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Correlates of Active Commuting in Austrian Adults: Does Personality Matter?
Abstract
Active commuting (e.g., walking and cycling to work) is beneficial for the population and environmental health and therefore can help to tackle current challenges of humanity, which are recognised in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. For planning public health interventions and active travel policies, it is necessary to identify correlates and determinants of active commuting. Currently, it is unknown whether specific personality traits are related to commuting behaviours. This study investigated the relationship between active commuting and several personal and environmental correlates, including broad personality traits. Therefore, cross-sectional data from the ‘Healthy On The way’ (HOTway) study were analysed. Information about correlates and commuting modes (active: walking, cycling; passive: car, motorbike, public transport) were collected via an online survey. Potential correlates were: socio-demographics (age, gender, education, student status, income, marital status), body mass index, physical activity, and psychological (extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, well-being, perceived stress, attitudes towards commuting modes), and environmental (commuting time, traffic volume, perceived built environment) variables. Logistic regression models were used to test the association between each correlate and active commuting. In the multivariable model, a positive attitude towards cycling [odds ratio (OR) = 1.04, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02–1.06] was linked to higher odds of active commuting while older age (OR = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.88–0.98), a positive attitude towards car use (OR = 0.97, 95% CI: 0.95–0.99), greater commuting time (OR = 0.89, 95% CI: 0.84–0.94), being more affected by traffic volume (OR = 0.72, 95% CI: 0.58–0.89) and greater pleasantness of the neighbourhood environment (OR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.57–0.97) were linked to lower odds of active commuting. Several correlates were identified but personality traits were not related to active commuting. This might indicate that major socio-demographic and environmental factors are more relevant for differences in commuting behaviours. The identified correlates can help in the design of future public health interventions and active travel policies to reduce environmental degradation and improve population health.
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Objective
Little is known about the acute psychological stress responses caused by commuting. Evidence for the benefits of active commuting (e.g., walking, cycling) is usually based on studies without measurements in free-living environments and without consideration of daily variations in stress. This study investigated the association between commuting mode (active, passive) and perceived commuting stress, assessed on multiple days immediately after commuting.
Methods
Adults participating in the cross-sectional ‘Healthy On The way’ (HOTway) study between 2016 and 2017 in Graz, Austria, were included. Participants completed an online survey and responded to statements about perceived stress (demands, tension) on three days before commuting (baseline stress) and after arrival (commuting stress), respectively. Active commuting was defined as cycling and/or walking (passive: car, motorbike, public transport).
Results
Of 188 participants (93 women, mean age: 28.0 ± 10.0 years) included, 124 were active and 64 were passive commuters. Active commuting was associated with less perceived commuting stress compared to passive commuting (bi = −2.95, 95% CI: −4.97 to −0.92, p = .005), even after controlling for subjective well-being, physical activity, commuting time and other confounding variables.
Conclusion
Active commuting is related to a small reduction in perceived commuting stress. The results of this study support the promotion of active commuting for population (mental) health but future studies on the causal mechanisms and the role of active commuting in the recovery from previous stressors are needed.
Since walkability plays an important role in active commuting, several cities are actively promoting its integration into urban and environmental planning policies. This study examined the association between walkability and active commuting in Seoul, Korea. A multilevel logistic regression model was used to examine the correlation between Walkability Score and the probability of active commuting after controlling for individual variables. The analysis used 129,044 individual samples nested within 424 administrative districts (dongs). In this study, three models were tested: Model 1 contained only individual variables, Model 2 contained individual variables and Walkability Score, and Model 3 included neighborhood-level variables in addition to the variables of Model 2. The results showed that the Walkability Score was significantly correlated with the odds of active commuting. Specifically, every additional one-point increase in Walkability Score was associated with 0.3% higher odds of active commuting (Model 2: odds ratio (OR) = 1.003, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.001–1.005; Model 3: OR = 1.003, 95% CI = 1.001–1.006). Additionally, public transportation density was also positively correlated with the odds of active commuting. The odds of active commuting were positively correlated with younger age, female, lower-income, and having no car. Based on the findings, policy recommendations in urban planning and design, transport engineering, and environmental planning are provided.
This study aimed at estimating the prevalence in adults of complying with the aerobic physical activity (PA) recommendation through transportation-related walking and cycling. Furthermore, potential determinants of transportation-related PA recommendation compliance were investigated. 10,872 men and 13,144 women aged 18 years or older participated in the cross-sectional ‘German Health Update 2014/15 – EHIS’ in Germany. Transportation-related walking and cycling were assessed using the European Health Interview Survey-Physical Activity Questionnaire. Three outcome indicators were constructed: walking, cycling, and total active transportation (≥600 metabolic equivalent, MET-min/week). Associations were analyzed using multilevel regression analysis. Forty-two percent of men and 39% of women achieved ≥600 MET-min/week with total active transportation. The corresponding percentages for walking were 27% and 28% and for cycling 17% and 13%, respectively. Higher population density, older age, lower income, higher work-related and leisure-time PA, not being obese, and better self-perceived health were positively associated with transportation-related walking and cycling and total active transportation among both men and women. The promotion of walking and cycling among inactive people has great potential to increase PA in the general adult population and to comply with PA recommendations. Several correlates of active transportation were identified which should be considered when planning public health policies and interventions.
The role of neighborhood characteristics in promoting physical activity and sedentary behaviors (SB) has not been extensively studied in university students. The study purpose was to analyze the associations of neighborhood built environment and neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) with active commuting, leisure-time physical activity (LTPA), and SB among university students. This is a cross-sectional study of 308 undergraduate students from two urban universities in Valencia, Spain. Participants’ residential neighborhoods were classified according to walkability and SES levels. Walkability was defined as an index of three built environment attributes (i.e., residential density, land-use mix, and street connectivity) based on geographical information system data. Active commuting to and from university (ACU), active commuting in the neighborhood, LTPA, and SB were evaluated through a questionnaire. Mixed model regression analyses were performed. There were no significant SES–walkability interactions for any of the outcomes analyzed. However, university students living in more walkable areas reported two more ACU trips per week compared to those living in less walkable neighborhoods (p < 0.01). University students living in lower-SES neighborhoods reported more ACU trips per week than those living in higher-SES neighborhoods (p < 0.05). Regarding LTPA, there were no significant SES or walkability main effects. Neighborhood SES was negatively related to active commuting in the neighborhood and to time spent in SB (all p < 0.05). Participants living in lower-SES neighborhoods reported more active commuting per week and had the highest average minutes spent in SB. This study highlights the relevance of assessing university’s residential environment when active transportation and SB are analyzed.
This review provides a critical overview of what has been learnt about commuting’s impact on subjective wellbeing (SWB). It is structured around a conceptual model which assumes commuting can affect SWB over three time horizons: (i) during the journey; (ii) immediately after the journey; and (iii) over the longer term. Our assessment of the evidence shows that mood is lower during the commute than other daily activities and stress can be induced by congestion, crowding and unpredictability. People who walk or cycle to work are generally more satisfied with their commute than those who travel by car and especially those who use public transport. Satisfaction decreases with duration of commute, regardless of mode used, and increases when travelling with company. After the journey, evidence shows that the commute experience ‘spills over’ into how people feel and perform at work and home. However, a consistent link between commuting and life satisfaction overall has not been established. The evidence suggests that commuters are generally successful in trading off the drawbacks of longer and more arduous commute journeys against the benefits they bring in relation to overall life satisfaction, but further research is required to understand the decision making involved. The evidence review points to six areas that warrant policy action and research: (i) enhancing the commute experience; (ii) increasing commute satisfaction; (iii) reducing the impacts of long duration commutes; (iv) meeting commuter preferences; (v) recognising flexibility and constraints in commuting routines and (vi) accounting for SWB impacts of commuting in policy making and appraisal.
Background
Active commuting is associated with greater physical activity, but there is no consensus on the actual beneficial effects of this type of physical activity on health outcomes.
Objective
To examine the association between active commuting and risk of all-cause mortality, incidence and mortality from cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes through meta-analysis.
Methods
A comprehensive search of MEDLINE, Embase, Google Scholar, Web of Science, The Cochrane Library, Transport Research International Documentation database, and reference lists of included articles was conducted. Only prospective cohort studies were included.
Results
Twenty-three prospective studies including 531,333 participants were included. Participants who engaged in active commuting had a significantly lower risk of all-cause mortality [relative risk (RR) 0.92, 95% CI 0.85–0.98] and cardiovascular disease incidence (RR 0.91; 95% CI 0.83–0.99). There was no association between active commuting and cardiovascular disease mortality and cancer. Participants who engaged in active commuting had a 30% reduced risk of diabetes (RR 0.70; 95% CI 0.61–0.80) in three studies after removal of an outlying study that affected the heterogeneity of the results. Subgroup analyses suggested a significant risk reduction (− 24%) of all-cause mortality (RR 0.76; 95% CI 0.63–0.94) and cancer mortality (− 25%; RR 0.75; 95% CI 0.59–0.895) among cycling commuters.
Conclusion
People who engaged in active commuting had a significantly reduced risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease incidence and diabetes.
A personality trait is a characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, or behaving that tends to be consistent over time and across relevant situations. The Big Five—Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to Experience—are a set of five broad, bipolar trait dimensions that constitute the most widely used model of personality structure. A considerable body of research has examined personality stability and change across the life span, as well as the influence of personality traits on important life outcomes, in terms of the Big Five.
Introduction
Encouraging walking during the daily commute is a potential strategy for increasing physical activity levels. This study aimed: (i) to examine, and compare by travel mode, the objectively measured physical activity of a working adult population, and, (ii) to identify associations between mode of travel to work and a range of individual, interpersonal, organisational and environmental characteristics.
Methods
Employees (n=654) recruited from 87 workplaces in geographically distinct areas provided data through accelerometers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, travel diaries and questionnaires. Separate multivariable logistic regression models were developed to examine factors associated with physical activity during the commute and mode of travel to work.
Results
In comparison to car users (7.3 minutes±Standard Deviation 7.6), walkers (34.3±18.6) and public transport users (25.7±14.0) accrued substantially higher levels of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity during the commute. Combined accelerometer and GPS data showed that participants who walked at least ten minutes during their commute were more likely to have a shorter commute distance (p<0.001), occupy a sedentary job (p<0.01), and be classified as ‘underweight or normal weight’ (p<0.03). No car access (p<0.001), and absence of free work car parking (p<0.01) were independently related to walking to work and using public transport. Shorter commuting distances were also related to walking to work (p<0.001). Public transport users were more likely to be younger (p=0.04), have more positive environmental perceptions (p=0.01), and less likely to combine their commute with caring responsibilities (p=0.03).
Conclusions
This study shows that walking to work and using public transport are important contributors to physical activity levels in a working population. Planning, transport and behavioural interventions to promote walking during the commute should take into account the wider determinants. Reducing availability of free work car parking is one possible strategy to discourage car use.
Physical activity (PA) has well-documented health benefits helping to prevent development of non-communicable diseases. The aim of the study was to examine the prevalence and factors associated with physical inactivity during leisure-time (LTPA) and commuting (CPA) among adult social assistance beneficiaries in Piotrkowski district. The studied sample consisted of 1817 respondents. Over 73% of the study population did not meet the recommended levels of LTPA. Fifty two % of the respondents had none leisure-time physical activity and 21.5% exercised occasionally. Main reasons for not taking up LTPA included: high general physical activity (36.4%), lack of time (28.1%), no willingness to exercise (25.4%). Close to 82% of the surveyed population did not practice commuting physical activity (CPA). The men had higher risk for inactivity during LTPA compared to the women (OR = 1.35; 95% CI: 1.11–1.65; p ≤ 0.05). Higher odds of CPA inactivity were associated with unemployment, moderate and heavy drinking and having a number of health problems. The prevalence of physical inactivity among the social assistance recipients is much higher than it is in the general population. Promotion of an active lifestyle should take into consideration substantial differences between the general population and disadvantaged individuals and their various needs.
Logistic regression analysis is a statistical technique to evaluate the relationship between various predictor variables (either categorical or continuous) and an outcome which is binary (dichotomous). In this article, we discuss logistic regression analysis and the limitations of this technique. © 2017 Perspectives in Clinical Research Published by Wolters Kluwer - Medknow.
Introduction
Active commuting — walking and bicycling for travel to and/or from work or educational addresses — may facilitate daily, routine physical activity. Several studies have investigated the relationship between active commuting and commuting stress; however, there are no studies examining the relationship between solely bicycle commuting and perceived stress, or studies that account for environmental determinants of bicycle commuting and stress. The current study evaluated the relationship between bicycle commuting, among working or studying adults in a dense urban setting, and perceived stress.
Methods
A cross-sectional study was performed with 788 adults who regularly travelled to work or study locations (excluding those who only commuted on foot) in Barcelona, Spain. Participants responded to a comprehensive telephone survey concerning their travel behaviour from June 2011 through to May 2012. Participants were categorised as either bicycle commuters or non-bicycle commuters, and (based on the Perceived Stress Scale, PSS-4) as either stressed or non-stressed. Multivariate Poisson regression with robust variance models of stress status based on exposures with bicycle commuting were estimated and adjusted for potential confounders.
Results
Bicycle commuters had significantly lower risk of being stressed than non-bicycle commuters (Relative Risk; RR (95% CI)=0.73 (0.60 to 0.89), p=0.001). Bicycle commuters who bicycled 4 days per week (RR (95% CI)=0.42 (0.24 to 0.73), p=0.002) and those who bicycled 5 or more days per week (RR (95% CI)=0.57 (0.42 to 0.77), p<0.001) had lower risk of being stressed than those who bicycled less than 4 days. This relationship remained statistically significant after adjusting for individual and environmental confounders and when using different cut-offs of perceived stress.
Conclusions
Stress reduction may be an important consequence of routine bicycle use and should be considered by decision makers as another potential benefit of its promotion.
The objectives were (1) to define physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviors (SB) patterns in daily life contexts (work, leisure, and transportation) in French working women from NutriNet-Santé web-cohort and (2) to identify pattern(s) of active transportation and their individual, social, and environmental correlates. 23,432 participants completed two questionnaires to evaluate PA and SB in daily life contexts and individual representations of residential neighborhood and transportation modes. Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed which identified 6 distinct movement behavior patterns: (i) active occupation, high sedentary leisure, (ii) sedentary occupation, low leisure, (iii) sedentary transportation, (iv) sedentary occupation and leisure, (v) active transportation, and (vi) active leisure. Multinomial logistic regressions were performed to identify correlates of the “active transportation” cluster. The perceived environmental characteristics positively associated with “active transportation” included “high availability of destinations around home,” “presence of bicycle paths,” and “low traffic.” A “positive image of walking/cycling,” the “individual feeling of being physically active,” and a “high use of active transport modes by relatives/friends” were positively related to “active transportation,” identified as a unique pattern regarding individual and environmental correlates. Identification of PA and SB context-specific patterns will help to understand movement behaviors’ complexity and to design interventions to promote active transportation in specific subgroups.
Objective
To investigate the association between active commuting and incident cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, and all cause mortality.
Design
Prospective population based study.
Setting
UK Biobank.
Participants
263 450 participants (106 674 (52%) women; mean age 52.6), recruited from 22 sites across the UK. The exposure variable was the mode of transport used (walking, cycling, mixed mode v non-active (car or public transport)) to commute to and from work on a typical day.
Main outcome measures
Incident (fatal and non-fatal) CVD and cancer, and deaths from CVD, cancer, or any causes.
Results
2430 participants died (496 were related to CVD and 1126 to cancer) over a median of 5.0 years (interquartile range 4.3-5.5) follow-up. There were 3748 cancer and 1110 CVD events. In maximally adjusted models, commuting by cycle and by mixed mode including cycling were associated with lower risk of all cause mortality (cycling hazard ratio 0.59, 95% confidence interval 0.42 to 0.83, P=0.002; mixed mode cycling 0.76, 0.58 to 1.00, P<0.05), cancer incidence (cycling 0.55, 0.44 to 0.69, P<0.001; mixed mode cycling 0.64, 0.45 to 0.91, P=0.01), and cancer mortality (cycling 0.60, 0.40 to 0.90, P=0.01; mixed mode cycling 0.68, 0.57 to 0.81, P<0.001). Commuting by cycling and walking were associated with a lower risk of CVD incidence (cycling 0.54, 0.33 to 0.88, P=0.01; walking 0.73, 0.54 to 0.99, P=0.04) and CVD mortality (cycling 0.48, 0.25 to 0.92, P=0.03; walking 0.64, 0.45 to 0.91, P=0.01). No statistically significant associations were observed for walking commuting and all cause mortality or cancer outcomes. Mixed mode commuting including walking was not noticeably associated with any of the measured outcomes.
Conclusions
Cycle commuting was associated with a lower risk of CVD, cancer, and all cause mortality. Walking commuting was associated with a lower risk of CVD independent of major measured confounding factors. Initiatives to encourage and support active commuting could reduce risk of death and the burden of important chronic conditions.
A complex set of factors may affect transportation mode choice. While earlier studies have often considered objective factors in determining preferences of public transport use as a sustainable transportation, subjective factors such as personality traits are underexplored. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the influence of personality traits on the number of future public transport use. Additionally, " car habit " and " intention toward using public modes " were considered to be important. For this purpose, a case study from departure passengers at Imam Khomeini International Airport (IKIA, Tehran, Iran) was conducted between January and February 2015 at IKIA. Results of structural equation modeling (SEM) shows that only neuroticism and extraversion personality traits were significant in determining future public transportation mode choice. However, the model indicates that these traits indirectly influence intention and car habit. Neuroticism was found to have a total effect of −0.022 on future public transport use, which represents a negative association with public transport use, while extraversion positively influenced future public transport use with a total effect of 0.031. Moreover, the results found interestingly that car access had a better fit to the data than the number of cars in household (NCH); both had significant positive effect on car habit, but only car access had a significant influence on intention. Furthermore, the effect of socio-demographic variables such as age, gender, educational level, income level, and body mass index (BMI) were determined to be significant in identifying choice of future transport mode to airports, which is explained in the discussion section of this paper.
Objective: This paper describes a behavior change intervention that encourages active commuting using electrically assisted bikes (e-bikes) for health promotion in the workplace. This paper presents the preliminary findings of the intervention’s impact on improving employee well-being and organizational behavior, as an indicator of potential business success.
Method: Employees of a UK-based organization participated in a workplace travel behavior change intervention and used e-bikes as an active commuting mode; this was a change to their usual passive commuting behavior. The purpose of the intervention was to develop employee well-being and organizational behavior for improved business success. We explored the personal benefits and organizational co-benefits of active commuting and compared these to a travel-as-usual group of employees who did not change their behavior and continued taking non-active commutes.
Results: Employees who changed their behavior to active commuting reported more positive affect, better physical health and more productive organizational behavior outcomes compared with passive commuters. In addition, there was an interactive effect of commuting mode and commuting distance: a more frequent active commute was positively associated with more productive organizational behavior and stronger overall positive employee well-being whereas a longer passive commute was associated with poorer well-being, although there was no impact on organizational behavior.
Conclusion: This research provides emerging evidence of the value of an innovative workplace health promotion initiative focused on active commuting in protecting and improving employee well-being and organizational behavior for stronger business performance. It considers the significant opportunities for organizations pursuing improved workforce well-being, both in terms of employee health, and for improved organizational behavior and business success.
Background
Cycling and brisk-walking to work represents an opportunity to incorporate sustainable transport related moderate- to- vigorous physical activity (MVPA) into daily routine among adults, and thus, may make an important contributing to health. Despite the fact that walking and cycling is an option for many commuters and also brings a number of benefits, a considerable proportion of commuters choose to use other means of transport when cycling and walking would be a highly appropriate transport mode. The object of this study was to assess the associations between modes of commuting to the workplace among parental adults; taking socio-demographic, personal, environmental and behavioral factors into account. Methods
Data from a cross- sectional questionnaire were collected from a sample of 709 parents (23 % men and 77 % women) of children aged 10–12 years-old in two Norwegian counties, Hedmark and Telemark. Commuting behavior, socio- demographic determinants, personal and environmental factors were ascertained using questionnaire data from the Fruit and Vegetables Makes the Marks project (FVMM). Multivariate logistic regressions were applied. ResultsIn total, 70 % of adults were categorized as car commuters to and from work, 12 % was categorized as a cyclist and 7 % as a walker. The multivariate analyses showed that active commuters were more likely to have a shorter distance to work and perceived the traffic as more safe. Moreover, those who actively commute to the workplace considered commuting as a way to obtain health benefits and a way to reduce CO2 emissions. Active commuters also considered weather to be an obstacle to active commuting. Conclusion
In this cross-sectional study of parents living in sub-urban Norway, we found that active commuting to and from the workplace were associated with a shorter distance to work, traffic safety, environmental concern, health benefits and weather condition. In light of these findings, cycling to work seems to be the most appropriate target for interventions and public health campaigns within this population.
Background
The current political agenda aims to promote active environments and physical activity while commuting to work, but research on it has provided mixed results. This study examines whether the proximity of green space and people’s residence in different travel-related urban zones contributes to commuting physical activity. Methods
Population-based cross-sectional health examination survey, Health 2011 study, and geographical information system (GIS) data were utilized. The GIS data on green space and travel-related urban zones were linked to the individuals of the Health 2011 study, based on their home geocoordinates. Commuting physical activity was self-reported. Logistic regression models were applied, and age, gender, education, leisure-time and occupational physical activity were adjusted. Analyses were limited to those of working age, living in the core-urban areas of Finland and having completed information on commuting physical activity (n = 2 098). ResultsHome location in a pedestrian zone of a main centre (odds ratio = 1.63; 95 % confidence interval = 1.06–2.51) or a pedestrian zone of a sub-centre (2.03; 1.09–3.80) and higher proportion of cycling and pedestrian networks (3.28; 1.71–6.31) contributed to higher levels of commuting physical activity. The contribution remained after adjusting for all the environmental attributes and individuals. Based on interaction analyses, women living in a public transport zone were almost two times more likely to be physically active while commuting compared to men. A high proportion of recreational green space contributed negatively to the levels of commuting physical activity (0.73; 0.57–0.94) after adjusting for several background factors. Based on interaction analyses, individuals aged from 44 to 54 years and living in sub-centres, men living in pedestrian zones of sub-centres, and those individuals who are physically inactive during leisure-time were less likely to be physically active while commuting. Conclusions
Good pedestrian and cycling infrastructure may play an important role in promoting commuting physical activity among the employed population, regardless of educational background, leisure-time and occupational physical activity. Close proximity to green space and a high proportion of green space near the home may not be sufficient to initiate commuting physical activity in Finland, where homes surrounded by green areas are often situated in car-oriented zones far from work places.
Background
Physical inactivity is a well-known public health risk that should be monitored at the population level. Physical activity levels are often surveyed across Europe. This systematic literature review aims to provide an overview of all existing cross-European studies that assess physical activity in European adults, describe the variation in population levels according to these studies, and discuss the impact of the assessment methods.
Methods
Six literature databases (PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, SportDiscus and OpenGrey) were searched, supplemented with backward- and forward tracking and searching authors’ and experts’ literature databases. Articles were included if they reported on observational studies measuring total physical activity and/or physical activity in leisure time in the general population in two or more European countries. Each record was reviewed, extracted and assessed by two independent researchers and disagreements were resolved by a third researcher. The review protocol of this review is registered in the PROSPERO database under registration number CRD42014010334.
Results
Of the 9,756 unique identified articles, twenty-five were included in this review, reporting on sixteen different studies, including 2 to 35 countries and 321 to 274,740 participants. All but two of the studies used questionnaires to assess physical activity, with the majority of studies using the IPAQ-short questionnaire. The remaining studies used accelerometers. The percentage of participants who either were or were not meeting the physical activity recommendations was the most commonly reported outcome variable, with the percentage of participants meeting the recommendations ranging from 7 % to 96 % across studies and countries.
Conclusions
The included studies showed substantial variation in the assessment methods, reported outcome variables and, consequently, the presented physical activity levels. Because of this, absolute population levels of physical activity in European adults are currently unknown. However, when ranking countries, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Portugal, and Spain generally appear to be among the less active countries. Objective data of adults across Europe is currently limited. These findings highlight the need for standardisation of the measurement methods, as well as cross-European monitoring of physical activity levels.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-016-0398-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Objective:
To investigate the longitudinal associations between active commuting (walking and cycling to work) and body mass index (BMI).
Method:
We used self-reported data on height, weight and active commuting from the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study (2009 to 2012; n=809). We used linear regression to test the associations between: a) maintenance of active commuting over one year and BMI at the end of that year; and b) change in weekly time spent in active commuting and change in BMI over one year.
Results:
After adjusting for sociodemographic variables, other physical activity, physical wellbeing and maintenance of walking, those who maintained cycle commuting reported a lower BMI on average at one year follow-up (1.14kg/m(2), 95% CI: 0.30 to 1.98, n=579) than those who never cycled to work. No significant association remained after adjustment for baseline BMI. No significant associations were observed for maintenance of walking. An increase in walking was associated with a reduction in BMI (0.32kg/m(2), 95% CI: 0.03 to 0.62, n=651, after adjustment for co-variates and baseline BMI) only when restricting the analysis to those who did not move. No other significant associations between changes in weekly time spent walking or cycling on the commute and changes in BMI were observed.
Conclusions:
This work provides further evidence of the contribution of active commuting, particularly cycling, to preventing weight gain or facilitating weight loss. The findings may be valuable for employees choosing how to commute and engaging employers in the promotion of active travel.
Background
The Perceived Stress Scale Cohen (J Health Soc Behav 24:385-96, 1983) is a widely and well-established self-report scale measuring perceived stress. However, the German version of the PSS-10 has not yet been validated. Thus, the purposes of this representative study were to psychometrically evaluate the PSS-10, and to provide norm values for the German population.
Methods
The PSS-10 and standardized scales of depression, anxiety, fatigue, procrastination and life satisfaction were administered to a representative, randomly selected German community sample consisting of 1315 females and 1148 male participants in the age range from 14 to 90 years.
Results
The results demonstrated a good internal consistency and construct validity. Perceived stress was consistently associated with depression, anxiety, fatigue, procrastination and reduced life satisfaction. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a bi-dimensional structure with two related latent factors. Regarding demographic variables, women reported a higher level of stress than men. Perceived stress decreased with higher education, income and employment status. Older and married participants felt less stressed than younger and unmarried participants.
Conclusion
The PSS-10 is a reliable, valid and economic instrument for assessing perceived stress. As psychological stress is associated with an increased risk of diseases, identifying subpopulations with higher levels of stress is essential. Due to the dependency of the perceived stress level on demographic variables, particularly age and sex, differentiated norm values are needed, which are provided in this paper.
Much medical research is observational. The reporting of observational studies is often of insufficient quality. Poor reporting hampers the assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of a study and the generalisability of its results. Taking into account empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, a group of methodologists, researchers, and editors developed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) recommendations to improve the quality of reporting of observational studies. The STROBE Statement consists of a checklist of 22 items, which relate to the title, abstract, introduction, methods, results and discussion sections of articles. Eighteen items are common to cohort studies, case-control studies and cross-sectional studies and four are specific to each of the three study designs. The STROBE Statement provides guidance to authors about how to improve the reporting of observational studies and facilitates critical appraisal and interpretation of studies by reviewers, journal editors and readers. This explanatory and elaboration document is intended to enhance the use, understanding, and dissemination of the STROBE Statement. The meaning and rationale for each checklist item are presented. For each item, one or several published examples and, where possible, references to relevant empirical studies and methodological literature are provided. Examples of useful flow diagrams are also included. The STROBE Statement, this document, and the associated Web site (http://www.strobe-statement.org/) should be helpful resources to improve reporting of observational research.
Objective:
Our aim was to explore longitudinal associations of active commuting (cycling to work and walking to work) with physical wellbeing (PCS-8), mental wellbeing (MCS-8) and sickness absence.
Method:
We used data from the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study (2009 to 2012; n=801) to test associations between: a) maintenance of cycling (or walking) to work over a one year period and indices of wellbeing at the end of that one year period; and b) associations between change in cycling (or walking) to work and change in indices of wellbeing. Linear regression was used for testing associations with PCS-8 and MCS-8, and negative binomial regression for sickness absence.
Results:
After adjusting for sociodemographic variables, physical activity and physical limitation, those who maintained cycle commuting reported lower sickness absence (0.46, 95% CI: 0.14 to 0.80; equivalent to one less day per year) and higher MCS-8 scores (1.50, 0.10 to 2.10) than those who did not cycle to work. The association for sickness absence persisted after adjustment for baseline sickness absence. No significant associations were observed for PCS-8. Associations between change in cycle commuting and change in indices of wellbeing were not significant. No significant associations were observed for walking.
Conclusions:
This work provides some evidence of the value of cycle commuting in improving or maintaining the health and wellbeing of adults of working age. This may be important in engaging employers in the promotion of active travel and communicating the benefits of active travel to employees.
Background:
Active travel is associated with greater physical activity, but there is a dearth of research examining this relationship over time. We examined the longitudinal associations between change in time spent in active commuting and changes in recreational and total physical activity.
Methods:
Adult commuters working in Cambridge, United Kingdom completed questionnaires in 2009 and 2012, and a sub-set completed objective physical activity monitoring in 2010 and 2012. Commuting was assessed using a validated seven-day travel to work record. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was assessed using the Recent Physical Activity Questionnaire and combined heart rate and movement sensing. We used multivariable multinomial logistic regression models to examine associations between change in time spent in active commuting and tertiles of changes in time spent in recreational and total physical activity.
Results:
Four hundred sixty-nine participants (67 % female, mean age 44 years) provided valid travel and self-reported physical activity data. Seventy-one participants (54 % female, mean age 45 years) provided valid travel and objectively measured physical activity data. A decrease in active commuting was associated with a greater likelihood of a decrease in self-reported total physical activity (relative risk ratio [RRR] 2.1, 95 % CI 1.1, 4.1). Correspondingly, an increase in active commuting was associated with a borderline significantly greater likelihood of an increase in self-reported total physical activity (RRR 1.8, 95 % CI 1.0, 3.4). No associations were seen between change in time spent in active commuting and change in time spent in either self-reported recreational physical activity or objectively measured physical activity.
Conclusions:
Changes in active commuting were associated with commensurate changes in total self-reported physical activity and we found no compensatory changes in self-reported recreational physical activity. Promoting active commuting has potential as a public health strategy to increase physical activity. Future longitudinal research would be useful to verify these findings.
Background
Increasing active transport behavior (walking, cycling) throughout the life-course is a key element of physical activity promotion for health. There is, however, a need to better understand the correlates of specific domains of walking and cycling to identify more precisely at-risk populations for public health interventions. In addition, current knowledge of interactions between domains of walking and cycling remains limited.
Methods
We assessed past-month self-reported time spent walking and cycling in three specific domains (commuting, leisure and errands) in 39,295 French adult participants (76.5 % women) of the on-going NutriNet Santé web-cohort. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to investigate the associations with socio-demographic and physical activity correlates.
Results
Having a transit pass was strongly positively associated with walking for commuting and for errands but was unrelated to walking for leisure or to all domains of cycling. Having a parking space at work was strongly negatively associated with walking for commuting and cycling for commuting. BMI was negatively associated with both walking for leisure and errands, and with the three domains of cycling. Leisure-time physical activity was negatively associated with walking for commuting but was positively associated with the two other domains of walking and with cycling (three domains). Walking for commuting was positively associated with the other domains of walking; cycling for commuting was also positively associated with the other domains of cycling. Walking for commuting was not associated with cycling for commuting.
Conclusions
In adults walking and cycling socio-demographic and physical activity correlates differ by domain (commuting, leisure and errands). Better knowledge of relationships between domains should help to develop interventions focusing not only the right population, but also the right behavior.
Das NEO-Funf-Faktoren-Inventar nach Costa und McCrae (NEO-FFI, Borkenau & Ostendorf, 2007) ist ein Fragebogen zur Selbstbeschreibung und erfasst die sog. „Big Five“: Neurotizismus, Extraversion, Offenheit fur Erfahrungen, Vertraglichkeit und Gewissenhaftigkeit. Es liegt in einer zweiten, neu normierten und vollstandig uberarbeiteten deutschsprachigen Auflage vor. Die Gutekriterien weisen es als ein hochwertiges Verfahren aus, das – mit Einschrankungen – auch in der personaldiagnostischen Praxis eingesetzt werden kann.
The 5-item World Health Organization Well-Being Index (WHO-5) is among the most widely used questionnaires assessing subjective psychological well-being. Since its first publication in 1998, the WHO-5 has been translated into more than 30 languages and has been used in research studies all over the world. We now provide a systematic review of the literature on the WHO-5.
We conducted a systematic search for literature on the WHO-5 in PubMed and PsycINFO in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. In our review of the identified articles, we focused particularly on the following aspects: (1) the clinimetric validity of the WHO-5; (2) the responsiveness/sensitivity of the WHO-5 in controlled clinical trials; (3) the potential of the WHO-5 as a screening tool for depression, and (4) the applicability of the WHO-5 across study fields.
A total of 213 articles met the predefined criteria for inclusion in the review. The review demonstrated that the WHO-5 has high clinimetric validity, can be used as an outcome measure balancing the wanted and unwanted effects of treatments, is a sensitive and specific screening tool for depression and its applicability across study fields is very high.
The WHO-5 is a short questionnaire consisting of 5 simple and non-invasive questions, which tap into the subjective well-being of the respondents. The scale has adequate validity both as a screening tool for depression and as an outcome measure in clinical trials and has been applied successfully across a wide range of study fields. © 2015 S. Karger AG, Basel.
Whether personality determines physical activity or its outcomes is relevant for theory and public health but has been understudied. We estimated the population correlations between Big-Five personality factors and physical activity and examined whether they varied according to sample characteristics and study features. Database searches were conducted according to PRISMA guidelines, for articles published in the English language prior to November 1st, 2013. Sixty-four studies including a total of 88,400 participants yielded effects (k) for Extraversion (88), Neuroticism (82), Conscientiousness (69), Openness (51) and Agreeableness (52). Significant mean r was found for Extraversion (r = .1076), Neuroticism (r = −.0710), Conscientiousness (r = .1037) and Openness (r = .0344), but not Agreeableness (r = .0020). Effects were moderately heterogeneous (I2 range = 44–65%) and varied by sample characteristics (e.g., age, gender, or clinical status) and/or study features (e.g., measure quality or item format). This analysis expands results of previous reviews and provides new support for a relationship between physical activity and Openness. Future studies should use better measures of physical activity and prospective designs, adjust for statistical artifacts, and consider advances in the conceptualization of personality.
Objective
To explore the relationship between active travel and psychological wellbeing.
Method
This study used data on 17,985 adult commuters in eighteen waves of the British Household Panel Survey (1991/2-2008/9). Fixed effects regression models were used to investigate how (i.) travel mode choice, (ii.) commuting time, and (iii.) switching to active travel impacted on overall psychological wellbeing and how (iv.) travel mode choice impacted on specific psychological symptoms included in the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12).
Results
After accounting for changes in individual-level socioeconomic characteristics and potential confounding variables relating to work, residence and health, significant associations were observed between the 36-point GHQ12 wellbeing scale and (i.) active travel (0.185, 95% CI: 0.048-0.321) and public transport (0.195, 95% CI: 0.035-0.355) when compared to car travel, (ii.) time spent (per ten minute change) walking (0.083, 95% CI: 0.003-0.163) and driving (− 0.033, 95% CI: − 0.064 – -0.001), and (iii.) switching from car travel to active travel (0.479, 95% CI: 0.199-0.758). Active travel was also associated with reductions in the odds of experiencing two specific psychological symptoms when compared to car travel.
Conclusion
The positive psychological wellbeing effects identified in this study should be considered in cost-benefit assessments of interventions seeking to promote active travel.
Introduction:
Assessing the contextual factors that influence walking for transportation is important to develop more walkable environments and promote physical activity. To advance previous research focused on residential environments and overall walking for transportation, the present study investigates objective environmental factors assessed around the residence, the workplace, the home--work itinerary, and the home--supermarket itinerary, and considered overall walking for transportation but also walking to work and to shops.
Methods:
Data from the RECORD Study involving 7290 participants recruited in 2007-2008, aged 30-79 years, and residing in the Paris metropolitan area were analyzed. Multilevel ordinal regression analyses were conducted to investigate environmental characteristics associated with self-reported overall walking for transportation, walking to work, and walking to shops.
Results:
High individual education was associated with overall walking for transportation, with walking to work, and walking to shops. Among workers, a high residential neighborhood education was associated with increased overall walking for transportation, while a high workplace neighborhood education was related to an increased time spent walking to work. The residential density of destinations was positively associated with overall walking for transportation, with walking to work, and with walking to shops, while the workplace density of destinations was positively associated with overall walking for transportation among workers. Environmental factors assessed around the itineraries were not associated with walking to work or to the shops.
Conclusion:
This research improves our understanding of the role of the environments on walking for transportation by accounting for some of the environments visited beyond the residential neighborhood. It shows that workers' walking habits are more influenced by the density of destinations around the workplace than around the residence. These results provide insight for the development of policies and programs to encourage population level active commuting.
Background
In most European origin populations measures of socioeconomic position are positively associated with leisure time physical activity (LTPA), this is unclear for active commuting. In addition, these associations have scarcely been studied in ethnic minority groups, who often have a high cardiovascular disease risk. Because of the expected public health potential, we assessed the relationship of active commuting and LTPA with measures of socioeconomic position across two large ethnic minority groups in the Netherlands as compared to the European-Dutch population.
Methods
We included South Asian-Surinamese (n = 370), African-Surinamese (n = 689), and European-Dutch (n = 567) from the cross-sectional population-based SUNSET study (2001–2003). Active commuting and LTPA were assessed by the SQUASH physical activity questionnaire and calculated in square-root-transformed metabolic equivalents of task-hours/week (SQRTMET). Socioeconomic position was indicated by level of education (low/high) and occupational class (low/high). We used age-adjusted linear regression models to assess the association between physical activity and socioeconomic position.
Results
Compared to the European-Dutch men, South Asian-Surinamese men engaged in lower levels of commuting activity and LTPA, and South Asian-Surinamese women engaged in lower levels of LTPA than their European-Dutch counterparts. Differences between the African Surinamese and the European-Dutch were small. We observed a positive gradient in active commuting activity for education in European-Dutch men (beta high education was 0.93, 95%CI: 0.45-1.40 SQRTMET higher versus low education), in South Asian-Surinamese men (beta: 0.56, 0.19-0.92), but not in African-Surinamese men (−0.06, -0.45-0.33, p for ethnicity-interaction = 0.002). In women we observed a positive gradient in active commuting activity and occupational class in European-Dutch women, and less strongly in South Asian-Surinamese and African-Surinamese women (p for ethnicity-interaction = 0.02). For LTPA and socioeconomic position, we observed no statistically significant interaction by ethnicity.
Conclusions
The positive gradient for socioeconomic position observed in European-Dutch was less strong, in particular for active commuting, among the South Asian-Surinamese and the African-Surinamese. This indicates that the typical focus on physical activity interventions in lower socioeconomic groups could work for European-Dutch populations, but this strategy may not be entirely applicable in the ethnic minority groups.
To assess the predictors of uptake and maintenance of walking and cycling, and of switching to or from the car as the usual mode of travel, for commuting.
655 commuters in Cambridge, UK reported all commuting trips using a seven-day recall instrument in 2009 and 2010. Individual and household characteristics, psychological measures relating to car use and environmental conditions on the route to work were self-reported in 2009. Objective environmental characteristics were assessed using Geographical Information Systems. Associations between uptake and maintenance of commuting behaviours and potential predictors were modelled using multivariable logistic regression.
Mean within-participant changes in commuting were relatively small (walking: +3.0minutes/week, s.d. 66.7; cycling: -5.3minutes/week, s.d. 74.7). Self-reported and objectively-assessed convenience of public transport predicted uptake of walking and cycling respectively, while convenient cycle routes predicted uptake of cycling and a pleasant route predicted maintenance of walking. A lack of free workplace parking predicted uptake of walking and alternatives to the car. Less favourable attitudes towards car use predicted continued use of alternatives to the car.
Improving the convenience of walking, cycling and public transport and limiting the availability of workplace car parking may promote uptake and maintenance of active commuting.
Commuting provides opportunities for regular physical activity which can reduce the risk of chronic disease. Commuters' mode of travel may be shaped by their environment, but understanding of which specific environmental characteristics are most important and might form targets for intervention is limited. This study investigated associations between mode choice and a range of objectively assessed environmental characteristics.
Participants in the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study reported where they lived and worked, their usual mode of travel to work and a variety of socio-demographic characteristics. Using geographic information system (GIS) software, 30 exposure variables were produced capturing characteristics of areas around participants' homes and workplaces and their shortest modelled routes to work. Associations between usual mode of travel to work and personal and environmental characteristics were investigated using multinomial logistic regression.
Of the 1124 respondents, 50% reported cycling or walking as their usual mode of travel to work. In adjusted analyses, home-work distance was strongly associated with mode choice, particularly for walking. Lower odds of walking or cycling rather than driving were associated with a less frequent bus service (highest versus lowest tertile: walking OR 0.61 [95% CI 0.20-1.85]; cycling OR 0.43 [95% CI 0.23-0.83]), low street connectivity (OR 0.22, [0.07-0.67]; OR 0.48 [0.26-0.90]) and free car parking at work (OR 0.24 [0.10-0.59]; OR 0.55 [0.32-0.95]). Participants were less likely to cycle if they had access to fewer destinations (leisure facilities, shops and schools) close to work (OR 0.36 [0.21-0.62]) and a railway station further from home (OR 0.53 [0.30-0.93]). Covariates strongly predicted travel mode (pseudo r-squared 0.74).
Potentially modifiable environmental characteristics, including workplace car parking, street connectivity and access to public transport, are associated with travel mode choice, and could be addressed as part of transport policy and infrastructural interventions to promote active commuting.
Objective
To examine whether a relationship exists between active commuting and physical and mental wellbeing.
Method
In 2009, cross-sectional postal questionnaire data were collected from a sample of working adults (aged 16 and over) in the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study. Travel behaviour and physical activity were ascertained using the Recent Physical Activity Questionnaire (RPAQ) and a seven-day travel-to-work recall instrument from which weekly time spent in active commuting (walking and cycling) was derived. Physical and mental wellbeing were assessed using the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form survey (SF-8). Associations were tested using multivariable linear regression.
Results
An association was observed between physical wellbeing (PCS-8) score and time spent in active commuting after adjustment for other physical activity (adjusted regression coefficients 0.48, 0.79 and 1.21 for 30–149 min/week, 150–224 min/week and ≥ 225 min/week respectively versus < 30 min/week, p = 0.01 for trend; n = 989). No such relationship was found for mental wellbeing (MCS-8) (p = 0.52).
Conclusion
Greater time spent actively commuting is associated with higher levels of physical wellbeing. Longitudinal studies should examine the contribution of changing levels of active commuting and other forms of physical activity to overall health and wellbeing.
Background
In the past decade, various reviews described the relationship between the physical environment and different physical activity (PA) domains. Yet, the majority of the current review evidence relies on North American/Australian studies, while only a small proportion of findings refer to European studies. Given some clear environmental differences across continents, this raises questions about the applicability of those results in European settings. This systematic review aimed at summarizing Europe-specific evidence on the relationship between the physical environment and different PA domains in adults.
Methods
Seventy eligible papers were identified through systematic searches across six electronic databases. Included papers were observational studies assessing the relationship between several aspects of the physical environment and PA in European adults (18-65y). Summary scores were calculated to express the strength of the relationship between each environmental factor and different PA domains.
Results
Convincing evidence on positive relationships with several PA domains was found for following environmental factors: walkability, access to shops/services/work and the composite factor environmental quality. Convincing evidence considering urbanization degree showed contradictory results, dependent on the observed PA domain. Transportation PA was more frequently related to the physical environment than recreational PA. Possible evidence for a positive relationship with transportation PA emerged for walking/cycling facilities, while a negative relationship was found for hilliness. Some environmental factors, such as access to recreational facilities, aesthetics, traffic- and crime-related safety were unrelated to different PA domains in Europe.
Conclusions
Generally, findings from this review of European studies are in accordance with results from North American/Australian reviews and may contribute to a generalization of the relationship between the physical environment and PA. Nevertheless, the lack of associations found regarding access to recreational facilities, aesthetics and different forms of safety are likely to be Europe-specific findings and need to be considered when appropriate interventions are developed. More research assessing domain-specific relationships with several understudied environmental attributes (e.g., residential density) is needed.
Background
Gender differences in cycling are well-documented. However, most analyses of gender differences make broad comparisons, with few studies modeling male and female cycling patterns separately for recreational and transport cycling. This modeling is important, in order to improve our efforts to promote cycling to women and men in countries like Australia with low rates of transport cycling. The main aim of this study was to examine gender differences in cycling patterns and in motivators and constraints to cycling, separately for recreational and transport cycling.
Methods
Adult members of a Queensland, Australia, community bicycling organization completed an online survey about their cycling patterns; cycling purposes; and personal, social and perceived environmental motivators and constraints (47% response rate). Closed and open-end questions were completed. Using the quantitative data, multivariable linear, logistic and ordinal regression models were used to examine associations between gender and cycling patterns, motivators and constraints. The qualitative data were thematically analyzed to expand upon the quantitative findings.
Results
In this sample of 1862 bicyclists, men were more likely than women to cycle for recreation and for transport, and they cycled for longer. Most transport cycling was for commuting, with men more likely than women to commute by bicycle. Men were more likely to cycle on-road, and women off-road. However, most men and women did not prefer to cycle on-road without designed bicycle lanes, and qualitative data indicated a strong preference by men and women for bicycle-only off-road paths. Both genders reported personal factors (health and enjoyment related) as motivators for cycling, although women were more likely to agree that other personal, social and environmental factors were also motivating. The main constraints for both genders and both cycling purposes were perceived environmental factors related to traffic conditions, motorist aggression and safety. Women, however, reported more constraints, and were more likely to report as constraints other environmental factors and personal factors.
Conclusion
Differences found in men’s and women’s cycling patterns, motivators and constraints should be considered in efforts to promote cycling, particularly in efforts to increase cycling for transport.
Background
Promoting walking or cycling to work (active commuting) could help to increase population physical activity levels. According to the habit discontinuity and residential self-selection hypotheses, moving home or workplace is a period when people (re)assess, and may be more likely to change, their travel behavior. Research in this area is dominated by the use of quantitative research methods, but qualitative approaches can provide in-depth insight into the experiences and processes of travel behavior change. This qualitative study aimed to explore experiences and motivations regarding travel behavior around the period of relocation, in an effort to understand how active commuting might be promoted more effectively.
Methods
Participants were recruited from the Commuting and Health in Cambridge study cohort in the UK. Commuters who had moved home, workplace or both between 2009 and 2010 were identified, and a purposive sample was invited to participate in semi-structured interviews regarding their experiences of, and travel behavior before and after, relocating. A grounded theory approach was taken to analysis.
Results
Twenty-six commuters participated. Participants were motivated by convenience, speed, cost and reliability when selecting modes of travel for commuting. Physical activity was not a primary motivation, but incidental increases in physical activity were described and valued in association with active commuting, the use of public transport and the use of park-and-ride facilities.
Conclusions
Emphasizing and improving the relative convenience, cost, speed and reliability of active commuting may be a more promising approach to promoting its uptake than emphasizing the health benefits, at least around the time of relocation. Providing good quality public transport and free car parking within walking or cycling distance of major employment sites may encourage the inclusion of active travel in the journey to work, particularly for people who live too far from work to walk or cycle the entire journey. Contrary to a straightforward interpretation of the self-selection hypothesis, people do not necessarily decide how they prefer to travel, relocate, and then travel in their expected way; rather, there is constant negotiation, reassessment and adjustment of travel behavior following relocation which may offer an extended window of opportunity for travel behavior change.
To complement findings that active travel reduces the risk of morbidity and mortality from chronic diseases, an understanding of the mechanisms through which active travel may lead to improved health is required.
The aim of this study is to examine the descriptive epidemiology of all active travel and its associations with recreational and total physical activity in a sample of adults in the UK.
In April 2010, data were collected from 3516 adults as part of the baseline survey for the iConnect study in the UK. Travel and recreational physical activity were assessed using detailed seven-day recall instruments. Linear regression analyses, controlling for demographic characteristics, examined associations between active travel, defined as any walking and cycling for transport, and recreational and total physical activity.
65% of respondents (mean age 50.5years) reported some form of active travel, accumulating an average of 195min/week (standard deviation=188.6). There were no differences in the recreational physical activity levels of respondents by travel mode category. Adults who used active travel did however report significantly higher total physical activity than those who did not.
Substantial physical activity can be accumulated through active travel which also contributes to greater total physical activity.
Multiple regression analysis is one of the most widely used statistical procedures for both scholarly and applied marketing research. Yet, correlated predictor variables—and potential collinearity effects—are a common concern in interpretation of regression estimates. Though the literature on ways of coping with collinearity is extensive, relatively little effort has been made to clarify the conditions under which collinearity affects estimates developed with multiple regression analysis—or how pronounced those effects are. The authors report research designed to address these issues. The results show, in many situations typical of published cross-sectional marketing research, that fears about the harmful effects of collinear predictors often are exaggerated. The authors demonstrate that collinearity cannot be viewed in isolation. Rather, the potential deleterious effect of a given level of collinearity should be viewed in conjunction with other factors known to affect estimation accuracy.
Physical activity (PA) may be therapeutic for people with severe mental illness (SMI) who generally have low PA and experience numerous life style-related medical complications. We conducted a meta-review of PA interventions and their impact on health outcomes for people with SMI, including schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder. We searched major electronic databases until January 2018 for systematic reviews with/without meta-analysis that investigated PA for any SMI. We rated the quality of studies with the AMSTAR tool, grading the quality of evidence, and identifying gaps, future research needs and clinical practice recommendations. For MDD, consistent evidence indicated that PA can improve depressive symptoms versus control conditions, with effects comparable to those of antidepressants and psychotherapy. PA can also improve cardiorespiratory fitness and quality of life in people with MDD, although the impact on physical health outcomes was limited. There were no differences in adverse events versus control conditions. For MDD, larger effect sizes were seen when PA was delivered at moderate-vigorous intensity and supervised by an exercise specialist. For schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, evidence indicates that aerobic PA can reduce psychiatric symptoms, improves cognition and various subdomains, cardiorespiratory fitness, whilst evidence for the impact on anthropometric measures was inconsistent. There was a paucity of studies investigating PA in bipolar disorder, precluding any definitive recommendations. No cost effectiveness analyses in any SMI condition were identified. We make multiple recommendations to fill existing research gaps and increase the use of PA in routine clinical care aimed at improving psychiatric and medical outcomes.
Background:
Transport mode choice has been associated with different health risks and benefits depending on which transport mode is used. We aimed to evaluate the association between different transport modes use and several health and social contact measures.
Methods:
We based our analyses on the Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches (PASTA) longitudinal study, conducted over a period of two years in seven European cities. 8802 participants finished the baseline questionnaire, and 3567 answered the final questionnaire. Participants were 18 years of age or older (16 years of age or older in Zurich) and lived, worked and/or studied in one of the case-study cities. Associations between transport mode use and health/social contact measures were estimated using mixed-effects logistic regression models, linear regression models, and logistic regression models according to the data available. All the associations were assessed with single and multiple transport mode models. All models were adjusted for potential confounders.
Results:
In multiple transport mode models, bicycle use was associated with good self-perceived health [OR (CI 95%) = 1.07 (1.05, 1.08)], all the mental health measures [perceived stress: coef (CI 95%) = -0.016 (-0.028, -0.004); mental health: coef (CI 95%) = 0.11 (0.05, 0.18); vitality: coef (CI 95%) = 0.14 (0.07, 0.22)], and with fewer feelings of loneliness [coef (CI 95%) = -0.03 (-0.05, -0.01)]. Walking was associated with good self-perceived health [OR (CI 95%) = 1.02 (1.00, 1.03)], higher vitality [coef (CI 95%) = 0.14 (0.05, 0.23)], and more frequent contact with friends/family [OR (CI 95%) = 1.03 (1.00, 1.05)]. Car use was associated with fewer feelings of loneliness [coef (CI 95%) = -0.04 (-0.06, -0.02)]. The results for e-bike and public transport use were non-significant, and the results for motorbike use were inconclusive.
Conclusions:
Similarity of findings across cities suggested that active transport, especially bicycle use, should be encouraged to improve population health and social outcomes.
Background/objectives
Walking has well-established positive relationships with, and effects on, physical health. In contrast, while poor mental health contributes substantially to global health burden, an overview of the benefits from walking has not previously been published. We aimed to scope the literature and present what is known, and highlight what is not known, about walking and mental health.
Methods
Design: Scoping review. Data sources: Ovid (Medline), ProQuest, Web of Science.
Screening and reporting: 13 014 records were identified and screened by a team of researchers. Included full texts were analysed and reported according to mental health outcome.
Results
For the 8 mental health outcomes (identified a priori), there were a total of 5 systematic reviews and 50 individual papers included. Depression had the most evidence and existing systematic reviews were reported. Evidence for anxiety, psychological stress, psychological well-being, subjective well-being and social isolation and loneliness varied in volume and effectiveness, but no harmful effects were identified. There were no studies for walking and resilience. The setting and context of walking seems to be important variables.
Conclusion
The evidence base that suggests walking benefits mental health is growing, but remains fragmented and incomplete for some important outcomes. Policy and national guidelines should promote the known mental health benefits of increased walking and future research should directly address the gaps we have identified.
Background There is limited evidence on how active commuting is associated with health benefits in developing countries. The aim of this study therefore was to investigate the associations between active commuting and markers of adiposity and cardiometabolic risk in the Chilean adult population.
Methods In total, 5157 participants from the Chilean National Health Survey 2009–10 were included in this cross-sectional study. Active commuting was measured using the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ v2). Body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) were measured and used to define obesity and central obesity. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and metabolic syndrome were determined using WHO and updated ATPIII-NCEP criteria, respectively.
Results The main finding of this study is that a 30 min increase in active commuting is associated with lower odds for BMI > 25.0 kg m−2 (0.93 [95% CI: 0.88–0.98, P = 0.010]). Similarly, the odds for central obesity was 0.87 [0.82–0.92, P < 0.0001]. Similar associations were found for T2D (0.81 [0.75–0.88], P < 0.0001) and metabolic syndrome (OR: 0.86 [0.80–0.92], P < 0.0001).
Conclusion Our findings show that active commuting is associated with lower adiposity and a healthier metabolic profile including lower risk for obesity, diabetes and metabolic syndrome.
Objective:
Fossil fuel transportation by health care providers contributes to the prevalence of diseases they treat. We conducted an exploratory study to understand obstacles to, and best practices for, greener commuting among health care providers.
Methods:
We surveyed staff of three hospital clinics as to how they commute and why, and interviewed key staff of five hospital leaders in green commuting about their programs.
Results:
Factors that might change respondents' commuting choices from driving alone included financial incentives, convenience, and solutions to crime and safety concerns. Successful green commuting programs offer benefits including free or reduced transit passes, shuttle buses to transit stations, and free emergency rides home.
Conclusions:
Exemplary programs throughout the country demonstrate that modifying those factors within reach can impact the amount of fossil fuel energy used for health care provider transportation.
Physical inactivity is a leading cause of obesity and premature mortality. We aimed to examine the relation between active commuting and obesity in mid-life using objectively measured anthropometric data from UK Biobank.
Cross-sectional, observational data from UK Biobank were used. These were collected from individuals aged 40-69 years who visited 22 assessment centres across the UK between 2006 and 2010. Self-reported commuting method was operationalised into seven categories, ordered to reflect typical levels of physical exertion. The outcomes assessed were BMI (based on objectively measured weight and height) and percentage body fat. Hypothesised confounders were income, area deprivation, urban or rural residence, education, alcohol intake, smoking, leisure physical activity, recreational walking, occupational physical activity, general health, and limiting illness or disability. We used sex-stratified multivariate linear-regression models.
Final complete case sample sizes were 72 999 men and 83 667 women for the BMI outcome and 72 139 men and 82 788 women for the percentage body fat outcome. Active commuting was significantly and independently associated with reduced BMI and percentage body fat for both sexes, with a graded pattern apparent across the seven commuting categories. In fully adjusted models, compared with their car-only counterparts, mixed public and active transport commuters had significantly lower BMI (men: β coefficient -1·00 kg/m(2) [95% CI -1·14 to -0·87], p<0·0001; women: -0·67 kg/m(2) [-0·86 to -0·47], p<0·0001), as did cycling or cycling and walking commuters (men: -1·71 kg/m(2) [95% CI -1·86 to -1·56], p<0·0001; women: -1·65 kg/m(2) [-1·92 to -1·38], p<0·0001). Similarly, compared with car-only commuters, mixed public transport and active commuters had significantly lower percentage body fat (men: -1·32% [95% CI -1·53 to -1·12], p<0·0001; women: -1·10% [-1·40 to -0·81], p<0·0001), as did cycling or cycling and walking commuters (men: -2·75% [95% CI -3·03 to -2·48], p<0·0001; women: -3·26% [-3·80 to -2·71], p<0·0001).
This study is the first to use UK Biobank data to address the topic of active commuting and obesity and shows robust, independent associations between active commuting and healthier bodyweight and composition. These findings support the case for interventions to promote active travel as a population-level policy response for prevention of obesity in mid-life.
UK Medical Research Council.
Sedentary lifestyle is associated with more than three million deaths annually. Data from the 2013 Eurobarometer survey were analysed to assess levels of physical activity across the European Union (EU) and to explore factors associated with adequate and high physical activity.
A representative sample of n=19,978 individuals aged 18-64 years from the 28 EU countries (sub-sample of the Eurobarometer survey, wave 80.2) was analysed. Frequency and average duration of walking, moderate and vigorous physical activity was assessed with a self-reported questionnaire. Participants were then classified as physically inactive or adequately/highly active, based on the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommendations. The total amount of MET-minutes (MET-mins) per week was also calculated for each respondent.
The proportion of physically inactive individuals was 28.6%, (12.4% in Sweden to 53.7% in Cyprus), while 59.1% of the respondents (37.9% in Portugal and Cyprus to 72.2% in Sweden) were classified as highly active. The mean total weekly physical activity was 2,151 MET-mins (95%CI: 2,095-2,206), of which 891 MET-mins (95%CI: 858-924) were contributed by vigorous exercise, 559 MET-mins (95%CI: 540-578) by moderate exercise (excluding walking) and 690 MET-mins (95%CI: 673-706) by walking. Male gender, younger age, residence in rural areas and Northern Europe, higher education level and ability to pay bills were independently associated with higher physical activity.
One fourth of the EU population did not meet the WHO recommendations for physical activity, with wide inequalities between and within countries. Wide-reaching environmental approaches are required to promote physical activity and address these inequalities.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc.
Objective:
The aim of this study was to investigate the association between self-efficacy, enjoyment, and volitional control with active commuting, as well as to analyze the impact of social support from parents, friends, and teachers with active commuting to school.
Methods:
Participants in this cross-sectional study were 625 students (male: 46.3%) aged 10 to 15years from Porto, Portugal (2010/2011). A questionnaire was used to assess active commuting to/from school (walk/cycle), self-efficacy, enjoyment, volitional control and social support. Binary logistic regression was performed to identify significant associations between targeted variables and active commuting.
Results:
The results show positive associations in crude analyses for all variables, except for enjoyment for walk/cycle to school. In the adjusted model, higher likelihood of active commuting was found among students who reported having higher self-efficacy (OR=2.10; CI95%: 1.07; 4.11) to walk/cycle to school as well as among adolescents who reported being encouraged by their parents (OR=3.66; CI95%: 1.55; 8.69), and having the partnership of friends in active journeys (OR=4.31; CI95%: 1.79; 10.37).
Conclusion:
Self-efficacy, encouragement from parents and companionship from friends were important indicators of active commuting to school among Portuguese adolescents. These findings provide support for further research to identify and understand factors that predict and explain the active commuting.
Zusammenfassung. Der Beitrag berichtet uber die teststatistische Prufung und Normierung der deutschen Versionen des EUROHIS-QOL 8 Item Index (EUROHIS-QOL) zur Erfassung der generischen Lebensqualitat und des Wohlbefindens-Index der WHO (WHO-5) zur Erfassung der Wohlbefindens aus Sicht der Befragten. Datengrundlage bildet eine reprasentative Stichprobe der bundesdeutschen Bevolkerung aus dem Jahr 2004. Die teststatistische Prufung verweist auf gute psychometrische Eigenschaften des EUROHIS-QOL Index. Obgleich Modifikationsmoglichkeiten bestehen, wird die Selektion von Items ausgeschlossen, weil dies den komzeptuellen Vorgaben der Indexkonstruktion widersprechen wurde. Die Ergebnisse der teststatistischen Prufung des WHO-5 sind hinsichtlich der psychometrischen Eigenschaften als ausgezeichnet einzuschatzen. Erstmals werden geschlechts- und altersgruppenspezifische Normwerte fur die deutschsprachigen Versionen der beiden Instrumente vorgelegt. Schlusselworter: EUROHIS, WHO-5, Lebensqualitat, Wohlbefinden, Index Testing and standardization of the German version of the EUROHIS-QOL and WHO-5 quality-of life-indices
Physical inactivity is an important contributor to non-communicable diseases in countries of high income, and increasingly so in those of low and middle income. Understanding why people are physically active or inactive contributes to evidence-based planning of public health interventions, because effective programmes will target factors known to cause inactivity. Research into correlates (factors associated with activity) or determinants (those with a causal relationship) has burgeoned in the past two decades, but has mostly focused on individual-level factors in high-income countries. It has shown that age, sex, health status, self-efficacy, and motivation are associated with physical activity. Ecological models take a broad view of health behaviour causation, with the social and physical environment included as contributors to physical inactivity, particularly those outside the health sector, such as urban planning, transportation systems, and parks and trails. New areas of determinants research have identified genetic factors contributing to the propensity to be physically active, and evolutionary factors and obesity that might predispose to inactivity, and have explored the longitudinal tracking of physical activity throughout life. An understanding of correlates and determinants, especially in countries of low and middle income, could reduce the eff ect of future epidemics of inactivity and contribute to effective global prevention of non-communicable diseases.
Strong evidence shows that physical inactivity increases the risk of many adverse health conditions, including major non-communicable diseases such as coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancers, and shortens life expectancy. Because much of the world's population is inactive, this link presents a major public health issue. We aimed to quantify the eff ect of physical inactivity on these major non-communicable diseases by estimating how much disease could be averted if inactive people were to become active and to estimate gain in life expectancy at the population level.
For our analysis of burden of disease, we calculated population attributable fractions (PAFs) associated with physical inactivity using conservative assumptions for each of the major non-communicable diseases, by country, to estimate how much disease could be averted if physical inactivity were eliminated. We used life-table analysis to estimate gains in life expectancy of the population.
Worldwide, we estimate that physical inactivity causes 6% (ranging from 3·2% in southeast Asia to 7·8% in the eastern Mediterranean region) of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% (3·9-9·6) of type 2 diabetes, 10% (5·6-14·1) of breast cancer, and 10% (5·7-13·8) of colon cancer. Inactivity causes 9% (range 5·1-12·5) of premature mortality, or more than 5·3 million of the 57 million deaths that occurred worldwide in 2008. If inactivity were not eliminated, but decreased instead by 10% or 25%, more than 533 000 and more than 1·3 million deaths, respectively, could be averted every year. We estimated that elimination of physical inactivity would increase the life expectancy of the world's population by 0·68 (range 0·41-0·95) years.
Physical inactivity has a major health eff ect worldwide. Decrease in or removal of this unhealthy behaviour could improve health substantially.
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