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“This thought-provoking book provides a thorough yet digestible presentation of
theory, research, and practical considerations in the ethical conduct of work in
our profession. In his third edition of this one-of-a kind text, Lefkowitz has
incorporated new research, thinking, and illustrative examples. He writes about
complex issues in a conversational manner with helpful summaries provided
throughout the text. He clearly communicates when and how his own views and
motives are reflected in his writing, challenging the reader to self-reflect on their
own values and how those influence their own ethical decision-making. All I-O
psychologists, regardless of career stage or professional role, will find something to
learn here.”
Deirdre J. Knapp, Principal Scientist, Human Resources
Research Organization (HumRRO), USA
“I don’t say this often, but this book is truly important. It cogently, practically,
and clearly brings insight, evidence, theory, and philosophy forward to mean-
ingfully understand ethics and morality at work and in organizations. At the same
time, the book inspires you to be the best human, practitioner, and scholar you
can be and shares approaches and perspectives to help with that journey.”
Steven Rogelberg, Ph.D., Chancellor’s Professor and Immediate Past President
of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
“Only read this book if you want to get an expanded image of how to think
about, study and help people and organizations be all they can be for the
betterment of them and society. Joel Lefkowitz is amazing in his ability to
meaningfully present the thinking and ideas of the great philosophers and
ethicists—and then he shows with explicit examples how, by adding moral and
ethical values to what we do and how we do it, our lives and the lives of those we
study and work with will be enhanced. And you need not be an I-O Psychologist
to find the book a mind-expanding great read—anyone in HR, OB, OD and so
forth will find new ways to think about what they do and how to do it better for
all. Did I say I loved the book?”
Benjamin Schneider, Professor Emeritus, University of Maryland. Past President,
Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology, USA
VALUES AND ETHICS OF
INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
This foundational text was one of the first books to integrate work from moral
philosophy, developmental/moral psychology, applied psychology, political and
social economy, and political science, as well as business scholarship. Twenty
years on, this third edition utilizes ideas from the first two to provide readers with
a practical model for ethical decision making and includes examples from I-O
research and practice, as well as current business events.
The book incorporates diverse perspectives into a “framework for taking
moral action” based on learning points from each chapter. Examples and
references have been updated throughout, and sections on moral psychology,
economic justice, the “replicability crisis,” and open science have been expanded
and the “radical behavioral challenge” to ethical decision-making is critiqued. In
fifteen clearly structured and theory-based chapters, the author also presents a
variety of ethical incidents reported by practicing I-O psychologists.
This is the ideal resource for Ethics and I-O courses at the graduate and
doctoral level. Academics in Organizational Behavior and Human Resource
Management will also benefit from this book, as well as anyone interested in
Ethics in Psychology and Business.
Joel Lefkowitz is Professor Emeritus at the Baruch College and the Graduate Center
of the City University of New York, USA, where he headed the I-O doctoral
program from its inception in 1982 until 2009. He still regularly teaches the doctoral
course in Ethical, Professional and Legal Issues for Psychologists, and is a Fellow of the
Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology, The American Psychological
Association—Divisions 9 and 14, and the Association for Psychological Science.
Series In Applied Psychology
Jeanette N. Cleveland
Colorado State University Donald Truxillo, Portland State University
Edwin A. Fleishman
Founding Series Editor (1987-2010)
Kevin R. Murphy
Emeritus Series Editor (2010-2018)
Bridging both academic and applied interests, the Applied Psychology Series oers
publications that emphasize state-of-the-art research and its application to im-
portant issues of human behavior in a variety of societal settings. To date, more than
50 books in various fields of applied psychology have been published in this series.
Employee Retention and Turnover
Peter W. Hom, David G. Allen and Rodger W. Grieth
Diversity Resistance in Organizations 2e
Kecia M. Thomas
Positive Psychological Science 2e
Stewart I. Donaldson, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Jeanne Nakamura
Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology 2e
Edited by Laura Koppes Bryan
How Groups Encourage Misbehavior
Kevin R. Murphy
Understanding Employee Engagement
Theory, Research, and Practice 2e
Zinta S. Byrne
Values and Ethics of Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Joel Lefkowitz
For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/
Applied-Psychology-Series/book-series/SAP
Cover image: © Fotosearch.com, LLC, Waukesha, WI
First published 2023
by Routledge
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and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Joel Lefkowitz
The right of Joel Lefkowitz to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Names: Lefkowitz, Joel, author.
Title: Values and ethics of industrial-organizational psychology / Joel Lefkowitz.
Description: Third edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. |
Series: Applied psychology series | Previous edition title: Ethics and
values in industrial-organizational psychology. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022039425 (print) | LCCN 2022039426 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032080253 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032080246 (pbk) |
ISBN 9781003212577 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology, Industrial. | Business ethics.
Classification: LCC HF5548.8 .L3644 2023 (print) | LCC HF5548.8 (ebook) |
DDC 174/.91587‐‐dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022039425
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022039426
ISBN: 978-1-032-08025-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-08024-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-21257-7 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003212577
Typeset in Bembo
by MPS Limited, Dehradun
This book is dedicated to back-oce clerks doing data entry
in the financial districts of New York;
goldminers in the dark and the wet and the heat
more than a mile beneath the Black Hills of South Dakota;
a police ocer alone in his cruiser at 3:00 a.m.
after several days of street violence in Dayton, Ohio;
young women high school graduates
learning power sewing machine operation for piece rates
in Pennsylvania and New England;
partially literate washers and pressers in a steamy industrial laundry
in rural Louisiana;
aircraft parts production workers in Cleveland;
and many more….
Because they graciously allowed themselves
to be observed, interviewed, surveyed, tested, evaluated or trained,
I came to appreciate what it is like to work in America.
And to Setha, who continues to model so brilliantly the role of
passionate scholar-author.
And in a world seeming heavier and heavier, in appreciation for
the lightness and eervescence of Max, Skye and Gavin.
CONTENTS
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xii
List of Boxes xiii
Series Foreword xiv
1 Introduction 1
SECTION I
Moral Philosophy and Psychology 19
2 Meta-Ethics 21
3 Normative Ethical Theories: I. Deontology 45
4 Normative Ethical Theories: II. Consequentialism 68
5 Normative Ethical Theories: III. Virtue Ethics 83
6 Moral Psychology: I. Moral Development 104
7 Moral Psychology: II. Taking Moral Action 157
SECTION II
Values 193
8 The Guiding Role of Values in Ethical Decision Making
and Social Policy 195
9 Values and Value Conflicts in the Professions 259
10 The Contentious Role of Values in Psychology 280
11 Business Values 312
12 The Values and Ethics of Industrial-Organizational
Psychology 360
SECTION III
The Responsible Conduct of Research 421
13 Research Ethics: Informed Consent, Confidentiality and
the Use of Deception 423
14 Scientific Integrity 476
SECTION IV
Conclusion 515
15 A Model for Taking Moral Action 517
References 552
Index 648
x Contents
FIGURES
6.1 A developmental model of moral action. 107
8.1 The gap between productivity and a typical worker’s
compensation has increased dramatically since 1979. Productivity
growth and hourly compensation growth, 1948–2019. 240
8.2 Cumulative percent change in real annual wages, by wage
group, 1979–2019. 241
8.3 As union membership declines, income inequality increases.
Union membership and share of income going to the top
10%, 1917–2017. 250
14.1 Potential eects of conflict of interest on research and public
opinion. 477
TABLES
5.1 Some Groupings of Virtues and Values 90
6.1 A Comparison of Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development and
Their Constituent Dimensions 121
6.2 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development 124
6.3 Five Intuitive Moral Modules and Their Associated
Expression 141
6.4 Five Structural Forms of Ethical Dilemma and Other Misbehavior 149
6.5 Sample Responses Representing the Forms of Dilemma or
Misbehavior 152
7.1 Overlapping Constructs Representing Misconduct in
Organizations 177
8.1 A Structural—Functional Analysis of the Values of Major
American Institutions 210
8.2 Three Models of Social Justice 222
8.3 2013-to-2014 Company Performance and 2014 C.E.O.
Compensation 243
8.4 Value of the U.S. Federal Minimum Wage (FMW), 1980–2020 252
11.1 Anticipated Outcomes of Four Alternative Economic Policies
in Which a Minimum Outcome of 21 Benefit Units (BUs) Is
Necessary to Maintain an Adequate Level of Well-being 322
15.1 Examples of Academic and Practitioner Ethical Situations
Reported in 2019 525
BOXES
1.1 Core issues in normative ethics—two questions 3
1.2 Ethical issues that didn’t exist a few years ago 12
7.1 Definitions of ethical job performance dimensions 179
9.1 Organizational versus professional standards 271
11.1 Principles of stakeholder management 341
12.1 Potential roles available to the I-O psychologist and other
human resource managers with respect to ethical problems 392
12.2 Identity crisis—a fable 409
13.1 A categorization of research in I-O psychology based on its
intended beneficiaries 426
13.2 General guidelines for informed consent (IC) 434
13.3 An example of deception by concealing the existence of the
research study 452
14.1 The federal government’s definition of research misconduct
and requisite evidence 483
14.2 The vicious cycle of disappointing research 492
SERIES FOREWORD
The goal of the Applied Psychology Series is to create books that exemplify the use
of scientific research, theory, and findings to solve real problems in organizations
and society. Lefkowitz’s Values and Ethics of Industrial-Organizational Psychology,
Third Ed., takes this approach. The current volume updates and significantly
expands the second edition, preserving the strengths of previous work while
incorporating new material with a slightly new focus.
Lefkowitz introduces a wide-ranging book with thoughtful discussion of
the meaning of ethical behavior and of philosophers’ long quest to understand
the meaning and determinants of ethics. Lefkowitz shares his rationale for the
subtle change in the book’s title from previous editions, specifically, to emphasize
the primacy of “values”. He also notes the importance of filling the gap between
ethical principles and practice. Following this introductory chapter, the first
section of the book (“Moral Philosophy and Psychology”; Chapters 2–7)
provides a discussion of the current streams of thought regarding ethics in the
long history of western civilization. Lefkowitz pays careful attention to
identifying concrete principles that can be applied to help make ethical decisions
in organizations. In Part II (“Values”; Chapters 8–12), he builds a detailed and
rigorous model for analyzing ethical choices in organizations. In Part III (“The
Responsible Conduct of Research”; Chapters 13–14), he applies these principles to
understand the ethical conduct of business, as well as the ethical conduct of research
in practice in applied psychology. In the concluding section, Lefkowitz provides a
detailed strategy for resolving ethical dilemmas at work, making ethical decisions,
and taking moral action.
Lefkowitz draws from a broad literature, presenting thoughtful syntheses of a
number of disciplines. He makes a strong case for the need to take ethical reasoning
seriously. Importantly, the book integrates both the philosophical foundations and
the practical implications of the systematic study of ethical behavior in
organizations. We welcome the addition of Values and Ethics of Industrial-
Organizational Psychology, Third Ed., to the Applied Psychology Series.
Series Foreword xv
1
INTRODUCTION
A successful academic author once told me that an eective book is based pri-
marily on just one good idea—irrespective of how broad the topic or complex
the material is. Well, the overarching thesis of this book is that contrary to a
widespread view, professional ethics is not an unreasonable set of rules or ex-
pectations designed by intrusive idealists to make our lives more dicult.
As psychologists we study human behavior. To do so, we depend on the
goodwill and trust of the persons who cooperate with us voluntarily, sometimes
revealing their private selves to us, enabling us to do our applied work and re-
search. As industrial and organizational (I-O) psychologists, we further depend on
the goodwill of organizational decision-makers who trust us when we say that we
can improve the eectiveness of their enterprises. As professionals, we cannot do
that work very well, at least not for very long, if we do not treat all of those
persons ethically—that is, honestly, fairly and with respect and dignity. It has
been observed that
the idea of dignity as underlying the intrinsic value on human life and liberty
has been central to societal progress since the Middle Ages … . Dignity
represents a pillar of our moral and political heritage; so much so that even
some economic historians argue that the attribution of human dignity was a
key success factor of social and economic development in the West.
(Pirson et al., 2016, p.465)
Accordingly, it has played a central (albeit sometimes implicit) role in moral
philosophy, social science, business ethics and attempts to humanize organiza-
tions. And in two recent surveys “Ethical, legal, & professional contexts” was
rated 4th-highest among 25 domains of competency by I-O graduate program
DOI: 10.4324/9781003212577-1
directors (Payne et al., 2015) and 2nd-highest among 21 content areas by prac-
ticing I-O psychologists (Steiner & Yancey, 2013).
1
But our motives ought not to be solely instrumental. Indeed, as reviewed in
chapters 3 and 5, the hallmark of some moral theories is the rejection of such
utilities or “cost-benefit analyses” as a means of judging ethical behavior. As is
characteristic of all professionals we assume the responsibility of “the service ideal.”
As psychologists we carry with us a humanistic tradition that includes a concern for
promoting people’s welfare, some of which is formalized in our ethical codes. Thus,
ethical issues of fairness and justice and of duty and beneficence are central to our
core values as professional psychologists. That is also in keeping with contemporary
views regarding personal morality: “Living a fully ethical life involves doing the
most good we can” (Singer, 2015, p. vii); “the central core of morality [is] to treat
others only in ways that could be justified to them” (Scanlon, 1998, p. 361). Similar
voices are being raised in academe—e.g., in advocating an expansion of the criteria
for hiring, tenure and promotion beyond the traditional ones of research, service
and teaching, to a fourth dimension of “doing for the greater good,” including
intrinsic values like ethical behavior, fostering community well-being, and quality
of mentoring (Luthar, 2017; Sternberg, 2016).
Some of the more controversial portions of this book, however, include the
criticism that much of I-O psychology drifted rather far from those core values and
to a considerable degree replaced them with a narrow version of business values that
are not commensurate with psychology’s humanistic heritage. I agree with Kelman
(2021) that “ultimately a responsible psychologist is a responsible citizen” (p. 3). At
their best, they are both guided by the fundamental values of society. And this can
be illustrated by the core meta-questions posed in Box 1.1. (Throughout the book I
have refrained from oering commentary on the box illustrations—leaving that
material for the reader’s own reflections and/or group discussion.)
There seem to be essentially four kinds of publications concerned with ethics.
Each type is rather dierent from the others and makes a relatively unique
contribution, notwithstanding that there is some inevitable overlap among them.
The first category of publications consists of normative guidelines in the form of
ethical codes that have been promulgated by governments, professional and trade
associations, individual organizations (including business corporations) and
others. Such codes are oered as presumably helpful and practical guides to
ethical behavior, generally within particular domains such as business manage-
ment or a particular profession. The Center for the Study of Ethics in the
Professions has a collection of more than 2,500 codes from approximately 1,500
organizations! There are, however, frequently problems with ethical codes—such
as fuzzy boundaries between what is considered professional behavior (covered by
1 However, one wonders whether the inclusion of legal concerns as part of the domain
may have contributed to a positive rating bias.
2 Introduction
BOX 1.1 CORE ISSUES IN NORMATIVE ETHICS—TWO
QUESTIONS
Throughout human history—probably starting even earlier among proto-
human populations—there has been a core moral domain that can be
expressed by just two (non-independent) all-encompassing questions or
challenges that have been considered in many moral philosophies.
2
I. Start with the premise that we each have the right to maintain and
enhance our dignity and well-being, self-esteem, and chances to suc-
ceed. But there are often good justifications for maintaining and en-
hancing the well-being of others in our communities (whether for moral
reasons or for reasons that have adaptive advantages for everyone). So
we are challenged, whether we like it or not, to consider,
QUESTION I: What is the appropriate dividing line (or
balance) between individual rights and the common good?
3
----------------------------
II. Let us recognize that there are always people who, for a multitude of
reasons (including circumstances not of their making), are hard-pressed
to provide for themselves the adequate means to survive, much less
thrive. So we are challenged, whether we like it or not, to consider,
QUESTION II: What is one’s responsibility with regard to
the less fortunate?
Individuals, families, groups, organizations, societies, nations and interna-
tional associations have adopted a variety of responses to that question,
including simply ignoring it.
Our answers to these questions reflect our individual and collective beliefs
about human nature and worth, as well as our valued norms of social
organization—expressed in our systems of economics, governance, educa-
tion and law—including professional ethics.
Many, perhaps every professional ethical dilemma one faces, no matter
how enmeshed it may be in technical matters, complex social relations, and
idiosyncratic circumstances, contains a kernel of one or both of those issues.
2 This is written from an avowedly Western cultural perspective without explicitly
considering, e.g., Buddhist, Confucian, Hindu or Taoist insights.
3 With an appreciative nod to the sociologist Amitai Etzioni’s (2015) book title, The new
normal: finding a balance between individual rights and the common good.
Introduction 3
the code) and personal behavior (not covered) (Pipes et al., 2005). It has also been
pointed out that a singular reliance solely on a professional code “may lead
practitioners to focus on rules so much that they risk harming the quality of their
professional relationships” (Knapp et al., 2013).
4
The ethical psychologist will
need to think beyond merely being familiar with the 5 aspirational principles and
89 enforceable standards of the American Psychological Association’s Ethical
Principles and Code of Conduct (hereafter, APA Code).
In contrast, the second category of publications consists of highly theo-
retical and philosophical treatises. Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this book present a
distillation of moral philosophies in which it is my intention to allow the
reader to become familiar with some varieties of ethical reasoning. They oer
alternative conceptual approaches that may be useful in anticipating, evalu-
ating and resolving ethical dilemmas—even when you cannot find your
specific problem described in an ethics code. Dierent ethical problems, even
within a single domain such as business practices, may induce dierent types
of ethical reasoning corresponding to dierent moral theories (Fritzsche &
Becker, 1984).
A third category of publications consists of illustrative casebooks that
contribute to our understanding by providing applications of ethical principles
and guidelines that may otherwise be ambiguous. But they tend to be limited
by the same factors that limit the codes themselves, and no one person or even
a small number of persons is likely to have direct experience with enough real
cases to represent anywhere near an entire code. Good casebooks, therefore,
almost always need to be collaborative enterprises—perhaps developed by
members of a professional ethics committee with considerable experience
evaluating complaints. New to this 3rd edition are a total of 23 verbatim
narrative descriptions of actual ethical situations experienced and reported
by members of the Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology (SIOP)
(cf. Tables 6.5 and 15.1).
The last major category of ethics publications consists of books that aim to
impact people’s lives and, by extension, society by showing how ethical
considerations are relevant to everyday aairs, contributing to general well-
being and to having a fulfilling life. These books deal with applied ethics,
practical ethics or social criticism (from an ethical or moral perspective).
Perhaps the two best-known contemporary examples of this genre are both by
Peter Singer (2011; 2015): the wide-ranging Practical Ethics, which tackles
issues like euthanasia, animal killing, environmental degradation, climate
change, the distribution of wealth and much more, from a consistent theo-
retical position (that of consequentialism, see Chap. 4), and The Most Good You
4 The authors are writing about training in clinical psychology, but I believe the point is
apt for us as well.
4 Introduction
Can Do, explaining the philosophy and social movement of “eective al-
truism.” Other examples are targeted at a specific audience, such as books on
business ethics (Schminke, 2014).
With perhaps more than a little hubris, but within the limited domain of
professional ethics for I-O psychologists, this book touches at least lightly all four
of those bases and emphasizes primarily the ubiquitous, but often un-
acknowledged, role played by personal and institutional values in shaping moral
action.
This is not primarily a book about organizational ethics as studied by I-O
psychologists and other organizational scholars (e.g., ethical leadership, ethical
organizational climate, managerial corruption) although some of that scholarship
is presented in chapters 6 and 7 as illustrative of “contemporaneous contextual
influences” on ethical behavior. Nor have ethical aspects of recent technological
developments been covered, such as research using “big data” (Favaretto et al.,
2020); use of Amazon’s “Mechanical Turk” as a source of participant data
(Buhrmester et al., 2018; Paolacci & Chandler, 2014); or the use of social media
as a research tool (Kosinski et al., 2015; Sugiura et al., 2017; Taylor & Pagliari,
2018). Each of those could warrant a separate text.
This book develops a “framework for ethical decision-making,” culmi-
nating in a model of ethical reasoning for taking moral action. The important
role played by the values that underlie our reasoning is emphasized
throughout, and there are three broad objectives: to enhance the reader’s
ability to: (1) recognize and understand the origins and nature of ethical
problems and their contemporary determinants; (2) appreciate the role of
personal and societal values in shaping ethical dilemmas and our reactions to
them; and (3) improve the quality of those reactions—i.e., make better moral
choices. Deliberately fostering a broad, open-ended perspective also serves the
function of preparing one to engage in ethical issues that may never have been
encountered previously.
An explosion of interest in ethics and morality appears to have taken place in
many spheres of life. Social scientists (Etzioni, 1996, 2015) and revered religious
leaders (e.g., Dalai Lama, 1999, 2011) have felt the need to oer prescriptions for
improving the moral dimension of society; psychologists have shown increased
interest in morality as a unifying cognitive construct (Brandt & Reyna, 2015); the
number of books published on business ethics has soared and professional jour-
nals, such as Ethics & Behavior, The Journal of Business Ethics, Business Ethics
Quarterly, The Journal of Religion and Business Ethics, Journal of Business, Peace and
Sustainable Development, Business and Society, and others have flourished; the
surefire indicator that a scholarly field has achieved a critical mass of
attention—an edited handbook—has existed for a while as well (Cooper, 2001);
consultants teaching business ethics or “values clarification” in corporations and
“character training” in the schools constitute a growth industry; within our
Introduction 5
profession the APA (1992) revised its ethical code not all that long ago yet re-
cently revised it again (APA, 2002), and again, even more recently (APA, 2010a,
2017), and as of this writing is in the process of another major revision; in
conjunction with the APA, SIOP revised and expanded its casebook on ethics
(Lowman et al., 2006); morality and character issues have become preeminent
screening criteria for those who wish to serve in public oce
5
; and if further
mundane demonstration were needed to make the point, the Sunday magazine
section of my hometown paper, The New York Times, has been publishing an
advice column titled “The Ethicist” for more than 15 years for those who find
themselves ethically challenged.
But that does not address why attention to ethics and morality has recently
increased. I do not know that anyone has provided a fully satisfactory non-
metaphysical explanation, but there has been a litany of anxiety-producing, fear-
inducing events that may have contributed to people searching for something
“better.” Briefly, they are:
1. The world has been stunned by biomedical advances such as mapping of the
entire human genome (Zimmer, 2021); genetic engineering of food crops
and livestock; the cloning to-date of approximately two dozen species of
animals since Dolly the sheep in 1996—albeit not yet including humans; the
creation of human embryos in order to extract undierentiated stem cells
that can be “directed” into becoming a variety of specialized tissues; a very
ecient method of “gene editing” (i.e., altering an organism’s heritable
DNA); plans to collect genetic data on one million Americans while it re-
mains unclear as to who will “own” that data (Davis, 2016); and most re-
cently, the successful transplantation of the heart of a genetically altered pig
into a human (Rabin, 2022). It is not surprising that many have become
more than a little concerned by the ethical implications of those achieve-
ments (National Human Genome Research Institute, 2015; Pollack, 2015;
Wade, 2015; Zimmer, 2015)—and for some, it even recalls the horrific
eugenics movement in the U.S. from the 1920s into the 1950s, in which tens
of thousands of men and women underwent forced sterilization because of
their alleged inferiority (Cohen, 2016; Leonard, 2016). A consortium of four
international medical and scientific academies has recently called for a
moratorium on gene alteration because of doubts about its moral and
medical appropriateness (Wade, 2015b).
2. The globalization of American corporations has led to a growing awareness
of dierences in what are considered ethically acceptable business practices in
other cultures and to the passage and amendment of the Foreign Corrupt
Practices Act (U.S. Congress, 1977/1998), as well as to a concern for the
5 With some astounding recent exceptions.
6 Introduction
extent to which U.S. corporations maintain working conditions and terms of
employment in developing-world production facilities that they could not
do in the United States. There have been 127 FCPA enforcement actions
brought by the Securities and Exchange Commission against American
corporations over the past 10 years, 2011–2020, most resulting in fines of
many millions of dollars (SEC, 2021).
3. The proliferation of the Internet, access to the World Wide Web and social
media have led to grave concerns regarding privacy and confidentiality in
business transactions, extortionate hacking of websites, abusive social beha-
vior toward others, as well as paradoxically to a growing sense of anonymity.
It is paradoxical because there is growing evidence that many people actually
strive to be anonymous, or use a pseudonymous identity on the web; yet
even though the incidence of cyberbullying and trolling on social media is
extensive it may not be associated disproportionately with anonymity
(Herrman, 2021). There is also evidence that smartphone access and degree
of internet usage are associated with loneliness and lower life satisfaction
among teenagers worldwide (Twenge et al., in press).
4. There has been a growing fearfulness associated with apparently random
street crime since the 1980s; tragic numbers of drug overdoses and deaths; a
seemingly ceaseless incidence of highly publicized mass shootings—all of
which are viewed by many Americans as evidence of moral failing rather
than emotional disturbance or a reflection of socioeconomic and socio-
political forces.
5. There has been an extraordinary increase in the power exercised by business
corporations over people’s lives—virtually tearing up the old implied social
contract—as well as the shift from a manufacturing to a service economy
with the attendant job losses from the 1980s–2000s, loss of a sense of eco-
nomic security, and destruction of the sense of commitment and loyalty to a
long-term employer. These have all been exacerbated by the financial crisis
of 2008 and the subsequent worldwide recession. Interestingly however,
although it is too early to draw firm conclusions, the enormous economic
dislocations wrought by the Covid-19 pandemic seem to be having a
paradoxical eect in empowering workers in the U.S. and elsewhere—labor
movements somewhat ironically labeled “the mass resignation.”
6. There have been so many high-profile instances of unethical or corrupt
behavior on the part of corporate leaders that it has been characterized in the
press as a “scourge” (Zipkin, 2000). And it seems to have continued virtually
unabated since that discouraging comment was made: unscrupulous mort-
gage lending practices and corruption in the financial services sector in 2008
and beyond (Sorkin, 2015) in which, e.g., Goldman Sachs (and other banks)
“falsely assur[ed] investors that securities it sold were backed by sound
mortgages, when it knew that they were full of mortgages that were likely to
fail” (Delery, 2016, p. B3); corporate personnel concealing ignition switch
Introduction 7
malfunctions responsible for at least 124 deaths in General Motors cars (Ivory
et al., 2015; Meier, 2016); corporate sabotaging of emissions control com-
puter software in Volkswagen cars (Hakim et al., 2015); intentionally selling
salmonella-tainted peanut butter, resulting in at least 9 deaths and hundreds
of cases of food poisoning (Lewis, 2015); disregard of safety regulations at the
Upper Big Branch mine in West Virginia, resulting in an explosion killing 29
miners and jail time for the company’s CEO (Blinder, 2015, 2016; Stolberg,
2015); and on it goes … .
All of this is taking place amidst a zeitgeist of fearful forces that we seem unable
and/or unwilling to deal with eectively: near-cataclysmic events associated with
climate change and global warming; a seemingly ever-mutating global pandemic;
multiple wars on terrorism; the flourishing of authoritarian governments and
decline of democratic pluralism; expanding social and economic inequalities (in
wealth, income, education, healthcare, morbidity, etc.); extreme social and po-
litical polarization, enhanced by vitriolic social media; and rapidly shifting
technology causing traumatic dislocations for workers. No wonder many people
have begun to wonder—what is going on? What is the right thing? How can I
lead a better life?
Philosophy and Psychology
The relationship between psychology and philosophy is a long and close one. As
pointed out by the philosopher K.A. Appiah (2014),
the canonical philosophers belong as much to the history of what we now
call psychology as to the genealogy of philosophy … . And though we
typically suppose that psychology calved o from philosophy, you can
make a case that it was the other way round. (p. 11)
He goes on to point out that it wasn’t until the late 19th century that philosophy
“swerved away from psychologism” and became “what the best philosophy has
always been: conceptual analysis” (p. 12). So it is not surprising to learn that much
of the content of ethical philosophical thought deals with familiar psychological
issues. Assumptions about human nature and motivation abound in ethical
treatises.
Even to the classical philosophers the plausibility of an ethical theory was a
psychological criterion that is implicitly empirical (even if that sounds like an
oxymoron). That is, philosophers generally recognize that it makes little sense to
advocate a normative ethical model of morality that is based on unrealistic as-
sumptions and expectations about human behavior. In recent years there has been a
resurgence of an explicitly empirical approach to the study of philosophy—ethics in
8 Introduction
particular—with the growth of the interdisciplinary field of experimental philosophy
(Luetge et al., 2014).
Moreover, Steininger et al. (1984) argued that the several dierences that were
traditionally advanced as distinguishing between ethics and psychology failed to
establish a clear demarcation. For example, one of the primary distinctions has to
do with the presumed dierences between description and explanation—which is
what psychologists do—versus the ethical justification of behavior. But on ana-
lysis the dierentiation between the [scientific] “causes” of behavior and the
[phenomenological] “reasons” for engaging in it turns out to be not so clear-cut.
For example, why some accountants at Arthur Anderson shredded documents
from Enron or why some engineers at G.M. did not correct the faulty ignition
switches would seem to be dierent questions from whether they ought (not) have
done so. But scientific explanations of behavior often involve the actor’s own
agentic reasons or justifications; and moral justifications generally depend on
assumptions about the causes of behavior. “In the domain of human action, it is
dicult, perhaps impossible, to explain without assuming or implying values, and
the ‘why?’ often refers to both” (Steininger et al., 1984, p. 262). When someone
asks why those accountants shredded the documents, they are probably seeking
both the explanation and the justification for the actions.
Both the psychologist who tries to explain behavior in morally [i.e., values-] neutral
terms and the ethicist who tries to justify judgments about the moral rightness or
wrongness of an action independent of any psychological considerations are denying
the inevitable overlap of their two disciplines.
(p. 266, emphasis added)
I-O Psychology, Social Science and Professional Ethics
As I-O psychologists the great bulk of our theoretical and practice concerns
focus on individual workers and work groups—especially lower-level em-
ployees and managers (Bergman & Jean, 2016). But as scientists we have long
known that we cannot fruitfully avoid the economic and sociopolitical ante-
cedents of organizational behavior any more than we could hope to under-
stand the functioning of a company as if it were a closed system, ignoring its
cultural history and the social, political and economic environments that in-
fluence and set constraints on its policies (Katz & Kahn, 1978). In an analogous
fashion, when we consider professional ethics it is even more imperative that
we expand our horizons to consider the insights of social historians interested
in economic and business institutions, as well as insights from political
philosophy, political economy, sociology and, of course, moral philosophy.
That is because those realms contribute to the establishment of the values
and normative standards of what we consider acceptable/unacceptable,
Introduction 9
right/wrong, appropriate/inappropriate, just/unjust, etc. An implication of
this is that the ethics of what we do are not reasonably separable from the
moral standing of the institutions and organizations in which we do it.
6
Consequently, portions of this book are concerned with matters that probably
go beyond what some of my colleagues view as the appropriate domain of
professional ethics. And that is why the book title has been changed to “Values
and ethics of Industrial-Organizational Psychology”—emphasizing the pri-
macy of values, and because “of” incorporates “in” but connotes a more in-
clusive perspective. For example, with respect to employee selection in
particular:
… doing selection well (i.e., technical competence) is inextricably bound
up with doing it right. This approach also opens to reflection the implicit
values and moral justification underlying the practice itself, in addition to
considering the manner in which its constituent activities are implemented.
In other words, the ethics of employee selection are as relevant as the ethics
in employee selection.
(Lefkowitz & Lowman, 2017, p. 575, emphases in the original)
One of those “more inclusive” issues pertains to the consequences of organiza-
tional actions. For example, I-O psychology studies as legitimate and important
facets of individual employees’ job performance their organizational citizenship
behaviors (OCBs) because such prosocial behaviors contribute to organizational
eectiveness, even though they may not be part of the prescribed work role
(Podsako et al., 2009).
7
By extension, we should not ignore the moral qualities
and actions of the organizations to which we devote our eorts—in eect, an
organization’s citizenship behavior—with respect to the society that legitimizes and
supports it and in which it functions. Similarly, just as we study employee per-
ceptions of organizational justice vis-a-vis an organization’s internal human re-
sources activities (Gilliland et al., 2001; Greenberg, 2009), we should also be
concerned with the social justice implications of the organization’s external ac-
tions, which characterize the probity of its role in society. This perspective is in
keeping with that of other psychologists who have begun to express concern for
the way in which professionals carry out good work—“work that is both excellent
in quality and socially responsible” (Gardner et al., 2001).
6 To oer an absurdist example, can a certified public accountant following generally
accepted accounting principles, or an I-O psychologist using best practices to develop
an employee selection system be considered ethical if their work is in service to a
criminal enterprise?
7 Although in recent years a view has begun to take hold that OCB may also have some
detrimental eects on individuals ( Bolino et al., 2013, 2015; Koopman et al., 2016).
10 Introduction
Ethics Education in I-O Psychology
There has been in recent years considerable turmoil about how ethics should be
taught—in philosophy departments, in professional and pre-professional pro-
grams, and in the sciences, including I-O psychology. Hartner (2015) contrasts
Two approaches to ethics education. Traditional, or theoretical, ethics
might best be understood as the approach to teaching ethics that emphasizes
the philosophical roots of ethics … . A more practical approach to teaching
ethics, by contrast, generally means drawing heavily from real-world
scenarios and cases, putting a focus on relevant empirical and technical
details related to the student’s future profession. (p. 350)
He observes a movement in academia to largely replace the former with the latter
(and argues against it). For example, Bhuyan and Chakroborty (2020) cite the
advantage of case studies as requiring students to deal with “irreconcilable di-
chotomies” (p. 113); Choe-Smith (2020) emphasizes “teaching ethics, not
teaching about ethics” (p. 97) and argues for the eectiveness of service learning, as
opposed to “philosophical reflection,” which involves structured experiential
learning in an applied setting. And systematic investigations of the eectiveness of
business school ethics courses (Waples et al., 2009) have yielded conclusions
characterized as “a mixed bag” (Naidoo, 2020). I agree with all of them! Realistic
experiential learning, even just case discussion, is essential. But discussing ethical
problems detached from their moral roots risks devolving into a nearly useless
attempt to memorize lists of disembodied “dos and don’ts.” Uglietta (2018) has
advocated a resolution to the issue by articulating the “middle level of theory”
that comprises the “wide gap between abstract moral theories and concrete
professional cases.” He advocates becoming intimately familiar with and “in-
corporating the goals, circumstances, customs and other established social prac-
tices and compromises of particular professions” (p. 161)—i.e., it would have to
include every profession to be considered.
My own independent perception of that gap led to virtually the opposite
approach. I have suggested that the gap can be bridged usefully by inserting an
additional conceptual level, consisting of the form or structure of ethical dilemmas.
This relatively ‘content-free’ structural aspect of ethical dilemmas enables
comparisons across dierent domains (of professions, organizations, demo-
graphic groups, age cohorts, etc.) in which the overt idiosyncratic ethical
problems experienced are not commensurable. Similarly, it can yield
interpretable longitudinal comparisons despite changes in the manifesta-
tions of ethical problems encountered over time.
(Lefkowitz, 2021, p. 297) (cf. Table 6.4)
Introduction 11
BOX 1.2 ETHICAL ISSUES THAT DIDN’T EXIST A FEW
YEARS AGO
8
Most people are aware that Facebook has been dogged with trying to
eliminate or control the enormous amount of violent and hateful material
that regularly is posted on the social media site. Their first lines of defense are
screening algorithms developed by means of artificial intelligence, which
catch over 90% of the objectionable posts. Very few people are aware,
however, that the remaining highly noxious material—still an enormous
amount—is outsourced to other companies and inspected by many thou-
sands of their employees.
Foremost among those companies is the consulting firm Accenture
(formerly Anderson Consulting) with almost 6,000 full-time employees doing
this “content moderation” in eight cities around the world, including
Mountain View, CA. and Austin, TX. The annual fee for this (and other
consulting work, as well) is reported to be more than $500 million.
The outsourced employees are tasked with deciding whether to keep a
posting or remove it. (For example, testifying at a legal hearing a former
moderator in Austin indicated he was required to decide “whether to delete
a video of a dog being skinned alive or simply mark it as disturbing.”) This
work is performed under a strict performance management system in which
moderators can be fired for excessive mistakes in implementing Facebook’s
policies—which are regularly in a state of flux.
The adverse emotional, psychological and physical effects of performing
this work are apparently substantial, and at least one class-action lawsuit has
been filed against Accenture to protest these conditions. Workers have also
pressed for better pay and benefits. There is no indication of any systematic
employee selection screening for the job, although the company did prepare
a brief realistic job preview that indicates the job has “the potential to
negatively impact your emotional or mental health.” None of this has directly
impacted Facebook because the workers are employees of Accenture.
Here are some questions that come to mind:
• Is Accenture responsible for the nature of the job, and its effects on
employees?
• Should the company refuse the consulting contract?
8 This narrative is based on the extensive reporting of Adam Satariano and Mike Isaac
(2021).
12 Introduction
For example, Box 1.2 describes a situation with ethical aspects that came into
existence only recently.
Another dimension to the debate is emphasized by Rehwaldt (2019), espe-
cially with respect to teaching introductory ethics courses. He believes that such
instructors emphasize the exploration of moral theories and “fail to recognize
humans as biologically driven, psychologically shaped, and sociologically con-
strained beings” (p. 35). He argues for greater attention to the role of emotion,
unconscious bias, and the influence of social structures on ethical decision-
making. This book, since the 1st edition, has attempted to reflect that perspective.
But for our purposes, even more important may be that in the sciences ethics
is often taught as “something we unfortunately must require you to do, so let’s
get it over with as quickly as we can, and then we can move on to the important
things” (Zigmond & Fischer, 2014, p. xviii). One could be excused for inferring
that something of that sort is also common in I-O psychology graduate/doctoral
training in so far as 65% of I-O doctoral programs do not oer a required or even
elective course in ethics (Brossoit et al., 2021)—despite the fact that it is an
ocially recommended area of competence (SIOP, 2016) and that ethics training
seems to be eective (Watts et al., 2017). The most common reason given by
program directors (70% of them) is that ethics is included in a unit in other
courses. But it may be that considering a few particular problems that arise in the
research lab, segmented from those that arise while doing employee selection,
separate from those encountered on an organizational consultation, distinct from
those faced while teaching or supervising students, etc., etc., misses critical meta-
issues and other important considerations—such as much of the content of this
book, including ethical reasoning.
However, aiding ethical decision-making is just one of the main purposes
served by moral theory for professionals such as applied psychologists (Knapp,
1999). The other purposes are to help explain the fundamental moral
• Isn’t the work being performed a societal good?
• Is it Facebook’s primary responsibility to not accept the noxious posts to
begin with?
• What about the adverse effect of the employees’ condition on the
company’s reputation?
• Is it appropriate to have tight performance management standards with
severe consequences for this type of job?
• Could the company benefit from a systematic employee selection
system?
• The senior management team at Accenture recently held a meeting to
discuss the situation with its lucrative client. As head of H.R. at the
company, what is your opinion?
Introduction 13
underpinnings of society and its institutions, to identify and justify the general
principles on which our ethical standards and codes are based, to encourage moral
behavior, and to assist in the education and self-regulation of the profession by
providing a basis for compliance with those standards.
There are other pedagogical, social and moral issues that ought to be con-
sidered, as well. Much appropriate professional and ethical behavior is probably
taught implicitly by example, role-modeling and other socialization processes on
the part of graduate faculty, internship supervisors and early mentors at
work—and there are some data indicating that that is also the case in I-O psy-
chology (Brossoit et al., 2021). Haerty (1998), in writing about curriculum
reform in medicine, emphasized the importance of the informal curriculum and the
hidden curriculum, as distinct from a program’s formal curriculum. The former is
“an unscripted, predominantly ad hoc, and highly interpersonal form of teaching
and learning that takes place among and between faculty and students,” and the
latter refers to “a set of influences that function at the level of organizational
structure and culture” (p. 404). In a similar vein, Handelsman et al. (2005)
emphasize the acquisition of ethical knowledge and skill as an acculturation
process.
It’s interesting to note that in I-O psychology informal curricula seem focused
primarily on research ethics, whereas hidden curricula have, until very recently,
served to socialize or acculturate beginning I-O psychology students into I-O
psychology’s predominant corporatist value system (Lefkowitz, 2019). But there
are also newer, more humanistic and prosocial perspectives emerging in the field
to be acknowledged (cf. Carr et al., 2013; Carr et al., 2012; McWha-Herman
et al., 2016; Olson-Buchanan et al., 2013; Reichman, 2014). In recognition of
that flux one of the objectives of this book is to encourage students to reflect on
their core professional identity—by which I mean one’s beliefs, goals, and meta-
objectives concerning what it is you intend to accomplish in the organizations with which
you work and how you prefer to go about accomplishing them (Lefkowitz, 2010, p. 294,
emphasis in the original). How one answers that question has profound im-
plications for how one views professional ethics and behaves accordingly.
The reader may find one of the moral theories discussed in chapters 2, 3, 4 and
5 more useful or otherwise more compatible than others so that it might be
adopted as a consistent perspective within which to approach ethical delibera-
tions. Alternatively, I have found dierent models with their associated ethical
principles to be more or less helpful and appropriate with respect to dierent
types of problems. This accords with the opinion of Bennis et al. (2010a) who, in
discussing moral decision-making based on rules versus cost/benefit analyses,
assert that “dierent modes of decision making can be seen as adaptations to
particular environments” (p. 187). Either perspective necessitates becoming fa-
miliar with the general issues and alternative approaches oered by the various
moral philosophies. In fact, I will note the opinions of several scholars who
advocate considering simultaneously all three major normative perspectives
14 Introduction
presented in these pages (deontology, consequentialism and virtue ethics).
Consequently, my primary aim in this regard has been to produce a usable
synthesis that would be helpful in decision-making, not just for the rare ethical
crisis one might face but for the “quiet, steady, day-to-day choices that add up to
a career characterized by integrity or moral malaise and/or conflict. It is for the
quotidian choices that moral guideposts are most needed and most wanting”
(Lowman, 1991, p. 196).
Personal Biases
This book is premised on a number of personal beliefs and concerns about ethics,
the profession of psychology, I-O psychology in particular, the contemporary
world of business, and the sociopolitical nature of society. Most will become
apparent in later chapters, but it is fair to the reader and perhaps constructive to
make some of them explicit at this point.
First o, concern about a high level of unethical behavior by I-O psycholo-
gists, or even a high incidence of ethical dilemmas in the field, was not among the
motives for writing (or revising) this book. In fact, when I was asked some years
ago to prepare a talk admonishing I-O psychologists to improve their ethics, I
demurred because I felt it was unnecessary and instead focused on criticizing the
underlying values of the field (Lefkowitz, 2008). Based on very limited empirical
data, self-reported ethical problems in I-O psychology have never seemed to be a
prevalent problem (Pope & Vetter, 1992). More recent surveys targeted to I-O
psychologists have revealed the wide range of ethical issues we face, but response
rates were not adequate to estimate their incidence in the population (Lefkowitz,
2021; Lefkowitz & Watts, 2022).
Despite the critical determinative role played by values in one’s experience of
and reactions to ethical dilemmas, discussions concerning the foundational values
of the field are not well represented in the professional literature of I-O psy-
chology. And so this book is as much or more about values as it is about ethics
per se.
Young I-O psychologists and business managers have come of age pro-
fessionally at a time when the U.S. business world has been marked by mo-
mentous displays of greed, self-aggrandizement, and disregard on the part of
many leaders for the well-being of customers or clients, workers, the public-at-
large and sometimes even shareholders. One of the issues to be considered later is
whether this merely represents the actions of a relatively few “bad apples” or
whether there may also be systemic influences involved (Kish-Gephart et al.,
2010). If the latter, it would be the sort of cultural influence that could contribute
to generational dierences in the workplace (Constanza & Finkelstein, 2015).
Especially germane to the aims of this book, I have observed a variety of
unfortunate adaptations to the prevailing zeitgeist exhibited by many students.
Some seem resigned to accepting greed and corruption as natural reflections of
Introduction 15
the essentially egocentric nature of human beings in a competitive environment.
Similarly, some seem to view it as representing merely unfortunate excesses of the
free-enterprise system—minor costs to pay as the price for harnessing the en-
ormous productive potential of individual ambition and incentive. Some I-O
psychologists appear to be exercising a form of “technocratic denial”—retreating
behind the presumably objective-scientific implementation of assessment and
selection devices, training modules, quasi-experimental interventions, compe-
tency models, performance management systems, etc.—as if the perhaps ques-
tionable practices of the enterprises in which these are implemented were none of
our concern.
But others hold an alternative view of the possibilities and justification for
moral and ethical corporate behavior and the salience of more altruistic concerns.
In fact, there is a substantial, albeit loosely organized coalition of business scholars,
social critics and progressive business leaders who have been pressing the moral
dimension of capitalism and promoting corporate social responsibility as well as
models of corporate social performance. Up until relatively recently I-O psychologists
had been conspicuously absent in this alliance. However, as alluded to above,
since the first edition of this book appeared in 2003 a number of dramatic and
uplifting changes have taken place, marked by the creation of a Global
Organization for Humanitarian Work Psychology (GOHWP) as well as the more
prosocial perspectives on the field mentioned earlier (Carr et al., 2012; McWha
et al., 2015; Olson-Buchanan et al., 2013; Reichman, 2014).
9
An adequate consideration of professional ethics entails incorporating the border
domain it shares at one level with models of personal ethical decision-making—
what the father of utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham referred to as “private ethics”—and
at the macro-level with the moral aspects of institutional decision-making, social
policy and political economy. All these levels of activities reflect underlying values
concerning interpersonal and group relations and pertain to deliberations about
what is appropriate in that regard. And it seems to me that it would be intolerably
inconsistent—requiring substantial amounts of rationalization—to accept the pri-
macy of moral standards and the importance of human dignity in one’s personal life,
but not with respect to one’s professional behavior; or to accept those norms
personally and professionally, but not to expect and demand such from the orga-
nizations in/with which we work; or to accept them at the personal, professional
and organizational levels but to not be concerned for the manifestations of eco-
nomic [in]justice in our society. As Cohen (2002) noted, ethical virtues are
expressed not only in the individual’s behavior toward others but in the quality of
the societies we create; they should be identified with civic virtue. And as men-
tioned earlier, “ultimately a responsible psychologist is a responsible citizen”
(Kelman, 2021, p. 3).
9 Information can be obtained from http://gohwp.org/
16 Introduction
The existence of cross-domain professional journals like Business and Society;
Journal of Humanistic Management; Philosophy and Public Aairs; and Psychology,
Public Policy and Law suggest that a book on values and ethics of I-O psychology
should range beyond the specific ethical issues we face in our research and
practice. It should include discussions of such topics as business ethics and the
morality of corporations and the capitalist system—focusing on the domains in
which we conduct our research and practice and the organizations we support.
As I-O psychologists we share with our colleagues in the other sub-
specializations of psychology a common heritage regarding what it means to be a
psychologist. We have acknowledged and prided ourselves on adhering to some
aspects of those traditions (e.g., the epistemic values of empirical science) but
have given short shrift to other aspects, such as its humanistic ideals. Chapter 12
explores some of the consequences of having largely abandoned those ideals and
oers some suggestions for their redevelopment.
In our role as applied psychologists working in complex social settings we
encounter some potential ethical dilemmas that for the most part, do not confront
our academic colleagues engaged exclusively in laboratory or basic research.
Some of those dilemmas are the result of conflicts between the humanistic value
system of psychology noted previously, and the value system of the organizations
within which we work—the values of a competitive free-enterprise, profit-
driven economic system.
Complicating the situation, but also rendering it more interesting, is the fact
that a dominant ideology in I-O psychology is the belief in value-free science and
research (e.g., the distinction between the putatively neutral and scientific issue of
test bias and the value-laden social issue of test fairness). This view is advanced by
those who believe improbably that the field is entirely objective and scientific
despite our service to the highly competitive world of business in which our
professional practice and much of even our research agendas are shaped by the
values and goals of the corporation and the ideology of the economic system. For
some time now I have disagreed with and critiqued aspects of that belief
(Lefkowitz, 1990, 2005, 2008, 2009a, 2010a, 2011b, 2012a, 2013a, 2014a, 2016,
2017, 2019). When one’s personal value system (such as that of a management-
oriented I-O psychologist) is consonant with that of the social systems within
which one functions (such as a profit-oriented corporation in a free-market
economic system), the absence of conflict or “moral friction” between those
values sets can make it seem as if the systems are value-free.
In any event, as noted sagely in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists
(Canadian Psychological Association, 2017), “Although it can be argued that
science is value-free and impartial, scientists are not” (p. 1). One of the ad-
vantages of a single-author book is the opportunity to express a particular point of
view—especially so in the realm of applied ethics because real-world moral de-
cisions are value driven. I cannot (and would not wish to) claim that my own
values and views regarding a variety of issues have not influenced the content of
Introduction 17
this book—in choice of topics, opinions expressed, what I have criticized, what I
have lauded, and how they impact my ethical analyses. But I have tried to make
those values explicit, both here and in the essays cited above, and thereby subject
to scrutiny. My hope has always been that this prompts readers to consider the
ways in which their own values disagree or are in accord with mine, and—more
importantly—how they aect their ethical deliberations. In that way we may
together raise the level of discourse, if not necessarily agreement, in moral rea-
soning and ethical problem-solving among I-O psychologists.
18 Introduction
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