
are often added to food to vary the color, increase the intensity of the color, or
produce a more uniform product from raw materials [57]. Sometimes colorants are
added as a desirable characteristic to make food more appealing, but can be used to.
A food dye is a chemical substance that uses artificial color to enhance the appear-
ance of food and is particularly appealing to children. Artificial food dyes are respon-
sible for the bright colors and appealing look of candy, sports drinks, baked goods and
other foods like pickles, smoked salmon and salad dressing. Food processing, handling
or storage may sometimes change the natural color pigmentation or degradation of the
raw materials for food products. Manufacturers typically use dyes to return the natu-
ral look of food and food products, mimic natural foods, or conceal a fault in food
preparation or processing. This is the main influence towards coloring drinks, snacks,
confectionaries, ice cream and baked products to make them more appealing.
Food coloring agents may be natural- extracted from plants, animals, or mineral
resource; or synthetic- derived from petroleum based compounds. However,
Figure 6.
MSG formula is C₅H₈NO₄Na and molecular weight, 169.11.
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manufacturers prefer artificial food dyes to natural options because the get more
vibrant colors, last longer shelf life and are of low cost. Examples of natural colorants
are are indicated below based on the chemical class (Table 4).
2.7.1 Natural colorants
2.7.2 Synthetic colorants
Most synthetic colorants are water-soluble and commercially available as powders,
solutions, pastes, or granules that are to be added to food. Synthetic colorants are
insoluble in water and organic solvents, and their stability is affected by light, heat,
pH, and reducing agents. A number of synthetic colorants/dyes have been chemically
synthesized and approved for usage in various countries. The colorants are designated
according to special numbering systems specific to individual countries. For example,
the FDA approved colorants uses FD&C numbers, while the EU approved colorants
uses E numbers. All synthetic colorants undergo extensive analysis and toxicological
test before approval, but are not universally approved in all countries.
2.7.3 Health effects of food colourings
Synthetic artificial food colors (AFCs) are added to drinks and snacks for appealing
purposes, and the vividly colored food items that are particularly attractive to young
children. Over the last several decades, studies have raised concerns regarding the
effect of artificial food colors (AFCs) on child behavior and their role in exacerbating
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms [58]. Analysis has shown that some
Natural food colorants
Chemical
class
Color Plant source Pigment Products
anthocyanins red strawberry (Fragaria
species)
pelargonidin
3-glucoside
*
beverages, confections,
preserves, fruit products
blue grape (Vitis species) malvidin
3-glucoside
*
beverages
betacyanins red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) betanin dairy products, desserts, icings
carotenoids
**
yellow/
orange
annatto (Bixaorellana) bixin dairy products, margarine
yellow saffron (Crocus sativus) crocin rice dishes, bakery products
red/
orange
paprika (Capsicum
annuum)
capsanthin soups, sauces
orange carrot (Daucuscarota) beta-carotene bakery products, confections
red mushroom
(Cantharelluscinnabarinus)
canthaxanthin sauces, soups, dressings
phenolics orange/
yellow
turmeric (Cuycuma longa) curcumin dairy products, confections
*
Plus other similar compounds.
**
Many carotenoids used as food colorants are chemically synthesized.
Table 4.
Examples of natural food colorants.
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Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
synthetic colorants like Brilliant Blue FCF, Indigo Carmine, Fast Green FCF, and
Erythrosine are poorly absorbed, but show little toxicity. However, consumption of
foods containing artificial dyes can cause an inflammatory response in the body,
causing activation and disruptions of the immune system. Although dyes may make
drinks, candy and other foods look better, many are associated with adverse side
effects [59]. Studies have indicated that Tartrazine induces hypersensitive reactions in
some persons, while a very high concentration of Allura Red AC, greater than 10
percent, causes psychological toxicity.
In order to determine the possible harmful effects of a food additive or its deriva-
tives, the additives must be subjected to trials or an appropriate toxicity assessment
[60]. Artificial colors or a sodium benzoate preservative (or both) in the diet results in
increased hyperactivity in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the general popula-
tion [58, 61]. Hence, all food additives remain under continuous observation and
evaluation, considering the conditions of use in case any new scientific information
may arise [62].
Natural colors are known to be highly unstable under various food processing
conditions; hence stabilization of natural pigments is the main challenge to overcome.
The development and commercialization of natural food colors is growing exponen-
tially in lieu of synthetic colorants as a result of consumer preference for natural
pigments. Thus, more detailed scientific studies are needed to assess the availability
and potential of large unexploited plant dye-yielding resources.
3. Regulation of use of food additives
Regulatory Authorities and law enforcement agencies have established restrictive
regulations governing the licensing and control of food additives. Regulation is used so
that no risks or ill intention happens. Even so, the use of food additives should remain
under close observation and evaluation whenever appropriate, considering the condi-
tions of use and emergence of new scientific data [62]. For instance, humectants and
anticaking agents are used in very small quantities to safeguard the food supply and
maintain quality during shelf life. Studies have indicated that these additives are safe
when used within permitted levels. This area remains an active area of research and
development to identify safer, natural alternatives and technologies that can offer
additional benefits to food systems and human health. In some instances, food addi-
tives may be used in a wrong way to conceal an adulteration of food or a flop in
processing or preparation of the food. They may be used to conceal or disguise
damage, spoilage, poor quality, faulty ingredients, or replace a lengthy cumbersome
process.
A processing aid with any evidence of allergic reactions, intolerance or religious
concern must adhere to the food labeling regulations regarding food additives, or
consumer protection.
4. Safety evaluation of food additives
Two groups of ingredients are exempted from regulation under the Food Additives
Amendment [4].
Group I: Sanctioned substances that FDA or USDA has determined safe for use in
food prior to 1958 amendment such as Sodium nitrate and Potassium nitrate.
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Group II: all the substances approved by experts as safe based on their extensive
history of use in food before 1958, or based on published scientific evidence, accorded
Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status such as salt, sugar, and monosodium
glutamate (MSG), for which varying maximum allowable limits have been deter-
mined depending on the type of food and additive used. Table 5 show some permitted
GRAS food additives and Tolerance levels.
5. Identification system of food additives
Owing to the wide variety and application of food additives, an identification coding
system became necessary. E-numbers are used for additives that are recognized as safe
(GRAS) to enable easy recognition and application. The International Numbering
system (INS) was developed by the Codex Alimentarious Commission, based on the
E-system, but is broader and intended for food additives that are approved in one or
more countries. The INS adopted the E system, but without the numerals.
6. Principles of using food additives
The need for use food additives should be ascertained and should not result in any
adverse effect upon consumption or regular use. Food additives should not be used to
Additive Food used Function Tolerable level
AI Ca Silicate Table salt Anticaking agent 2.0%
BHA Various foods Antioxidants ≤0.02%
BHT Various foods Antioxidants ≤0.02%
Multipurpose 0.02%
Caffeine Cola type beverages Anticaking 2.0%
Table salt Fumigants
Ca Silicate Baking Powder 5.0%
Cashew nuts Flavoring agent
Ethyleformate Gelatin Baking Powder
Pudding fillings
Flavoring agent 0.05%
0.03%
KMS General Perspective Antimicrobial GMP
Sodium Bisulphate Various foods Antimicrobial GMP
Sodium Sulphate Various foods Antimicrobial GMP
Wines, fruit juices Antimicrobial
SO
2
Dehydrated fruits GMP
Various foods Sequestrants 0.15%
Stearylcitrate Thiodipropionic acid Various fat containing foods Antioxidants 0.02%
Source: Sunitha and Preeti [21].
Table 5.
Some permitted GRAS food additives and tolerance levels.
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Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
accomplish any physical or technical failure. The quantity added should be as little as
possible and within safe limits for humans based on expected servings. It should not
reduce the nutritive value; not cause any adverse effect upon consumption; and
should follow the agreed standard specifications and defined regulations. Even when
approved, additives should be kept under continuous legislation. Labelling is manda-
tory and should appear on the list of ingredients together with specific names or INS.
Food labelling can help consumers who are sensitive to certain food additives to avoid
them.
7. Recent developments and trends in the food sector
The need for food additives in the food processing industry has risen dramatically
due to consumer preferences, and the economic benefits they bring to food products
such as ease of processing, consistent quality and longer shelf life. Nonetheless, food
science and technology has progressed rapidly in recent decades resulting in an
increasing variety and number of food additives. Through the years there have been
increasing debate regarding whether food additives are appropriate for use due to
some controversies over revelations on public health risks.
Despite of all these successes, the manipulation of food has had a profound effect
on our body’s unique biochemical balance. Notably, some food additives have been
associated with negative consequences that are a matter of public health concern.
Food additives whether natural or synthetic serve the same purpose or function as
when applied in food processing. However, some people who consume foods
containing additives, mostly synthetic food additives, have experienced some type of
allergies and negative side effects raising consumer dissatisfaction.
Several studies have linked some food additives have been linked to a variety of
health risks, including allergies, asthma, cancer, metabolic changes and behavioral
abnormalities such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children,
multiple sclerosis (MS). ADHD is characterized by symptoms of inattention, impul-
sivity and hyperactivity and is considered to encompass a spectrum of
neurobehavioral symptoms and severity [59, 63]. Some food additives disrupt endo-
crine system of children, causing hormonal imbalance, which affects normal growth
and development children [17].
Additives in foods can also alter normal metabolic functioning of the body and
causing negative hormonal imbalance and chemical processes and/or physiological
responses in the body that lead to childhood obesity and poor immunity [64] brain
damage, nausea, and cardiac disease among others [61]. Some additives and metabo-
lites of food additives can also block certain growth hormones thereby causing side
effects that may diminishing the growth and development of a child [64]. Although
most commercialized food additives are regarded as safe, some are known to be
carcinogenic or toxic. As these substances are intentionally added to food, it is essen-
tial to know their properties so as to ensure their safe limits or application [65]. Food
additives must therefore be subjected to trials or appropriate toxicity assessment for
possible harmful effects before approval [60].
BPA is classified as an endocrine disruptor as it can attach to the estrogen receptor
and trigger tissues response as if estradiol is present [13, 66]. Human epidemiologic
studies have shown that BPA exposure has been linked to a variety of endocrine-
related effects, including lower fertility changed puberty timing, alterations in mam-
mary gland development, and the progression of neoplasia [48, 67].
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Worldwide the assessment of food additives is supported by the control system of
the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) developed by the Joint Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and World Health Organization (WHO)
Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) [3, 8]. The International Joint FAO/
WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) is responsible for examining the
safety aspects of food additives and only food additives that have been tested and
certified safe by JECFA, for which the Codex Alimentarius Commission has deter-
mined maximum usage levels, can be used in globally traded foods. Consequently, all
food additives must be declared on the food ingredients list alongside other ingredi-
ents on the food label.
8. Conclusion
Since ancient times specific food additives have been used as preserving agents
including sugar, salt, spices, vinegar, and sulfites. However, when the food is to be
stored for a prolonged period of time, use of additives and preservatives is essential in
order to maintain its quality and flavor and prevent spoilage by bacteria and yeasts.
Food additives whether fresh or processed become characteristic components of the
food when added. Many people get to eat ready-made foods available in the market
for various reasons, and such foods may contain some kind of additives and preser-
vatives. Food labeling regulations have been effected to ensure that contents of
processed foods are known to consumers to guide their choice.
Although use of additives is inevitable in food industry- tailor made for specific
needs, low cost, functional foods and low calorie and extended shelf life, several food
additives have been linked to certain types of health risks including allergies, asthma
and cancer, irritable bowel syndrome, mood swings, skin irritations or reactions,
constipation, migraines, autism, sleep disturbance, and nasal congestion, which calls
for further research and stricter regulation for their use in industry. For these reasons,
under the watch of World Health organization (WHO), food safety monitoring
authorities should continuously monitor and guide the control and regulation of
national and international health authorities to prevent adverse effects. A lasting
solution has been to turn to organic foods to stop or reverse these effects, where
feasible.
Author details
Mary M. Mwale
Food Science and Nutrition Specialist, Nairobi
*Address all correspondence to: marymwale23@gmail.com
© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
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Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector
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