Hydrometeorological Hazards on Crop Production in the State of Veracruz, Mexico

Abstract

Hydrometeorological hazards are considered the most important phenomena affecting crop production in the Eastern regions of Mexico, where the State of Veracruz is located. However, more information about their consequences on these sites needs to be studied. This research aims to determine the effects of hydrometeorological phenomena on the most important crops cultivated in the State of Veracruz. The methodology involved analyzing the State’s crop production database from 2001 to 2020 and comparing this data with the National Hydrometeorological Disaster Declarations database. Multivariable correlation analysis and geographic information systems were applied to geographically analyze 42 rainfed crops plus the five most valuable ones in the State to determine their production related to climatic phenomena. The results found that the most affected crops are corn, soy, sorghum, beans, and rice, with more than 10,000 lost hectares. Droughts caused total damage to corn, soy, and beans and decreased productivity in corn, orange, lemon, wheat, coffee, and sesame. For the most valuable crops, tropical cyclones caused the highest production decrements in corn, sugar cane, and pineapple, while droughts caused the same effects in lemon and orange. We conclude that tropical cyclones are the most critical phenomena negatively impacting Veracruz, with high implications on the agrifood system.

Full text

Citation: Valdés-Rodríguez, O.A.;
Salas-Martínez, F.;
Palacios-Wassenaar, O.M.
Hydrometeorological Hazards on
Crop Production in the State of
Veracruz, Mexico. Atmosphere 2023,
14, 287. https://doi.org/10.3390/
atmos14020287
Academic Editors: Demetrios
E. Tsesmelis, Nikolaos Skondras and
Ippokratis Gkotsis
Received: 30 December 2022
Revised: 23 January 2023
Accepted: 27 January 2023
Published: 31 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
atmosphere
Article
Hydrometeorological Hazards on Crop Production in the State
of Veracruz, Mexico
Ofelia Andrea Valdés-Rodríguez 1, Fernando Salas-Martínez 1and Olivia Margarita Palacios-Wassenaar 2,*
1El Colegio de Veracruz, Xalapa-Enríquez 91000, Mexico
2Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Xalapa-Enríquez 91070, Mexico
*Correspondence: olivia.palacios@inecol.mx
Abstract:
Hydrometeorological hazards are considered the most important phenomena affecting
crop production in the Eastern regions of Mexico, where the State of Veracruz is located. However,
more information about their consequences on these sites needs to be studied. This research aims to
determine the effects of hydrometeorological phenomena on the most important crops cultivated in
the State of Veracruz. The methodology involved analyzing the State’s crop production database from
2001 to 2020 and comparing this data with the National Hydrometeorological Disaster Declarations
database. Multivariable correlation analysis and geographic information systems were applied to
geographically analyze 42 rainfed crops plus the five most valuable ones in the State to determine
their production related to climatic phenomena. The results found that the most affected crops are
corn, soy, sorghum, beans, and rice, with more than 10,000 lost hectares. Droughts caused total
damage to corn, soy, and beans and decreased productivity in corn, orange, lemon, wheat, coffee,
and sesame. For the most valuable crops, tropical cyclones caused the highest production decrements
in corn, sugar cane, and pineapple, while droughts caused the same effects in lemon and orange. We
conclude that tropical cyclones are the most critical phenomena negatively impacting Veracruz, with
high implications on the agrifood system.
Keywords: rainfed agriculture; productivity; tropical cyclones; heavy rains; droughts
1. Introduction
Agricultural activities depend highly on weather, climate, and land to thrive. Thus,
they are particularly vulnerable to natural disasters. According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [
1
], from 2005 to 2015, USD 22 billion were
lost due to crop and livestock production declines in Latin America and the Caribbean
following natural disasters. In this region, droughts caused the highest production loss
proportion, with 30%, followed by storms, with 20%. The most affected crops were legumes,
with almost USD eight billion in losses. However, this situation may vary depending on
the place and the type of phenomenon causing them [
2
]. For example, specifically in the
Caribbean countries, hurricanes are the primary problem, which may cause up to 34% of
crop losses [
3
]. Furthermore, in temperate or cold sites, frost can cause significant damage
to agricultural products [2].
Additionally, determining vulnerabilities in agriculture is difficult because the level of
damage caused by hydrometeorological phenomena depends on the crops. For example,
hurricanes affect agricultural products differently, with fruits, vegetables, and oily crops
being the most adversely affected, while nuts and root crops are not significantly affected
by hurricanes [
3
]. On the other hand, heat waves and excessive humidity cause more
damage to root crops in temperate regions [2].
Apart from the meteorological phenomena, the type of agriculture the farmers apply,
irrigated (open or in greenhouses) or rainfed, may pose different challenges to the crops.
The latest data published by the FAO indicates that rainfed production covers about 80%
Atmosphere 2023,14, 287. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020287 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/atmosphere

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 2 of 23
of the global cropland [
4
]. In Mexico, 60% of agricultural land is rainfed [
5
]. Rainfed
agriculture consists of planting crops based on the rainy seasons. Thus, these crops depend
on the continuity of the regional climatic conditions, the producer’s knowledge of sown
periods, and the more suitable crops for each period [
6
,
7
]. Under these conditions, Mexico
has two productive cycles: autumn–winter and spring–summer. During these cycles,
seasonal and perennial crops can be sown [5].
Veracruz, a state located on the eastern side of Mexico, is a leader in agricultural
production in the country. This State holds first place in the production of sugar cane,
pineapple, grapefruit, and orange; second place in coffee, tobacco, and lemon; and third
place in pear and banana. Veracruz is also within the first ten states with the highest
production volume of papaya, watermelon, sesame, rice, beans, mango, and apple [
8
].
However, in Veracruz, the percentage of rainfed agriculture is higher than the national
average, with 91% of cropland being rainfed [
5
], which increases its vulnerability to diverse
hydrometeorological phenomena. In addition, the geographical conditions in the State of
Veracruz, along the coasts of the Mexican Gulf, with a surface of 745 km oriented from north
to south and elevation gradients from zero to 5600 m above sea level [
9
,
10
], provide this
State with an extensive climatic variety [
11
]. The different climatic conditions of Veracruz
allow the cultivation of 94 vegetal species, of which about 42 are rainfed crops [5].
Nevertheless, every year the State of Veracruz is subjected to several meteorological
hazards, such as tropical cyclones, hailstorms, coastal storm surges, floods, flash floods,
droughts, heat waves, and cold spells [
10
,
11
]. As a result, Veracruz is the Mexican State
with more disaster occurrences in Mexico [
12
]. These hazards are registered by the Mexican
National System of Disaster Declarations (CENAPRED) [
13
] when they cause considerable
losses to the State’s primary activities or human systems. For example, in the agricultural
sector, a disaster declaration (DD) declares that a phenomenon was of such magnitude
that it caused severe losses in the farming systems of the region. Therefore, the federal
government must provide economic and logistical support [
14
]. For this reason, this
disaster data is stored in public registers that anyone can consult [15].
In this context, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [
16
] and
several independent studies indicate that climate change may generate more extreme
events, such as higher-category tropical cyclones and more frequent floods [
17
], more
intense droughts [
18
], and extreme temperatures [
12
]. However, countries such as Mexico
are deficient in climatic monitoring in-site infrastructure [
19
], which makes it more difficult
to predict the impacts of these phenomena at a regional or local level.
Nevertheless, with the CENAPRED database, we can establish that in Veracruz,
20 years
of historical records indicate that the hazards causing more declarations are heavy
rains, tropical cyclones, and floods, followed by droughts. During this period, heavy
rains generated 120 DD yearly, followed by 78 by tropical storms, 15 by floods, and 11 by
droughts [
15
]. However, an analysis of each specific phenomenon and its impact on the
agricultural sector has not yet been estimated.
The National Service of Agrifood (SIAP) records agricultural statistics [
5
]. Currently,
each crop data is considered independently from the others. Moreover, the system only
documents the total damaged surface without its associated disaster to report damaged
crops. Therefore, the hazard type and its relationships with specific crops are unknown, as
is the pattern of these disasters in particular regions of the State. For example, previous
research in the central part of the State found that corn is particularly vulnerable to droughts,
with up to 48% losses due to this phenomenon [
20
]. However, there is no information
about the other phenomena, nor other crops and their behavior in the State’s southern and
northern regions, as there are no multiple crop studies with different hydrometeorological
phenomena in the country. Besides this problem, some municipalities in the State have
no meteorological information; the equipment is old, or data are not updated [
19
], thus
making it very difficult to determine which phenomena are impacting the crops in specific
sites. Therefore, other sources containing meteorological phenomena-related information,

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 3 of 23
such as the disaster statistics provided by the CENAPRED, should be considered to analyze
climatic effects on the agrifood systems.
A thorough analysis of the impacts of hydrometeorological phenomena on the existing
trends in agricultural production is a crucial starting point for breaking the information
gap and contributing to a decision-making tool based on facts. This analysis is even more
critical for rainfed agriculture [
21
] since it contributes to the highest food production in the
world [
22
], Mexico, and especially Veracruz [
8
]. Therefore, DD records could be a valuable
tool to link hydrometeorological hazards with productive crop values, especially when they
register decrements or losses. Furthermore, these records can be used because each DD was
issued to support one specific municipality, stating the hydrometeorological phenomenon
that caused the damage and the year it happened. At the same time, detailed crop statistics
are reported by year and by site. Thus, we can establish relationships between DDs and
productive data at a municipal level.
The use of socioeconomic governmental statistics to analyze meteorological hazards
could also be replicated in other regions of the country or the world, especially in develop-
ing countries, where in-site climatic information is missing [
19
,
23
], and only catastrophic
data are registered at a community level.
This research aims to use governmental databases to investigate the hydrometeoro-
logical phenomena occurring in the State of Veracruz and their relationship with the total
crop production of the 42-rain feed crops available in the State’s statistics plus the five most
valuable cultivars during 20 years (2001–2020) to determine which phenomenon causes the
most significant damage and the most affected crops.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Region
Veracruz’s State is located on the central part of the Mexican Gulf (22
◦
28
0
N, 17
◦
09
0
S
and 93
◦
36
0
E, 98
◦
39
0
W). This territory has an extension of 71,815 km
2
. On the State’s east,
north, and south, two extensive plains are interrupted by geographical accidents (Figure 1a).
In the north of the State, there are two mountain ranges: Tantima and Ototepec (20
◦
and
21
◦
N), with heights up to 1200 m above sea level (masl); at the center of the State, there is
the eastern mountain chain (18
◦
and 19
◦
N), with peaks up to 5470 masl; and at the south
of the State, the Los Tuxtlas mountain range is located, with heights up to 1750 masl [
24
,
25
].
Due to this orography and geographic location, the State of Veracruz has a wide climatic
diversity (Figure 1b). Nevertheless, according to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification,
53% of the territory’s climate is warm sub-humid (Aw); 41% is warm-humid (Am), 3.5%
has humid temperate climates, and the other percentage has temperate, semi-dry and dry
climates [24].
Veracruz is divided into 212 local governmental units (municipalities), each headquar-
tered in a prominent city or town administratively autonomous from the State. Although
their land extension is diverse, the largest municipality has 3508.9 km
2
, and the smallest
has only 4.60 km2[26].
2.2. Hydrometeorological Hazards Statistics
This study considered the disaster declarations (DD) caused by hydrometeorological
hazards because they indicate the occurrence of each specific phenomenon affecting produc-
tive activities by municipality and year. This information was obtained from the Mexican
National Center to Prevent Disasters (CENAPRED) [
15
]. CENAPRED has reported national
municipal statistics every year since 2000. Therefore, all phenomena with 200 or more DD
in the State were accounted for in the analysis.
2.3. Agricultural Statistics
Statistical agricultural information was obtained from the Mexican National Agrifood
System (SIAP) [
5
]. The SIAP has reported yearly seasonal and rainfed production by the
State since 1980, but only since 2003 has data for each municipality. These data contain

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 4 of 23
the crop name, the sown surfaces (hectares ha), the harvested area (ha), the damaged crop
area (ha), the production volumes (tons t), the yield (t ha
−1
), and the total production value
(Mexican pesos MXN). Therefore, this research obtained its distribution by municipalities,
sown surface, production volume, production value (converted to USD at a current change
of 20 MXN to one USD), and the five crops with the highest production values.
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 25
Figure 1. Location of the State of Veracruz in Mexico; (a) altitude and (b) Köppen climate types in
the territory. Sources: maps created with data from the National Institute of Statistics and Geogra-
phy [24] and the National Commission for Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity [27].
2.2. Hydrometeorological Hazards Statistics
This study considered the disaster declarations (DD) caused by hydrometeorological
hazards because they indicate the occurrence of each specific phenomenon affecting pro-
ductive activities by municipality and year. This information was obtained from the Mex-
ican National Center to Prevent Disasters (CENAPRED) [15]. CENAPRED has reported
national municipal statistics every year since 2000. Therefore, all phenomena with 200 or
more DD in the State were accounted for in the analysis.
2.3. Agricultural Statistics
Statistical agricultural information was obtained from the Mexican National Agri-
food System (SIAP) [5]. The SIAP has reported yearly seasonal and rainfed production by
the State since 1980, but only since 2003 has data for each municipality. These data contain
the crop name, the sown surfaces (hectares ha), the harvested area (ha), the damaged crop
area (ha), the production volumes (tons t), the yield (t ha−1), and the total production value
(Mexican pesos MXN). Therefore, this research obtained its distribution by municipalities,
sown surface, production volume, production value (converted to USD at a current
change of 20 MXN to one USD), and the five crops with the highest production values.
Figure 1.
Location of the State of Veracruz in Mexico; (
a
) altitude and (
b
) Köppen climate types in the
territory. Sources: maps created with data from the National Institute of Statistics and Geography [
24
]
and the National Commission for Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity [27].
2.4. Data Analysis
Data analysis considered the 212 municipalities of Veracruz. Hydrometeorological
state-level data with the 212 municipalities were analyzed by principal component analysis
(PCA) by the varimax method with multiple correlations between the phenomena with
200 or
more DD and agricultural state data from 2001 to 2020. Municipality-level considered
the period 2003 to 2020 because the CENAPRED and SIAP databases only coincide during
this period. PCA analysis was performed with the software IBM SPSS v23. Of the 42 rainfed
crops, the ones that reported damaged crop areas were selected to correlate with the DD
by the Pearson correlation method with the function provided by Excel 2019. Statistical
significance was evaluated at p≤0.05 and p≤0.01 with the t-student test.
Additionally, the five crops with the highest production values and their municipalities
were chosen to correlate DD against their data. Among them, the municipalities with statis-

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 5 of 23
tical significance were to determine the relationship between sown surface and harvested
surface and the hydrometeorological phenomenon with the highest adverse effects.
Finally, the correlation value by each municipality was mapped with ArcMap
10.8 software [28].
3. Results
3.1. Hydrometeorological Hazards Causing Disaster Declarations
According to CENAPRED statistics [
15
], from 2001 to 2020, 212 (100%) municipalities
of Veracruz had DD caused by heavy rains, 211 (99%) by tropical cyclones, 118 (56%) by
droughts, 110 (52%) by low temperatures, 94 (43%) by strong winds, 89 (42%) by floods,
78 (37%) by cold spells and hailstorms, and 53 (25%) by heat waves (Figure 2). Heavy
rains and floods caused the highest effects in the southwest of the State; tropical cyclones
and droughts mainly affected the north and the center; cold spells, hail storms, and low
temperatures affected the center and northern part of the State, where the mountain ranges
are located. DD by each phenomenon and total DD by each municipality is indicated in
Figure 2from left to right down. The highest numbers of DD (41 to 55) are located along
the southeastern coasts and central northern regions of the State.
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
Figure 2. Type of hydrometeorological phenomena and their associated number of disaster decla-
rations in the State of Veracruz. Source: Graphical representation created with data from the Mexi-
can National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15].
3.2. Agricultural Statistics
From 2003 to 2020, the agricultural statistics indicate that the highest volumes and
production values were obtained in 23 municipalities. There are seven sites in the north,
producing orange (Citrus sinensis L.), corn grain (Zea mays L.), and lemon (Citrus auranti-
folia Swingle). The southwest has 12 municipalities with sugar cane (Saccharum offcinarum
L.) and pineapple (Ananas comosus L.), and the southeast has four, with corn (Figure 3
right). Corn is the crop with the highest land extension, sugar cane is the crop with the
highest production value concerning the sown surface, and pineapple is the fifth most
valuable crop with the lowest cropland (Table 1).
Figure 2.
Type of hydrometeorological phenomena and their associated number of disaster declara-
tions in the State of Veracruz. Source: Graphical representation created with data from the Mexican
National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15].

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 6 of 23
3.2. Agricultural Statistics
From 2003 to 2020, the agricultural statistics indicate that the highest volumes and
production values were obtained in 23 municipalities. There are seven sites in the north,
producing orange (Citrus sinensis L.), corn grain (Zea mays L.), and lemon (Citrus aurantifolia
Swingle). The southwest has 12 municipalities with sugar cane (Saccharum offcinarum L.)
and pineapple (Ananas comosus L.), and the southeast has four, with corn (Figure 3right).
Corn is the crop with the highest land extension, sugar cane is the crop with the highest
production value concerning the sown surface, and pineapple is the fifth most valuable
crop with the lowest cropland (Table 1).
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 25
Figure 3. Average agricultural data in the municipalities of the State of Veracruz during the period
(2003–2020) and location of the entities with the five highest production values of sugar cane, lemon,
orange, corn, and pineapple. Source: data projected with statistical information from the Mexican
National Agrifood System [5].
Table 1. The five crops with the highest production values, their sown surface, and their number of
municipalities in Veracruz state during 2020.
Crop Yearly Total Production Value (USD Billions) Sown Land (ha) Number of Municipalities Where
It Is Cultivated
Sugar cane 464.92 212,374.75 84
Orange 310.77 166,715.90 90
Corn grain 279.45 576,948.62 209
Lemon 206.02 39,333.50 62
Pineapple 143.53 21,040.00 14
Source: Data estimated with information obtained from the Mexican National Agrifood System
[5].
3.3. Hydrometeorological Hazards and Their Effects on Agricultural Production
The principal component analysis found two components explaining 53% of the re-
lationships between the hazards and the agricultural data variance. This data can be seen
in Figure 4. First, it indicates that heavy rains and floods are related phenomena, the same
as strong winds and low temperatures. In addition, tropical cyclones are highly correlated
with damaged crop areas and negatively correlated with the harvested area and the har-
vested/sown area rate, causing the most significant damage over the sown area.
Figure 3.
Average agricultural data in the municipalities of the State of Veracruz during the period
(2003–2020) and location of the entities with the five highest production values of sugar cane, lemon,
orange, corn, and pineapple. Source: data projected with statistical information from the Mexican
National Agrifood System [5].
Table 1.
The five crops with the highest production values, their sown surface, and their number of
municipalities in Veracruz state during 2020.
Crop Yearly Total Production
Value (USD Billions) Sown Land (ha) Number of Municipalities
Where It Is Cultivated
Sugar cane 464.92 212,374.75 84
Orange 310.77 166,715.90 90
Corn grain 279.45 576,948.62 209
Lemon 206.02 39,333.50 62
Pineapple 143.53 21,040.00 14
Source: Data estimated with information obtained from the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
3.3. Hydrometeorological Hazards and Their Effects on Agricultural Production
The principal component analysis found two components explaining 53% of the
relationships between the hazards and the agricultural data variance. This data can be
seen in Figure 4. First, it indicates that heavy rains and floods are related phenomena,
the same as strong winds and low temperatures. In addition, tropical cyclones are highly

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 7 of 23
correlated with damaged crop areas and negatively correlated with the harvested area and
the harvested/sown area rate, causing the most significant damage over the sown area.
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 25
Figure 4. Principal component analysis of hydrometeorological phenomena causing disaster decla-
rations and agricultural production data in the State of Veracruz from 2001 to 2020. The circles in-
dicate the most related phenomena.
Cold spells, hailstorms, low temperatures, and strong winds are related phenomena
negatively correlated with the sown area and the harvested area. Likewise, droughts are
negatively correlated with heavy rains and cyclones but positively correlated with the
selling price. Finally, heavy rains negatively correlate with the sown area, production
value, volume, and yield.
3.4. Total Crops Affected by Hydrometeorological Hazards
Of the 42 rainfed crops cultivated in the State, 21 reported damaged sown areas from
2001 to 2020. Although some crops, such as onion, coffee, pineapple, and sugar cane, only
informed of damages in one or two years. The correlation analysis indicated that tropical
cyclones caused the most significant damage to corn, potato, hot pepper, and pumpkin.
In addition, heavy rains are negatively correlated to wheat; droughts to pineapple, rice,
wheat, coffee, and sesame; floods to cucumber; low temperatures to tomato and beans;
and strong winds to tomato (Table 2).
Figure 4.
Principal component analysis of hydrometeorological phenomena causing disaster declara-
tions and agricultural production data in the State of Veracruz from 2001 to 2020. The circles indicate
the most related phenomena.
Cold spells, hailstorms, low temperatures, and strong winds are related phenomena
negatively correlated with the sown area and the harvested area. Likewise, droughts are
negatively correlated with heavy rains and cyclones but positively correlated with the
selling price. Finally, heavy rains negatively correlate with the sown area, production value,
volume, and yield.
3.4. Total Crops Affected by Hydrometeorological Hazards
Of the 42 rainfed crops cultivated in the State, 21 reported damaged sown areas from
2001 to 2020. Although some crops, such as onion, coffee, pineapple, and sugar cane, only
informed of damages in one or two years. The correlation analysis indicated that tropical
cyclones caused the most significant damage to corn, potato, hot pepper, and pumpkin.
In addition, heavy rains are negatively correlated to wheat; droughts to pineapple, rice,
wheat, coffee, and sesame; floods to cucumber; low temperatures to tomato and beans; and
strong winds to tomato (Table 2).

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 8 of 23
Table 2.
Correlation between damaged crop areas and hydrometeorological hazards from 2001 to
2020 in the State of Veracruz.
Low
Temperatures
Tropical
Cyclones Floods Heavy Rains Cold Spells &
Hail Storms Droughts Strong
Winds
Corn 0.12 0.55 ** 0.22 −0.22 0.03 0.23 −0.08
Sugar cane −0.11 −0.16 −0.02 −0.34 −0.22 0.04 −0.09
Pineapple −0.09 −0.13 −0.09 −0.33 −0.13 0.59 ** −0.07
Beans 0.51 ** 0.02 −0.02 −0.04 0.18 0.14 0.04
Rice 0.32 −0.01 0.24 −0.34 −0.14 0.45 * 0.22
Broad beans −0.23 0.04 −0.40 0.00 0.01 0.28 −0.17
Oatmeal −0.06 −0.13 −0.21 −0.27 −0.14 0.08 −0.03
Wheat 0.03 −0.15 −0.23 −0.47 * −0.18 0.45 * 0.09
Soy −0.13 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.29 0.21 −0.08
Potato −0.12 0.47 * −0.19 0.02 0.06 0.21 −0.20
Sorghum −0.06 0.2 0.04 0.06 0.37 0.17 −0.24
Vetch −0.13 −0.17 −0.23 −0.42 0.02 0.33 −0.10
Hot pepper 0.21 0.75 ** 0.18 −0.08 0.08 −0.05 −0.08
Peanut −0.2 −0.06 0.2 −0.14 −0.22 0.39 −0.15
Pumpkin 0.05 0.56 ** 0.21 −0.02 0.09 0.13 −0.10
Tomato 0.60 ** 0.25 0.33 0.15 −0.02 −0.14 0.58 *
Barley −0.14 −0.18 −0.20 −0.35 −0.03 0.21 −0.12
Coffee −0.09 −0.13 −0.09 −0.33 −0.13 0.59 ** −0.07
Onion −0.09 −0.13 −0.13 −0.24 −0.19 −0.10 −0.07
Sesame −0.15 0.03 0.31 −0.13 −0.20 0.47 * −0.13
Cucumber 0.03 −0.14 0.63 ** 0.17 0.07 −0.24 −0.17
* Significant at p
≤
0.05, ** significant at p
≤
0.01. Source: Data estimated with information obtained from the
Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Of the 17 crops in Table 2, Figure 5shows the crops with more than 400 ha of total
damaged cropland in the studied period. Corn reported the highest damaged cropland,
with 737,149 ha, followed by soy (36,197 ha), sorghum (31,811 ha), and beans (20,125 ha).
The other crops reported less than 12,500, and only 11 cultivars had more than 1000 ha
of damaged cropland (Figure 5a). The less affected crops are onion, coffee, cucumber,
pineapple, vetch, and sesame, with less than 350 ha of damaged cropland during 20 years.
Corn has the highest number of municipalities with damaged cropland, with 209, followed
by beans, with 194, and sugar cane, with 84 (Figure 5b). Nevertheless, considering the
number of entities where each crop is planted, it is noteworthy that soy is the crop with the
most extensive cropland damaged by each site (18,099 ha/municipality), followed by corn
(3455 ha/municipality) and sorghum (1164 ha/municipality).
Corn reported damaged areas yearly in the studied period (Figure 6a). The most
significant damages were recorded in 2005, with 101,540 ha and 484 DD by tropical cyclones;
the second highest losses occurred in 2019 (63,705 ha) when droughts generated 68 DD,
and tropical storms did not happen. The second and third most affected crops were soy
and sorghum, with 31,120 and 27,711 ha, respectively. Soy and sorghum lost 9117 and
8805 ha
in 2007 and 2013. These years the sum of 600 DD by tropical cyclones and 305 DD
by heavy rains were recorded. In contrast, in 2019, when only droughts occurred, 4912 and
4564 ha of sorghum and soy losses were reported. Beans have the fourth place in damaged
cropland, with 20,507 ha. Beans had the most considerable losses in 2006 (3140 ha) when
112 DD by cold events were recorded, and in 2009 (2775 ha), when 99 DD by heavy rains
occurred. With 12,205 ha damaged, rice was most affected in 2010 and 2019, when DD by
rainfalls and droughts were predominant. Hot pepper, the sixth place (6593 ha damaged),
had its most considerable losses (1663 ha) in 2005, with the highest number of tropical
cyclones; and broad beans, the seventh place, with 5260 ha, had their most significant loss
in 2012 (1253 ha), with 228 DD by heavy rains, and 2002 (1016 ha), with 70 DD by droughts.
The other six crops reported losing less than 2700 ha from 2001 to 2019. The crop with the
highest losses was soy, with 100% losses of the sown area in 2012 and 2019 (Figure 6b).

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 9 of 23
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25
Figure 5. Crops with more than 400 damaged hectares in the State of Veracruz from 2001 to 2020.
(a) Damaged cropland, (b) average number of municipalities cultivating the crop. Source: graphs
plotted with information obtained from the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Corn reported damaged areas yearly in the studied period (Figure 6a). The most sig-
nificant damages were recorded in 2005, with 101,540 ha and 484 DD by tropical cyclones;
the second highest losses occurred in 2019 (63,705 ha) when droughts generated 68 DD,
and tropical storms did not happen. The second and third most affected crops were soy
and sorghum, with 31,120 and 27,711 ha, respectively. Soy and sorghum lost 9117 and
8805 ha in 2007 and 2013. These years the sum of 600 DD by tropical cyclones and 305 DD
by heavy rains were recorded. In contrast, in 2019, when only droughts occurred, 4912
and 4564 ha of sorghum and soy losses were reported. Beans have the fourth place in
damaged cropland, with 20,507 ha. Beans had the most considerable losses in 2006 (3140
ha) when 112 DD by cold events were recorded, and in 2009 (2775 ha), when 99 DD by
heavy rains occurred. With 12,205 ha damaged, rice was most affected in 2010 and 2019,
when DD by rainfalls and droughts were predominant. Hot pepper, the sixth place (6593
ha damaged), had its most considerable losses (1663 ha) in 2005, with the highest number
of tropical cyclones; and broad beans, the seventh place, with 5260 ha, had their most sig-
nificant loss in 2012 (1253 ha), with 228 DD by heavy rains, and 2002 (1016 ha), with 70
DD by droughts. The other six crops reported losing less than 2700 ha from 2001 to 2019.
The crop with the highest losses was soy, with 100% losses of the sown area in 2012 and
2019 (Figure 6b).
Figure 5.
Crops with more than 400 damaged hectares in the State of Veracruz from 2001 to 2020.
(
a
) Damaged cropland, (
b
) average number of municipalities cultivating the crop. Source: graphs
plotted with information obtained from the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
In this regard, the most affected years by heavy rains were 2010, 2012, 2015, and 2016,
when almost 50% of DD by excessive rainfall was recorded. On its side, tropical cyclones
caused more DD during 2005, 2007, 2013, and 2017, with 82% of the total DD. Furthermore,
cold spells and hailstorms had their maximum registers during 2003, 2006, and 2013, with
55% of their incidence, while low temperatures were recorded only from 2003 to 2006.
Finally, the strong winds caused 116 and 27 DD in 2004 and 2016, respectively (Figure 6b).
3.5. Correlations between Production Data and Hydrometeorological Phenomena for the Five Most
Valuable Crops of the State of Veracruz
Of the most important crops cultivated in the State of Veracruz, only corn and sugar
cane reported damaged surfaces correlated with hydrometeorological phenomena. How-
ever, corn has the highest number of municipalities affected by these phenomena (Table 3,
red numbers with one asterisk). At the same time, sugar cane only registered 17 entities,
none statistically significant (Table 3, black numbers without an asterisk). Furthermore,
corn has the most considerable harvested area rate affected by tropical cyclones, heavy
rains, floods, and droughts compared with the other crops. These results are also reflected
in corn’s production yield and values.

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Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 25
Figure 6. Damaged crop areas and hydrometeorological phenomena with disaster declarations in
the State of Veracruz from 2001 to 2020. (a) Number of damaged hectares; (b) number of disaster
declarations by year. Source: based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters
statistics [15] and the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
In this regard, the most affected years by heavy rains were 2010, 2012, 2015, and 2016,
when almost 50% of DD by excessive rainfall was recorded. On its side, tropical cyclones
caused more DD during 2005, 2007, 2013, and 2017, with 82% of the total DD. Furthermore,
cold spells and hailstorms had their maximum registers during 2003, 2006, and 2013, with
55% of their incidence, while low temperatures were recorded only from 2003 to 2006.
Finally, the strong winds caused 116 and 27 DD in 2004 and 2016, respectively (Figure 6b).
3.5. Correlations between Production Data and Hydrometeorological Phenomena for the Five
Most Valuable Crops of the State of Veracruz
Of the most important crops cultivated in the State of Veracruz, only corn and sugar
cane reported damaged surfaces correlated with hydrometeorological phenomena. How-
ever, corn has the highest number of municipalities affected by these phenomena (Table
3, red numbers with one asterisk). At the same time, sugar cane only registered 17 entities,
none statistically significant (Table 3, black numbers without an asterisk). Furthermore,
corn has the most considerable harvested area rate affected by tropical cyclones, heavy
rains, floods, and droughts compared with the other crops. These results are also reflected
in corn’s production yield and values.
Figure 6.
Damaged crop areas and hydrometeorological phenomena with disaster declarations in
the State of Veracruz from 2001 to 2020. (
a
) Number of damaged hectares; (
b
) number of disaster
declarations by year. Source: based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters
statistics [15] and the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
3.6. Corn Production and Its Relationship with Hydrometeorological Hazards
The correlation analysis for corn indicates that tropical cyclones are causing the
most significant damage in cropland, with 57 municipalities correlating values above 0.70
(Figure 7a)
. The municipalities in the north and south of the State are the most vulnerable.
Heavy rains affected the central–southern regions more. Floods are causing more damage
in the south, while droughts have higher impacts in the north. The lowest damaged crop-
land is related to snow and cold temperatures because 118 municipalities do not correlate
with these phenomena, and only 12 in the mountain areas have negative correlations.
Regarding corn production (Figure 7b), tropical cyclones are the phenomena with the
highest negative correlations. The rate of harvest/sown is the most affected data, with
54 municipalities
correlating values below
−
0.50, followed by the volume with 22, and
yield with 16. The most affected sites are located in the northern and southern regions of
the State.
Figure 8shows production values correlated with disaster declarations for sugar cane
cultivation from 2003 to 2020. Only nine municipalities reported damaged cropland from
2019 to 2020, but only two had one DD by either heavy rains or floods, and none had
statistical significance. Regarding the production data, tropical cyclones and excessive
precipitations have the highest negative correlations, affecting the center and northwest
parts of the State.

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 11 of 23
Table 3.
Number of municipalities cultivating the five most valuable crops affected by hydrometeoro-
logical hazards correlated with production values from 2003 to 2020 in the State of Veracruz.
Heavy
Rains
Tropical
Cyclones Floods Cold Spells, Hail Sstorms, and
Low Temperatures Droughts Strong
Winds
Damaged cropland
(+) (−) (+) (−) (+) (−) (+) (−) (+) (−) (+) (−)
¥Corn 80 106 129 56 45 35 12 82 30 64 5 72
* 5 0* 57 0* 23 0* 2 0* 9 0* 2 0
Sugar cane 2 7 0 9 1 8 0 0 0 7 0 0
Lemon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Orange 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pineapple 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The harvested area over the sown area
Corn 101 85 53 132 37 43 83 11 63 31 73 5
0* 6 0* 54 0* 23 0* 2 0* 13 0* 3
Sugar cane 48 42 72 17 27 9 40 7 16 22 25 5
1 * 5 * 06 * 02 * 02 * 05 * 01 *
Lemon 34 19 37 15 14 10 16 1 22 12 8 8
2 * 4 * 02 * 02 * 0 1 0 5 * 01 *
Orange 38 25 53 10 26 10 26 0 29 14 11 7
02 * 03 * 01 * 0 0 0 6 * 01 *
Pineapple 5 6 6 5 8 1 1 0 6 2 3 0
0 0 0 4 * 0 0 0 0 1 * 1 * 0 0
Production yield
Corn 73 136 47 161 44 43 49 60 51 47 58 33
1 * 2 * 0 16 * 4 * 3 * 5 * 2 * 1 * 9 * 3 * 0
Sugar cane 45 56 61 40 18 19 34 14 19 27 15 16
6 * 6 * 7 * 8 * 02 * 8 0 1 * 4 * 0 0
Lemon 21 44 24 40 10 19 9 9 30 13 8 10
2 * 2 * 5 * 4 * 11 * 3 * 1 * 1 * 0 0 1 *
Orange 37 57 47 46 19 25 21 14 35 26 16 11
1 * 9 * 9 * 5 * 02 * 4 * 1 * 1 * 2 * 0 0
Pineapple 6 8 3 11 3 7 0 1 4 5 2 1
2 * 1 * 1 * 4 * 01 * 0 0 0 2 * 01 *
Production value
Corn 120 89 34 174 35 52 4 105 59 39 24 67
1 * 3 * 013 * 3 * 1 * 0 8 * 01 * 2 * 4 *
Sugar cane 56 45 34 67 22 15 11 36 30 15 4 26
9 * 3 * 2 * 6 * 0 1 * 3 * 0 3 * 2 * 0 0
Lemon 19 46 14 50 10 19 1 17 27 16 7 11
3 * 4 * 2 * 0 3 0 0 2 * 3 * 1 * 0 0
Orange 27 67 8 86 19 26 5 31 46 15 11 16
2 * 2 * 02 * 4 0 0 1 * 4 * 0 0 2 *
Pineapple 5 9 4 10 2 8 0 1 4 5 1 2
01 * 0000 0 1 * 01 * 0 0
¥
Corn is the only crop with damaged cropland and statistically significant correlations in one or more munici-
palities, (+): number of municipalities with positive correlations, (
−
): number of municipalities with negative
correlations, * number of municipalities statistically significant with hydrometeorological disasters (p
≤
0.05); the
red colors indicate significances associated with agricultural damages.
Figure 9shows lemon production values correlated with DD in the State of Veracruz
from 2003 to 2020. There is no damaged cropland reported for this crop. Droughts registered
the highest negative correlations with the rate of harvest/sown, located in the south and
northeastern sides of the State. Tropical cyclones negatively affect production volume and
yield in the northern center, with some entities in the southern regions of the State. Heavy
rains negatively affected municipalities in the center–northern and southeastern parts of
the State.

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3.6. Corn Production and Its Relationship with Hydrometeorological Hazards
The correlation analysis for corn indicates that tropical cyclones are causing the most
significant damage in cropland, with 57 municipalities correlating values above 0.70 (Fig-
ure 7a). The municipalities in the north and south of the State are the most vulnerable.
Heavy rains affected the central–southern regions more. Floods are causing more damage
in the south, while droughts have higher impacts in the north. The lowest damaged
cropland is related to snow and cold temperatures because 118 municipalities do not cor-
relate with these phenomena, and only 12 in the mountain areas have negative correla-
tions.
Figure 7. (a) Damaged corn land and production values correlated with disaster declarations in the
municipalities of the State of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. (b) Corn production data with the highest
correlations with disaster declarations. No correlation: sites with no correlation with the phenom-
ena. Source: projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters sta-
tistics [15] and the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Regarding corn production (Figure 7b), tropical cyclones are the phenomena with the
highest negative correlations. The rate of harvest/sown is the most affected data, with 54
municipalities correlating values below −0.50, followed by the volume with 22, and yield
with 16. The most affected sites are located in the northern and southern regions of the
State.
Figure 8 shows production values correlated with disaster declarations for sugar cane
cultivation from 2003 to 2020. Only nine municipalities reported damaged cropland from
2019 to 2020, but only two had one DD by either heavy rains or floods, and none had
statistical significance. Regarding the production data, tropical cyclones and excessive
precipitations have the highest negative correlations, affecting the center and northwest
parts of the State.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.
(
a
) Damaged corn land and production values correlated with disaster declarations in
the municipalities of the State of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. (
b
) Corn production data with the
highest correlations with disaster declarations. No correlation: sites with no correlation with the
phenomena. Source: projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters
statistics [15] and the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 25
Figure 8. Sugar cane damaged cropland and production values correlated with disaster declarations
in the municipalities of the State of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. No sugar cane: entities with no
sugar cane crops. No correlation: sites with no correlation with the phenomena. Source: projections
based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15] and the Mexican
National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 9 shows lemon production values correlated with DD in the State of Veracruz
from 2003 to 2020. There is no damaged cropland reported for this crop. Droughts regis-
tered the highest negative correlations with the rate of harvest/sown, located in the south
and northeastern sides of the State. Tropical cyclones negatively affect production volume
and yield in the northern center, with some entities in the southern regions of the State.
Heavy rains negatively affected municipalities in the center–northern and southeastern
parts of the State.
Figure 9. Lemon crop data correlated with Disaster Declarations in the municipalities of the State of
Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. No correlation: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source: pro-
jections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15] and the
Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 10 shows the correlations between orange crop data and DD in the municipal-
ities where this crop is cultivated. Droughts have the highest negative correlations for the
harvest/sown rate, with three sites in the south and six in the northern parts of the terri-
tory. Heavy rains have the highest negative correlations with production volume and
Figure 8.
Sugar cane damaged cropland and production values correlated with disaster declarations
in the municipalities of the State of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. No sugar cane: entities with no
sugar cane crops. No correlation: sites with no correlation with the phenomena. Source: projections
based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [
15
] and the Mexican
National Agrifood System [5].

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Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 25
Figure 8. Sugar cane damaged cropland and production values correlated with disaster declarations
in the municipalities of the State of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. No sugar cane: entities with no
sugar cane crops. No correlation: sites with no correlation with the phenomena. Source: projections
based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15] and the Mexican
National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 9 shows lemon production values correlated with DD in the State of Veracruz
from 2003 to 2020. There is no damaged cropland reported for this crop. Droughts regis-
tered the highest negative correlations with the rate of harvest/sown, located in the south
and northeastern sides of the State. Tropical cyclones negatively affect production volume
and yield in the northern center, with some entities in the southern regions of the State.
Heavy rains negatively affected municipalities in the center–northern and southeastern
parts of the State.
Figure 9. Lemon crop data correlated with Disaster Declarations in the municipalities of the State of
Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. No correlation: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source: pro-
jections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15] and the
Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 10 shows the correlations between orange crop data and DD in the municipal-
ities where this crop is cultivated. Droughts have the highest negative correlations for the
harvest/sown rate, with three sites in the south and six in the northern parts of the terri-
tory. Heavy rains have the highest negative correlations with production volume and
Figure 9.
Lemon crop data correlated with Disaster Declarations in the municipalities of the State
of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. No correlation: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source:
projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [
15
] and
the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 10 shows the correlations between orange crop data and DD in the munici-
palities where this crop is cultivated. Droughts have the highest negative correlations for
the harvest/sown rate, with three sites in the south and six in the northern parts of the
territory. Heavy rains have the highest negative correlations with production volume and
yield, affecting the northern, central–south, and southwestern sides of the State. Finally,
the production value was most affected by tropical cyclones in the southern and northern
regions of the State.
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 25
yield, affecting the northern, central–south, and southwestern sides of the State. Finally,
the production value was most affected by tropical cyclones in the southern and northern
regions of the State.
Figure 10. Orange crop data correlated with disaster declarations in the municipalities of the State
of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Correlation = 0: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source:
projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15] and
the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 11 shows the pineapple production data correlated with DD in the State of
Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Only 2019 had 110 ha of damaged cropland in one munici-
pality, which did not report DD during this period. For pineapple, tropical cyclones are
the phenomena causing more decrements in the production variables (harvest over sown,
volume, and yield), except by the production value, where heavy rains had the highest
negative correlations with this data. Heavy rains mainly affect the production volume in
one place in the center and one on the southern side of the State.
Figure 11. Pineapple crop data correlated with disaster declarations in the municipalities of the State
of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Correlation = 0: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source:
projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15] and
the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 10.
Orange crop data correlated with disaster declarations in the municipalities of the State
of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Correlation = 0: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source:
projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [
15
] and
the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 14 of 23
Figure 11 shows the pineapple production data correlated with DD in the State of
Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Only 2019 had 110 ha of damaged cropland in one municipality,
which did not report DD during this period. For pineapple, tropical cyclones are the
phenomena causing more decrements in the production variables (harvest over sown,
volume, and yield), except by the production value, where heavy rains had the highest
negative correlations with this data. Heavy rains mainly affect the production volume in
one place in the center and one on the southern side of the State.
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 25
yield, affecting the northern, central–south, and southwestern sides of the State. Finally,
the production value was most affected by tropical cyclones in the southern and northern
regions of the State.
Figure 10. Orange crop data correlated with disaster declarations in the municipalities of the State
of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Correlation = 0: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source:
projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15] and
the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 11 shows the pineapple production data correlated with DD in the State of
Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Only 2019 had 110 ha of damaged cropland in one munici-
pality, which did not report DD during this period. For pineapple, tropical cyclones are
the phenomena causing more decrements in the production variables (harvest over sown,
volume, and yield), except by the production value, where heavy rains had the highest
negative correlations with this data. Heavy rains mainly affect the production volume in
one place in the center and one on the southern side of the State.
Figure 11. Pineapple crop data correlated with disaster declarations in the municipalities of the State
of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Correlation = 0: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source:
projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [15] and
the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
Figure 11.
Pineapple crop data correlated with disaster declarations in the municipalities of the State
of Veracruz from 2003 to 2020. Correlation = 0: sites with no correlation with phenomena. Source:
projections based on data from the Mexican National Center to Prevent Disasters statistics [
15
] and
the Mexican National Agrifood System [5].
3.7. Relationship between Harvested Surface and Hydrometeorological Phenomena
Figure 12 shows the relationship between harvested/sown surface rate and the most
adverse hydrometeorological phenomenon. Again, the highest correlation was found for
the corn crop, where the harvested land rate decreased by 0.17%, with tropical cyclones
impacting the affected sites. For lemon and orange, the harvested land can decrease
by
5.3 to 0.74%
with the number of droughts. In comparison, sugar cane and pineapple
decreased their harvested area by 1.9 to 3.4% with tropical cyclones.
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25
3.7. Relationship between Harvested Surface and Hydrometeorological Phenomena
Figure 12 shows the relationship between harvested/sown surface rate and the most
adverse hydrometeorological phenomenon. Again, the highest correlation was found for
the corn crop, where the harvested land rate decreased by 0.17%, with tropical cyclones
impacting the affected sites. For lemon and orange, the harvested land can decrease by 5.3
to 0.74% with the number of droughts. In comparison, sugar cane and pineapple de-
creased their harvested area by 1.9 to 3.4% with tropical cyclones.
Figure 12. Regression lines and linear equations predicting the relationship between the harvested
over sown surface rate with the most adverse hydrometeorological phenomenon for the five most
valuable crops in the State of Veracruz. R2 indicates the coefficient of determination.
4. Discussion
4.1. Hydrometeorological Hazards Causing Disaster Declarations
This research indicates that heavy rains are the leading causes of DD in the State of
Veracruz, with their more severe consequences on the southeastern side of the territory,
below the 19 parallel. In this regard, it is essential to mention that the geographic location
of Veracruz state exposes it to different climatic phenomena. These phenomena are east-
erly ways, frontal systems, and tropical cyclones, which generate extreme regional pre-
cipitations. Additionally, this region has teleconnections with synoptic phenomena that
modify average rainfall, increasing precipitations substantially [29]. Furthermore, the In-
ter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is displaced during summer to northern latitudes,
reaching part of Veracruz and generating heavy precipitations in the southern part of the
State [30]. Therefore, regions below the 19 parallel have constant DD due to floods and
heavy rains. Thus, these territories have tropical climates (Am and Af), having
Figure 12. Cont.

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Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25
3.7. Relationship between Harvested Surface and Hydrometeorological Phenomena
Figure 12 shows the relationship between harvested/sown surface rate and the most
adverse hydrometeorological phenomenon. Again, the highest correlation was found for
the corn crop, where the harvested land rate decreased by 0.17%, with tropical cyclones
impacting the affected sites. For lemon and orange, the harvested land can decrease by 5.3
to 0.74% with the number of droughts. In comparison, sugar cane and pineapple de-
creased their harvested area by 1.9 to 3.4% with tropical cyclones.
Figure 12. Regression lines and linear equations predicting the relationship between the harvested
over sown surface rate with the most adverse hydrometeorological phenomenon for the five most
valuable crops in the State of Veracruz. R2 indicates the coefficient of determination.
4. Discussion
4.1. Hydrometeorological Hazards Causing Disaster Declarations
This research indicates that heavy rains are the leading causes of DD in the State of
Veracruz, with their more severe consequences on the southeastern side of the territory,
below the 19 parallel. In this regard, it is essential to mention that the geographic location
of Veracruz state exposes it to different climatic phenomena. These phenomena are east-
erly ways, frontal systems, and tropical cyclones, which generate extreme regional pre-
cipitations. Additionally, this region has teleconnections with synoptic phenomena that
modify average rainfall, increasing precipitations substantially [29]. Furthermore, the In-
ter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is displaced during summer to northern latitudes,
reaching part of Veracruz and generating heavy precipitations in the southern part of the
State [30]. Therefore, regions below the 19 parallel have constant DD due to floods and
heavy rains. Thus, these territories have tropical climates (Am and Af), having
Figure 12.
Regression lines and linear equations predicting the relationship between the harvested
over sown surface rate with the most adverse hydrometeorological phenomenon for the five most
valuable crops in the State of Veracruz. R2indicates the coefficient of determination.
4. Discussion
4.1. Hydrometeorological Hazards Causing Disaster Declarations
This research indicates that heavy rains are the leading causes of DD in the State of
Veracruz, with their more severe consequences on the southeastern side of the territory,
below the 19 parallel. In this regard, it is essential to mention that the geographic location
of Veracruz state exposes it to different climatic phenomena. These phenomena are easterly
ways, frontal systems, and tropical cyclones, which generate extreme regional precipita-
tions. Additionally, this region has teleconnections with synoptic phenomena that modify
average rainfall, increasing precipitations substantially [
29
]. Furthermore, the Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is displaced during summer to northern latitudes, reaching part
of Veracruz and generating heavy precipitations in the southern part of the State [
30
].
Therefore, regions below the 19 parallel have constant DD due to floods and heavy rains.
Thus, these territories have tropical climates (Am and Af), having precipitations up to
600 mm during the driest month, according to a Köppen–Geiger classification developed
for Mexico [
31
], plus large water bodies, swamps, and wetlands, some transformed into
agricultural lands or human settlements [
24
]. Some of these municipalities can receive
2500 to 4500 mm
of rain yearly and up to 1200 mm during the rainiest month [
11
,
24
,
32
].
Thus, agricultural lands or human settlements can be flooded or receive heavy rains in short
periods, saturating the soils and causing disasters to their inhabitants or crops. Therefore,
special care must be taken in these areas if future infrastructures or developments are
planned since flood projections in other regions of North America indicate that they may
increase over time [33].
Tropical cyclones are the second cause of disasters, mainly from the center to the
northern regions of the State, between the 20 and 22 parallels. The State’s location along
the Gulf of Mexico makes the territory very prone to tropical cyclones that impact between
the 18 and 22 parallels. Above parallel 19, tropical storms and hurricanes are the leading
causes of DD, with three hurricanes (one category one, one category two, and one category
three) impacting the eastern side of the State during the studied period [34].
This situation can be explained because Mexico has two cyclogenesis zones. One is
in the Atlantic Ocean (the Gulf of Mexico), and the other is in the Pacific Ocean. From
May to November, these regions have a surface sea temperature higher than 26
◦
C, which,
combined with convective instabilities, low pressures, and other factors, favor tropical
cyclones that can impact the Mexican coasts from the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans [
10
].
Regarding the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO), when this oscillation is located
in its positive phase, it generates intense precipitations caused by a relatively substantial

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 16 of 23
increase in the mid-tropospheric lapse rate, low-level humidity, potential instability, and
elevated topography. [35].
The historical hurricane tracks registered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration of the United States (NOAA) from 2000 to 2020 confirm this situation
(Figure 13) [34].
Atmosphere 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 25
Figure 13. Tracts of tropical cyclones affecting the State of Veracruz from 1999 to 2020. Line colors
indicate their category: light blue = tropical depression, green = tropical storm, grey = hurricane
category 1, orange = hurricane category 2, red = hurricane category 3, and dark blue = hurricane
category 4. Source: graphical representation obtained with data provided by the NOAA [34].
Despite many hazards from heavy rains and hurricanes, droughts also affect more
than 50% of Veracruz, the northern (above parallel 20) and a small part of the central side
(between the 18 and 19 parallels) being the most affected. Problems with drought decla-
rations could be related to the fact that these territories have an Aw0 climate type, consid-
ered the driest of the Aw climates, where the driest month has an average of 43 mm of
rain, according to a particular study for the State [36]. In addition, previous research has
found that droughts are a recurrent and cyclic phenomenon causing decrements in agri-
cultural production and problems in social systems in these regions of the State [24,37].
Thus, new policies need to be implemented to promote sustainable and resilient agricul-
tural strategies to avoid crop losses in the future.
Other phenomena generating DD are low temperatures, cold spells, and hailstorms.
These phenomena occur from October to May in mountain regions, when cold fronts from
the United States’ northwest reach the State of Veracruz [11]. Locations above 1000 m
above sea level or at the northern side of the State (above parallel 19) may experience low
temperatures, while cold spells and hailstorms occur in the higher altitudes (1500 m or
more) in the central and northern regions of the State (Figure 2). The municipalities with
higher cold spells and hail storms are located above 2000 m, with average temperatures
Figure 13.
Tracts of tropical cyclones affecting the State of Veracruz from 1999 to 2020. Line colors
indicate their category: light blue = tropical depression, green = tropical storm, grey = hurricane
category 1, orange = hurricane category 2, red = hurricane category 3, and dark blue = hurricane
category 4. Source: graphical representation obtained with data provided by the NOAA [34].
Despite many hazards from heavy rains and hurricanes, droughts also affect more
than 50% of Veracruz, the northern (above parallel 20) and a small part of the central
side (between the 18 and 19 parallels) being the most affected. Problems with drought
declarations could be related to the fact that these territories have an Aw
0
climate type,
considered the driest of the Aw climates, where the driest month has an average of 43 mm
of rain, according to a particular study for the State [
36
]. In addition, previous research
has found that droughts are a recurrent and cyclic phenomenon causing decrements in
agricultural production and problems in social systems in these regions of the State [
24
,
37
].
Thus, new policies need to be implemented to promote sustainable and resilient agricultural
strategies to avoid crop losses in the future.
Other phenomena generating DD are low temperatures, cold spells, and hailstorms.
These phenomena occur from October to May in mountain regions, when cold fronts from

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 17 of 23
the United States’ northwest reach the State of Veracruz [
11
]. Locations above 1000 m
above sea level or at the northern side of the State (above parallel 19) may experience low
temperatures, while cold spells and hailstorms occur in the higher altitudes (1500 m or
more) in the central and northern regions of the State (Figure 2). The municipalities with
higher cold spells and hail storms are located above 2000 m, with average temperatures
below 16
◦
C and cold–dry climate types [
24
]. Thus, abnormally cold winters may generate
DD caused by excessive snow or colder temperatures.
The phenomena identified as “strong winds” is caused by polar cold fronts carrying
cold, dry masses and strong winds. Their most significant impacts are reported in the
northeastern and central mountain regions of the State. According to Luna and Cavazos [
38
],
the interaction between the front systems and the complex mountains of the oriental region
creates a coastal barrier jet in the Gulf of Mexico. This jet causes the frontal cold winds that
impact the northern side of the State to change their direction to the center of the territory.
Later, the winds in the oriental mountain region are sent to the south, where the Tuxtlas
mountain region is located. In this location, they are sent to the isthmus of Tehuantepec. In
this regard, municipalities having DD by strong winds are situated near the mountains,
where the paths of the winds coincide.
These winds are more frequent and stronger from November to March, when they can
have gusts of winds up to 100 mk/h affecting cultivars and manufactured
structures [32,39,40]
that trigger DD.
4.2. Agricultural Data and Disaster Declarations
DD analysis indicates that tropical cyclones contribute to the highest damaged crop-
land in the State’s five most valuable crops, with decrements in the harvested surface in
corn, sugar cane, orange, and pineapple. Similarly, they are associated with the highest
decrements in production yields in corn, sugar cane, lemon, orange, and pineapple; and
a reduction in the production value of corn. Besides this, tropical cyclones significantly
correlate with damaged potato, hot pepper, and pumpkin cropland. Although the total
damaged cropland of all these crops only comprised 1.48% of the entire damaged cropland
of corn because this crop has the highest surface sown in the studied region [5].
Hurricanes can cause excessive precipitation, strong winds, floods, and landslides
in mountain regions [
40
]. This study found a correlation between tropical cyclones and
floods in the PCA analysis (Figure 4). Therefore, one event can trigger another that may
damage extensive croplands [
3
], especially in the municipalities from parallel 20 and above,
where tropical cyclones increase excessive rains due to the mountain ranges and hydrologic
basins in this area [41].
According to the NOAA record trajectories, the State of Veracruz is vulnerable to
receiving hurricane impacts directly from the Atlantic Ocean or indirectly from the Pacific
Ocean [
34
]. In the Atlantic coasts, from south to north, tropical cyclones can impact
Veracruz, while below parallel 18, tropical hurricanes from the Pacific Ocean may still reach
the State.
4.3. Corn Production and Hydrometeorological Hazards
Corn production data are the most affected by tropical cyclones, as the highest negative
correlations indicate (Table 3). These results correlate with the most significant extension of
corn-sown areas, with more than double the second most sown crop (sugar cane) area. In
addition, corn is cultivated in 98% of the entities of the State during two agricultural cycles:
spring–summer (April to September) and autumn–winter (October to March) [5,42]. Both
cycles when the hurricane period occurs in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans surrounding
Mexico [
34
], which may start in the region by the end of May and finish at the beginning
of November [
43
]. This fact can be observed in 2005 and 2007, when the highest losses in
harvested hectares of corn occurred (with decrements of 12 and 17%, respectively), and the
highest number of DD caused by tropical cyclones was recorded (Figure 6).

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 18 of 23
Corn is susceptible to excessive precipitations and strong winds caused by hurri-
canes [
42
]. Therefore, tropical cyclones with up to 440 mm of rain during four days and
winds more than 64 km/h [
41
,
43
] may cause root lodging or break plants with partial or
total crop loss [
44
]. For example, in 2005, when the highest disaster declarations by tropical
cyclones were recorded, the affected municipalities reported 90% damaged cropland in
their corn production, the most elevated damaged crop surface recorded in the Veracruz
during 2001–2020. However, for the case of the year with the highest number of excessive
rains (2015), the average damaged cropland was 37% below the average of 2003–2020, and
its production value only decreased by 3% in the affected municipalities. This reduction
may be related to the fact that rains favor corn productivity in the driest areas, such as
the northern and southern regions of the State (Figure 2). This performance can be seen
in Figure 7a, where the highest correlations with DD by heavy rains negatively correlate
with damaged cropland in the highest quantity of the municipalities. Thus, the years with
heavier rains have positive impacts in the driest places.
Drought is the other extreme phenomenon causing damaged cropland, affecting
mainly the northern regions of Veracruz (Figure 7a). These regions had the highest DD
due to drought, and the harvested surface decreased by 7% when the highest droughts
were recorded in 2019. This phenomenon has been previously reported as affecting corn
productivity in Veracruz and Mexico [
45
–
47
]. Although, in Veracruz, there are different
corn varieties developed for each specific climate type [
45
], developing infrastructures to
capture and store water in these municipalities to avoid damage to croplands in future
drought periods is essential, especially for the northern side of the State.
4.4. Production Data and Hydrometeorological Phenomena for the Four Most Valuable Crops of the
State of Veracruz
Sugar cane, lemon, orange, and pineapple do not correlate with any hydromete-
orological phenomenon associated with DD and damaged cropland in the study zone.
For example, one municipality declared 337 ha of damaged cropland for sugar cane in
2019, and three sites reported 1227 ha in 2019, but they did not correlate with any phe-
nomenon. Furthermore, one place recorded 101 ha of damaged cropland for pineapple in
2020 without DD.
In Veracruz, sugar cane is cultivated in 84 municipalities along the central southern
and northern regions of the State. Tropical cyclones mainly affect this crop’s harvest/sown
surface rate, with up to 30% losses during the higher number of tropical cyclones recorded
(Figure 12). These decrements were caused because cyclone’s strong winds can break the
stalks [
48
]. These results are congruent with one Mexican study that has determined that
sugar cane is vulnerable to hydrometeorological hazards in its harvest over sown rate and
yields because these phenomena can affect not only the land but the productive and social
system linked to this crop [49].
For sugar cane, heavy rains may affect their production volume in sites with Am and
Aw
2
climates, with higher precipitations than Aw
1
or Aw
0
climates. This behavior is ex-
plained because sugar cane needs higher rainfalls (1500 mm) while it is in a growing phase.
However, when it should be harvested during maturity, excessive rains and humidity cause
a decrement in its juice quality [48].
Lemon and orange products have no damaged land registered during 2001–2020. In
this regard, we must consider that lemons and oranges are products obtained from trees [
50
],
more resistant to excessive rains and extreme winds caused by tropical cyclones, and they
are only cultivated in 29 municipalities of Veracruz. Nevertheless, their productivity was
negatively impacted by tropical cyclones and excessive rainfall, mainly in the regions
located above parallel 20, where more than 50% of the impact of the tropical cyclones
occurred (Figure 13), decreasing up to 11% of their production value during 2005 when the
highest number of tropical cyclones was recorded. Furthermore, these phenomena also
can decrease production yield because excessive rains are associated with fungal diseases
attacking citrus trees, such as Phytophthora citrophthora and Colletotrichum acutatum, which

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 19 of 23
cause flowers and fruits to decay [
51
]. On the other side, citrus trees are also vulnerable
to drought (Figure 12) [
52
], decreasing the rate of the harvest/sown area by up to 10% in
sites where there are DD by this phenomenon (Figures 2,9and 10). Although there are no
social studies about this issue in these regions, this situation has been reported by local
newspapers [
53
] and perceived by local farmers in the neighboring State of Campeche,
where they consider that drought is increasing due to climate change, negatively affecting
lemon production [54].
Pineapple has no damaged cropland. This crop is cultivated only in 14 municipalities
of Veracruz, most of them located on the southwestern side and only two on the north-
eastern side of the State, where Aw
2
climate types are predominant. In these locations,
tropical cyclones are the leading cause of decrement of up to 47% in the harvest/sown area
rate (Figure 12). For example, in 2005, when the highest number of tropical cyclones were
recorded, production yield and volume had their highest decrement (18%, 10%, and 7%,
respectively) because most of the municipalities cultivating pineapple had two or three DD
by tropical cyclones. The effects on productivity in pineapple can be related to the fact that
this plant has very shallow roots (0.85 m depth); thus, it is prone to be uprooted by strong
winds and heavy rains caused by cyclones.
4.5. Production Data and Hydrometeorological Phenomena for Other Crops with Lower
Production Values
There are two crops with the highest damaged cropland in terms of sown cropland
besides corn: soy and sorghum.
Soy (Glycine max) is cultivated in only one municipality located on the northern side
of Veracruz (Pánuco, above parallel 21), and this crop had a total loss of cropland in 2012
and 2019. In 2012 there was no disaster declaration for this site; however, in 2011, there
was one caused by drought, and in 2019 the same phenomena caused another. Soy requires
an average of 530 mm during its maturation cycle (90–150 days) but tolerates up to 250 mm
before flowering [
55
]. In Mexico, soy is sown during the spring–summer agricultural cycle,
expecting summer precipitations before flowering [56].
Nevertheless, the site where soy is cultivated in Veracruz has the driest Aw climate
type (Aw
0
). Therefore, it is one of the municipalities with more disaster declarations by
droughts [
15
]. Thus, although soy can be a tolerant crop, drought seasons can cause the
total loss of this cultivar during the flowering stage [
56
] in the northern regions of the State
where it is cultivated (Figures 2and 6).
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare L.) is sown in 29 municipalities on the southern and north-
ern sides of the State, but the northern sites have more than 90% of the planted surface [
5
].
These places also have the highest number of DD by cold spells and low temperatures,
coinciding with the years with the highest number of damaged croplands, followed by the
drought recorded in 2019 [
15
]. Sorghum is more tolerant to drought than corn during its
growing period (90–150 days). Nevertheless, temperatures lower than 15
◦
C can damage the
plants [55]; thus, DD by cold spells could be associated with sorghum-damaged cropland.
Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are the fourth crop reporting damaged cropland. This crop
is part of the base food chain in Mexico [
50
] and cultivated in 160 to 166 municipalities of
Veracruz [
5
], with more than 50% cropland in the northern or central mountains of Veracruz.
These places had recorded DD by low temperatures and cold spells in the years when 80%
of the damaged cropland was recorded and 20% when droughts were reported. In Mexico,
beans can be cultivated in different climate types, from warm to temperate (Aw to Cw), due
to their thermic range from 2 to 27
◦
C. However, they do not tolerate frost or temperatures
lower than 0
◦
C and require 350 to 500 mm of rain during their growing and maturation
period (90 to 180 days), depending on the site where they grow [
55
]. Thus, they are
susceptible to drought, and plants can wilt quickly during a drought season. Therefore, the
cold temperatures and droughts recorded in the municipalities where damaged croplands
are reported can be the leading causes of the losses.

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 20 of 23
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the fifth most damaged crop. It is cultivated in an average of
15 municipalities of Veracruz, mainly located in the southern regions of the State [
5
], below
parallel 19, with wet–warm climates (annual rainfall exceeding 1500 mm and average
temperatures above 20
◦
C) [
24
]. In Mexico, this grain requires an average of 300 mm of
monthly rain during its growing period [
55
]; thus, it is susceptible to drought, as the highest
damaged cropland during the driest years confirms (Table 2, Figure 6). Therefore, if more
extended drought periods occur in the places where rice is sown, rainwater harvesting or
store systems should be built to avoid losses in this crop.
4.6. Scope and Limitations of the Present Research
For this research, we used a combination of governmental disaster statistics and
agricultural data to determine the relationship between hydrometeorological hazards
and local crop productivity because in-site meteorological information is deficient in the
study region. This way, we could find relevant information for specific species congruent
with these crops’ reported performance during these phenomena. Nevertheless, some
results are limited because governmental statistics depend on their local administrations,
where the capabilities of their employees to report data might be implicated. Therefore,
we recommend investigating other sources or instruments, such as satellite images and
personal interviews with local producers, to develop better methodologies to study the
effects of hydrometeorological phenomena on crops in regions with similar problems.
5. Conclusions
This research has found that disaster governmental statistics can be used to solve
missing in-site climatic data to determine the impacts of hydrometeorological hazards on
rainfed crops in the State of Veracruz. Seven hydrometeorological phenomena (heavy rains,
tropical cyclones, floods, cold spells and hail storms, strong winds, low temperatures, and
droughts) affect the State of Veracruz, causing disaster declarations. This high number of
hydrometeorological phenomena is related to its vast territory along the Gulf of Mexico,
between 16 and 22 parallels, crossed by three major mountain ranges.
Tropical cyclones are the primary cause of disaster declarations affecting crop produc-
tivity in the State of Veracruz. Among the five most valuable cultivars of the State, corn
(the crop with the highest sown surface) is most affected by these phenomena, followed
by floods, droughts, and heavy rains. Sugar cane is the second most affected by tropical
cyclones, heavy rains, and droughts, followed by orange and lemon, while pineapple is
most affected by tropical cyclones and droughts. We also conclude that low temperatures,
cold spells, and strong winds in the mountain regions affect other minor cultivars, such as
tomato, sorghum, and beans.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, O.A.V.-R.; methodology, O.A.V.-R.; formal analysis,
O.A.V.-R.; investigation, O.A.V.-R., O.M.P.-W. and
F.S.-M.
; resources, O.A.V.-R., O.M.P.-W. and
F.S.-M.
;
data curation, O.A.V.-R., O.M.P.-W. and
F.S.-M.
; writing—original draft preparation,
O.A.V.-R.
;
writing—review and editing, O.A.V.-R., O.M.P.-W. and F.S.-M. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement:
The data used in this research belong to public Mexican agricultural
databases obtained from: http://infosiap.siap.gob.mx/gobmx/datosAbiertos.php, accessed on
1 December 2022
, and the Disaster Prevention Center from: http://www.atlasnacionalderiesgos.gob.
mx/apps/Declaratorias/, accessed on 1 December 2022. Data processed to obtain our results can be
accessed by emailing the corresponding author.

Atmosphere 2023,14, 287 21 of 23
Acknowledgments:
These authors acknowledge the English grammar review and improvement
provided by Olga Reyes.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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