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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | REVIEW ARTICLE
HACCP, quality, and food safety management in
food and agricultural systems
Chinaza Godswill Awuchi
1,2
*
Abstract: The burden of foodborne diseases and their associated illness/death is a
global concern. Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) and food safety/
quality management are employed to combat this problem. With the existing and
emerging food safety/quality management concerns, this study aims to evaluate
the traditional and modern/novel approach to improving HACCP, food safety, and
quality management in food and agricultural systems. The modern innovations in
food safety management were integrated into improving the traditional HACCP
system, including its principles, applications, steps, plans, standards, etc., as well as
food safety factors and management, for improved safety/quality in food, agricul-
tural, and pharmaceutical industries. The study identified many factors responsible
for food contamination, including chemical contaminants, such as allergens, hista-
mine, cyanogenic glycosides, mycotoxins, toxic elements, etc., biological contami-
nants, such as Campylobacter, Brucella, viruses, Escherichia coli, prions,
Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, protozoa, parasitic pathogens, etc.,
and physical contaminants, such as bone, glass, metal, personal effects, plastic,
stones, wood, etc. The results of this study present descriptive preliminary HACCP
steps, HACCP principles, safe food handling procedures, ISO 22000, Water quality
management, food labelling, etc., with recent modern developments and innova-
tions to ensure food safety and quality management. The study also identified
modern/novel technologies for HACCP and food safety management, including light
technologies, artificial intelligence (AI), novel freezing (isochoric freezing), automa-
tion, and software for easy detection and control of contaminants. With all these
understanding and development, the domestic, food, agricultural, and pharmaceu-
tical industries can be well position to ensure safety and quality of products.
Subjects: Natural Hazards & Risk; Food Additives & Ingredients; Food Analysis; Food
Microbiology; Food Packaging; Food Laws &Regulations; Food Safety Management; Food
Manufacturing &Related Industries
Keywords: food safety; HACCP; foodborne illness; food quality; good manufacturing
practice (GMP); critical control point; hazard analysis
1. Introduction
Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) is a food safety (also known as food hygiene)
approach that employs systematic preventive methods to protect foods and consumers from
chemical, physical, and biological hazards/contaminants. It is mostly applied in production pro-
cesses and also in postproduction processes to ensure that no contaminant is present to make the
finished products unsafe, and designs measures to reduce the risks of contaminants to safe level
Awuchi, Cogent Food & Agriculture (2023), 9: 2176280
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2023.2176280
© 2023 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
Received: 06 November 2022
Accepted: 30 January 2023
*Corresponding author: Chinaza
Godswill Awuchi, School of Natural
and Applied Sciences, Kampala
International University, P.O. Box
20000 Kansanga, Kampala, Uganda
E-mail: awuchichinaza@gmail.com;
awuchi.chinaza@kiu.ac.ug
Reviewing editor:
María Luisa Escudero Gilete,
Nutrition and Bromatology,
Universidad de Sevilla, Spain
Additional information is available at
the end of the article
Page 1 of 29
at most. HACCP and food safety are inseparable. Proper HACCP application is a requirement to
guarantee food safety. Consequently, HACCP aims at avoiding hazards rather than inspecting the
finished products for hazards’ effects or presence; HACCP is a preventive approach to ensure food
safety. HACCP system is employed at all steps in a food chain, from preliminary food preparation to
production processes and postproduction handling, including raw materials, production, packa-
ging, storage, distribution, etc. Many food regulatory agencies in several countries require manda-
tory application of specific HACCP programs for different foods, such as meat, juice, dairy products,
infant formula, seafood, canned foods, etc., in order to ensure proper food safety to protect public
health and prevent the outbreak of foodborne diseases (Awuchi, Ondari, et al., 2021b; Morya et al.,
2022a; Njunina, 2022). HACCP addresses many food safety concerns, including critical factors (such
as water activity (aw), pH), bacterial pathogens (such as Clostridium botulinum, Escherichia coli,
Listeria, Salmonella, Vibrio cholerae, Cronobacter spp, etc.), viral pathogens (such as Enterovirus,
Hepatitis A, Norovirus, Rotavirus, etc.), parasitic pathogens (such as Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba
histolytica, Giardia, Trichinella, etc.), toxic microbial metabolites (such as mycotoxins), etc. (Center
for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017).
Food safety employs scientific methods to preparation, handling, and storage of foods to
prevent food-borne diseases/illness. Food-borne disease outbreak has been described as the
occurrence of at least two cases of similar illness caused by a common food ingestion (Texas
Department of State Health Services, 2015). Food safety includes many routines that have to be
followed to prevent possible health hazards. As a result, food safety usually overlaps with HACCP
and food defense to avoid harmful impacts on consumers. The major aim of HACCP and food
safety is to ensure that the foods reaching to the consumers are safe. The tracks in this measure
are safety from industries to the markets and then from markets to the consumers. The percen-
tage of HACCP implementation should be ideally 100% across all aspects of food/feed, starting
from raw materials to consumption. Implementing HACCP system involves continuous applications
of the record-keeping, monitoring, corrective actions, and all activities relevant in the HACCP plan
(Food Safety Kasza et al., 2022; News, 2018). Maintaining an effective HACCP system depends
largely on regularly scheduled verification activities. For industry to market, food safety considers
the food origin including farm practices, food hygiene, food labeling, pesticide residues, food
additives, biotechnology policies, import and export inspection guidelines, and food certification
systems (Food Safety Kasza et al., 2022; News, 2018). For market to consumer, food safety
considers that food should be safe at market, with major concern being safe food preparation
and delivery to consumers.
In addition to food industries, HACCP has been increasingly applied to other industries, including
pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. HACCP only focuses on the food products’ health safety issues,
and not on the product quality, although most food quality control and assurance systems are
based on HACCP principles. The UN FAO/WHO published a HACCP and food safety guidelines for all
governments and food industries to handle the safety issues in food businesses, including small
and developing businesses (UN FAO, 2022a,b). Food safety is very crucial, as it is inextricably linked
with food security, nutrition, and a healthy population. Over 600 million people (roughly 1 in 10
people worldwide) become ill following the consumption of contaminated food, while420000die
per year as a result, leading to the loss of over 33 million healthy life years (WHO, 2022). In low-
and middle-income nations, 110 billion US Dollars is lost every year in medical expenses and loss
of productivity due to unsafe food. Children below the age of 5 carry 40% of the burden of
foodborne disease, with125000dying each year (WHO, 2022). Foodborne diseases hamper eco-
nomic and social development by harming national economies, overstraining health care systems,
trade, etc.
This study aims at evaluating the traditional and modern/novel approach to improving HACCP,
food safety, and quality management in food handling and agricultural systems. The recent
innovations in food safety were integrated into improving the traditional HACCP system, including
its principles, applications, steps, plans, standards, etc., as well as food safety factors, measures,
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and management, for improved safety and quality in food, agricultural, and pharmaceutical
industries. Many factors responsible for food contamination and they can be contained were
extensively covered. The procedures for safe food handling, along with novel technologies to
integrate into food safety management and HACCP, are critically and systematically covered.
This study will spur the adoption of innovative approaches to HACCP and food safety management
in this contemporary and beyond. It integrates the traditional approaches to HACCP and food
safety with the recent innovations for improving HACCP, quality, and food safety management
systems, which closely intertwined.
1. Materials and methods
1.1. Search methods
We thoroughly searched relevant databases such as ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, PubMed/
MEDLINE, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UN FAO), Google, and other relevant
scientific databases using the following key terms: (“HACCP” OR “Food Safety Management” OR
“Foodborne Diseases” OR “Food Safety and Quality”) AND (“Natural Materials for Safety
Management” OR “Modern/Novel Technologies for HACCP and Food Safety Management”).
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the traditional and modern/novel approach to
improving HACCP, food safety, and quality management in food and agricultural systems. It aims
to guide domestic, local, and multinational industries on the novels ways to ensure proper food
safety and quality management along with HACCP application. The result of the study is relevant
to researchers, students, food/feed handlers, and policymakers who are working in related areas.
1.2. Inclusion criteria
The inclusion criteria include: Firstly, the article must have been published in a peer-reviewed
source. Secondly, it must have used appropriate research methods and reported the HACCP or
Food safety management or both. Only articles published in English language or other languages
but translated to English language were considered. More focus was given to recently published
articles, with some considerations on relevant articles published some years ago with no year
restrictions, and then followed the development over the years. We evaluated the title, abstract,
methodology, and references of each article.
1.3. Exclusion criteria
Articles that do not focus on HACCP, food safety, or Food quality management were excluded.
Additionally, articles that focused on HACCP, food safety, or Food quality management, but not
from peer-reviewed sources were excluded. In case of duplicate articles, only one was retained.
2. Food contamination and prevention measures
Foods are contaminated when at least one unwanted/unsafe substance is found in them, which
can happen during production, sales, cooking, packaging, transportation, and storage, as well
before and during harvest. Food contamination can be chemical, physical, or biological (Food
and Drug Administration, 2017). In this section, the factors that can contaminate foods are
presented.
2.1. Chemical contamination
Foods can be contaminated with natural and/or artificial/added chemicals. Examples of natural
chemicals that can occur in foods include allergens, scombrotoxin (histamine), cyanogenic glyco-
sides, mycotoxins (such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, citrinin, fumonisins, etc.), phytohaemagglutinin,
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), marine biotoxins, neurotoxic shellfish
poisoning (NSP), diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP), ciguatoxin, paralytic shellfish poisoning
(PSP), shellfish toxins, mushroom toxins, etc. (Morya et al., 2022b; Rather et al., 2017). Added
chemicals that can occur in foods include agricultural chemicals (growth hormones, pesticides,
fertilizers, antibiotics), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), toxic elements (lead, cyanide, cadmium,
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zinc, arsenic, mercury), prohibited substances, food additives, contaminants (sanitizers, pest con-
trol chemicals, lubricants, water or steam treatment chemicals, refrigerants, coatings, cleaners,
paints), from packaging materials (tin, adhesives, lead, plasticizers, coding/printing inks, vinyl
chloride), etc. (Bushra et al., 2022; Rather et al., 2017). Chemical contaminants can come from
sources such as herbicides, veterinary drugs, pesticides, environmental sources (air, water, and/or
soil pollution), cross-contamination, migration from packaging material, natural toxins, adulter-
ants, and/or unapproved food additives (UN FAO, 2022b).
Natural toxins and environmental contaminants are of most concern to health. Commonly
consumed staple foods such as grains (e.g., corn, peanut, wheat, etc.) can contain mycotoxins in
unsafe levels, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, trichothecenes, etc., produced by
mould that colonize crops before, during, and after harvest (Awuchi, Nwozo et al., 2022,; Awuchi,
Ondari, et al., 2022). A long-term exposure can affect the immune system and normal develop-
ment, or cause cancer (Awuchi 2022b). Another group of chemical contaminants called persistent
organic pollutants (POPs) accumulate in human and the environment. Common examples include
PCBs and dioxins that are undesirable by-products of waste incineration and industrial processes
(Bushra et al., 2022; Rather et al., 2017). They occur in the environment all around the world and
bioaccumulate in food chains, mostly animal foods. Dioxins exert high toxicity and can damage the
immune functions, cause developmental and reproductive problems, cause cancer, and interfere
with hormones (WHO, 2022). Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and cadmium, cause kidney
and neurological damage. Food contamination by heavy metal mostly occur through soil and
water pollution (Bushra et al., 2022; Sarker et al., 2017). Other chemical hazards that can occur in
foods include food allergens, radioactive nucleotides discharged by industries and military/civil
nuclear operations, as well as drug residues and other contaminants that contaminate the food
during food processing.
2.2. Physical contamination
Physical contamination of foods occurs as “foreign bodies” in form of objects such as plant stalks,
glasses, hair, plastics, jewelry, metals, pests, stones, fingernails, sand, dirt, etc. (Bushra et al., 2022;
Sarker et al., 2017). Foreign objects in foods are physical contaminants. If the foreign object is a
microorganism, it is considered as both physical and biological contamination. Common physical
contaminants, their sources and potential injuries are shown in Table 1.
2.3. Biological contamination
Biological contamination occurs when foods are contaminated by substances or materials pro-
duced by living creatures, including rodents, humans, microorganisms, or pests. Common biologi-
cal contaminations include bacterial contamination, fungal contamination, microbial metabolites
(e.g., mycotoxins), parasite contamination, viral contamination, etc., which can be transferred
through fecal matter, blood, pest droppings, saliva, etc., and may also contaminate foods before
harvest, during storage, and even during processing (Gallo et al., 2020; Modi et al., 2021). While
bacterial contamination is most common food poisoning in the world, fungi and their metabolites
are more common in grains. Bacteria likely survive in an environment with high starch, protein,
oxygen, water, neutral pH, and/or maintains 5°C to 60°C temperature (danger zone) for even 0 to
20 minutes.
A typical example of biological contamination was reported in tainted romaine lettuce in the US.
In April to May 2018, twenty states in the US reported the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7 outbreak
(Food Safety News, 2018). Many investigations reported that source of the contamination may
have been the growing region of Yuma, Arizona. The outbreak started on April 10, and was
reported as the largest flare-up of E. coli in the US in the past decade. Some died in California as
a result (Food Safety News, 2018). At least 14 of the people affected developed kidney failure.
Common E. coli symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, and
nausea.
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2.3.1. Pathogenic bacteria
Bacteria are among the common microorganisms that contaminate foods. Both pathogenic spore-
forming and non-spore-forming bacteria have been implicated in food contamination. Bacillus
cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum, etc. are common spore-forming bacteria
that can contaminate foods. Non-spore forming pathogenic bacteria that contaminate foods
include Campylobacter spp., Brucella suis, Brucella abortis, etc. Other bacteria that commonly
contaminate foods include Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella typhimurium,
Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enteriditis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio para-
haemolyticus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Vibrio cholerae, Listeria monocytogenes, etc. (Center for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2017; WHO, 2022). These bacterial strains have been a major
problem to food safety and public health.
Salmonella, enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli, and Campylobacter are among the most com-
mon foodborne pathogens affecting millions every year, with severe and even fatal outcomes
occurring. Symptoms can present as diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, vomiting, nausea, head-
ache, etc. (Gallo et al., 2020). Common foods involved in salmonellosis outbreaks include products
of animal origin such as poultry, eggs, etc. Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli is often borne by foods such
as undercooked meat, unpasteurized milk, contaminated fresh vegetables, and contaminated
fresh fruits. Foodborne occurrence of Campylobacter is mostly reported in foods such as raw/
undercooked poultry, raw milk, drinking water, etc. (WHO, 2022). Symptoms of exposure to these
pathogens can range from mild to severe, and even death.
Vibrio cholerae (causative agent of Cholera) commonly infects individuals exposed to contami-
nated water or food. Symptoms of exposure to V. cholerae include vomiting, abdominal pain,
profuse watery diarrhoea, severe dehydration, and even death (WHO, 2022). Water, vegetables,
rice, various types of seafood, and millet gruel are implicated in the outbreak of cholera. The risk of
cholera can be prevented by improving sanitation, access to clean water, and improving food
hygiene. Cholera affects 3 to 5 million people worldwide, and causes 28,800 to 130,000 deaths
annually (Wang et al., 2016). It is more common in developing and underdeveloped parts of the
world.
Table 1. Physical contaminants
Material Major sources Harm
Bone Poor processing Choking, injury in the mouth
Glass Jars, bottles, gauge covers, light
fixtures, plates, utensils, cups, etc.
Cuts and bleeding often occur; the
glass may require surgery to
remove or even to find
Insulation Building materials Causes choking; may be long-term
and cause cancer if asbestos
Metal Wire, workers, fields, machinery Cuts, can cause infection and
bleeding, and may require surgery
to remove or even to find
Personal effects Workers Cuts, choking, smashing teeth
Plastic Packaging, equipment, pallets,
containers
Choking, infection, cuts, exposure
to endocrine disruptors, and may
require surgery to remove or even
to find
Stones, sand Buildings, Fields Broken teeth, chocking, and may
require surgery to remove or even
to find
Wood Pallets, building materials, boxes,
field
Choking, infection, cuts, and may
require surgery to remove or even
to find
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Listeria infections can cause newborn babies’ death and miscarriage in pregnant women. Their
occurrence is low, but Listeria’s severity and fatality, especially among children, infants, and the
elderly, put them in the list of the most severe foodborne infections (Gallo et al., 2020). Listeria
usually occur in unpasteurised milk and dairy products, as well as may be found in several ready-
to-eat foods, and could thrive at refrigeration temperatures (Awuchi et al., 2020).
There are measures to contain the presence of bacterial pathogens in food systems.
Antimicrobials, e.g., antibiotics, are essentially used to treat bacterial infections, including food-
borne bacterial pathogens (Modi et al., 2021). Howbeit, their misuse and excessive use in humans
and animals has led to the spread/emergence of resistant bacteria, consequently reducing the
effectiveness of infectious diseases treatment in humans and animals. Many recent food safety
measures have considered novel ways of containing bacterial pathogens in food systems before
and after they get to consumers. Plants and plant materials, such as coriander, rosemary, oregano,
sage, lemongrass, garlic, vanillin, parsley, citral, clove, cinnamon, essential oils, etc., have been in
use alone or in combination for their antimicrobial/antibacterial properties, and can also be
combined with other techniques used in food processing and preservation (Awuchi, 2023a;
Quinto et al., 2019). The antibacterial properties of combined food-grade compounds, along with
their applications as alternative bactericidal agents in food contact surfaces have been reported
(Park et al., 2020). Park et al. (2020) formulated multicomponent mixture of antibacterial food
materials containing Camellia sinensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, ε-polylysine, and citric acid, and
studied its antibacterial activities against Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella
enteritidis, E. coli, and Staphylococcus aureus on many food contact surfaces. At 0.25% concentra-
tion, the mixture decreased the viable cell count by at least 5 log Colony Forming Unit per area;
24 h after treatment, there was complete inactivation (Park et al., 2020). There has promising
application in food safety management. In another study, Dong et al. (2022) concluded that a
combination of fructooligosaccharides and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum inhibits the invasion,
growth, virulence, and adhesion of Listeria monocytogenes. Kavitha et al. (2021) synthesized silver
nanoparticles from plant extracts for enhancing food safety, and reported that the antibacterial
properties of the silver nanoparticles have promising application in food safety management. In
another study, Zahnit et al. (2022) reported the phytochemical properties, biological activities, and
mineral elements of artemisia campestris, all of which can be explored for application in food
safety management. Figure 1 shows natural antimicrobial sources that can help prevent or reduce
the presence of pathogens, including bacterial pathogens, to ensure adequate food safety.
2.3.2. Viral pathogens
Many viruses, including Norovirus, Sapoviruses, Enterovirus, Adenoviruses, Astroviruses, Rotavirus,
Hepatitis A, etc., can infect humans and animals who consume viral contaminated foods. Norovirus
is among the common causes of foodborne infections; it is characterized by watery diarrhoea,
nausea, abdominal pain, explosive vomiting, etc. (Tsimpidis et al., 2017). Norovirus often spread
from fecal to oral route through consuming contaminated foods (such as oysters, clams, etc.) or
water, or through human-to-human contact (Brunette, 2017). Hepatitis A virus can be foodborne,
causing prolong liver disease, and typically spreads through undercooked or raw foods such as
seafood (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017).
Many measures have been considered to contain viral exposures via foods (Sherwood et al.,
2020). Food-grade polymeric materials and antiviral compounds are among the leading options
tailored to improve food safety management, both as novel packaging materials/components
exerting active antiviral activities and/or as edible coating materials/components to increase
fresh shelf life of food commodities (Priyadarshi et al., 2022; Randazzo et al., 2018). Enteric viral
infections are responsible for over 20% of acute cases of gastroenteritis globally, and the formula-
tion of food-grade biopolymers with antiviral properties has garnered interest to contain the risk of
exposure. Many nanoparticles have been shown to have antiviral properties applicable to food
safety. Antiviral properties of many nanoparticles, including metal (gold, silver), quantum dots,
graphene oxide, metallic oxide (copper oxide, zinc oxide), functionalized nanoparticles,
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mesoporous silicon, etc., have been described and applied in food systems for food safety manage-
ment. Natural compounds, including plant extracts, phytochemicals, essential oils, etc., have
gained attention as novel antiviral materials in food applications (Awuchi et al., 2023). The
functionality of plant extracts and essential oils is mainly determined by the bioactive compounds
(phytochemicals) in them, especially the polyphenols. Most of these bioactive compounds are
generally recognized as safe (GRAS), and suitable for consumption with little or no side effects.
For influenza virus, many essential oils from artemisia, salvia, and oregano were studied and
reported to be effective against viral agents (Parham et al., 2020). Lignin and its products have
also shown to be promising antiviral properties (Shu et al., 2021). Awuchi et al. (2023) described
the bioactives and phytochemicals with antiviral properties that can be applied in food safety
management. Polyanionic biopolymers, e.g., sulfated polysaccharides such as heparin, agar, and
dextran sulfate, have excellent antiviral properties that can be applied in food systems. Several
biopolymers such as hyaluronic acid, chitosan, heparin, chondroitin polysulfate, dextran sulfate,
carrageenan, cellulose sulfate, sulfoevernan, etc. (Bianculli et al., 2020). Antiviral compounds from
plants, e.g., resveratrol, commonly exert dose-dependent deterrence against viral replication/
growth. The strains of HSV1 virus can be inhibited by the essential oils from Salvia desoleana,
while the essential oils of Syzygium aromaticum (clove) are effective against herpes adenovirus,
coxsackievirus, poliovirus, etc. (Priyadarshi et al., 2022). Combining essential oils from Melissa
officinalis and oseltamivir had synergistic antiviral properties against influenza virus H9N2
(Pourghanbari et al., 2016). The extracts of Tribulus terrestris contain many flavonoids, phenolic
acids, and tannins, making them bioactive and exert antiviral effects against HIV (Parham et al.,
2020). While peanut skin (with resveratrol as active compound) has been shown to inhibit SARS-
CoV-2 replication, turmeric (Curcuma longa [with curcumin as active compound]) has anti-HIV
activity (Awuchi et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2020). The biological activities of curcumin, including its
antiviral activity, have been reported in many studies (Roy et al., 2021). The extracts of ginger
Food saey
Plant-based: spices,
onions,
polyphenols, garlics,
alkaloids, hops, etc.
Animal based:
Lipids, pepdes,
polysaccharides
Microbial sources:
Bacteriocins,
controlled
acidificaon,
bacteriophages,
Acids: organic acids,
hydrochloric acid,
etc.
Mushrooms and
algae (seaweeds,
diatoms, etc.)
Novel/modern
based:
nanoparcles,
nanovesicles,
edibles
films/coangs, UV
Figure 1. Natural antimicrobial
sources for food safety
application.
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(Zingiber officinale) and Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Cinnamomum verum) have high
antiviral activities against influenza virus (Parham et al., 2020).
2.3.3. Protozoa and parasitic pathogens
Some parasites, including trematodes transmitted by fish, can only be transmitted via food. Others
such as tapeworms, e.g., Taenia spp, Echinococcus spp, etc., can also be transmitted through food
or direct contact with animals (WHO, 2022). A vast majority of protozoa are waterborne. Parasites,
including Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum, Ascaris lumbricoides,
etc., enter the food chain through water, soil, and/or by contaminating fresh produce. Taenia
solium, Diphyllobothrium latum, Trichinella spiralis, Taenia saginata, etc., are other common exam-
ples (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). Pathogenic protozoa are mostly trans-
mitted through food in developing nations, with relatively rare occurrence of their foodborne
outbreaks in developed world. However, in developed countries, Cryptosporidium, Giardia,
Toxoplasma, etc. are among the major protozoa of concern, and mostly pose a problem to people
with compromised immune system. Berhe et al. (2018) reported foodborne intestinal protozoan
infections among patients with watery diarrhea in Northern Ethiopia. The prevalence of the
protozoa infection was 45.3%, with Entamoeba histolytica/dispar (24.7%) being the predominant
protozoa species, followed by Giardia intestinalis and Cryptosporidium species at 11.2% and 2.2%
respectively (Berhe et al., 2018).
Many antiprotozoal food materials have been demonstrated to have promising application for
food safety management against protozoa and parasites. In a study, the ethanolic extracts from
Grias neuberthii bark and Costus curvibracteatus leaves had strong activity in vitro against L.
donovani and the resistant and sensitive strain of P. falciparum, and a moderate activity against
T. brucei gambiense (P. Vásquez-Ocmín et al., 2018). A different study also reported that after
annotating compounds active against Leishmania, followed by their metabolomic analyses, P.
pseudoarboreum and P. strigosum were recommended as sources of viable leishmanicidal com-
pounds (P. G. Vásquez-Ocmín et al., 2021). Many food-grade materials including polysaccharides,
essential oils, flavonoids, triterpenoid saponines, clerodane-type diterpenes, salicylic acid deriva-
tives, and phenols in plants such as those in Asteraceae, have several biological activities against
parasites (Awuchi & Morya). Batiha et al. (2020) that the acetone extracts of R. Coriaria and the
methanolic extracts of B. vulgaris restricted the replication of Theileria equi, Babesia caballi, B.
divergens, B. bigemina, and B. bovis at IC
50
range of 0.68 ± 0.1 to 85.7 ± 3.1 µg/mL (Batiha et al.,
2020). Food-grade antiprotozoal and antiparasitic materials and compounds can be successfully
applied to contain protozoa and parasites in food systems.
2.3.4. Prions
Prions are protein-composed infectious agents associated with certain neurodegenerative dis-
eases. Mad cow disease (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy) is a cattle disease caused by prion,
and is associated with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, which is the most common prion
disease that affect human. The consumption of meat products contaminated with specified risk
material, e.g., brain tissue, remains the main route of transmitting prions to humans (WHO, 2022).
A prion is a type of protein that can trigger normal proteins in the brain to fold abnormally. Prion
diseases can affect both humans and animals and are sometimes spread to humans by infected
meat products (Holznagel et al., 2015). Ethanolamine has been described as a novel compound
with anti-prion activities (Uchiyama et al., 2021). Cooking and many processing methods have no
destructive effects on the prion that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. The precautions recom-
mended to reduce the transmission risk of infections cause by prion when processing or handling
animals include not eating or handling animals, such as deer, cattle, etc., that are dead by
unknown cause, act strangely, or appear sick (Requena et al., 2016; Uchiyama et al., 2021). The
most important way of avoiding prion infection is simply by avoiding their presence in food
materials before and after processing.
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3. Preliminary steps in HACCP
There are preliminary steps employed in HACCP planning for food safety and quality management
to prevent or at least reduce the presence of the food contaminants. Planning food safety
measures for a HACCP system takes much well-thought-out time, consideration, and processes,
with overall goal being to ensure safe food by eliminating the presence of food contaminants,
including biological, physical, and chemical contaminants. Before the major HACCP principles are
designed, there are minimum of five preliminary steps required for a HACCP system, which aim to
prepare an initial comprehensive HACCP plan. In a HACCP system, food safety management can be
process- or product-specific and is more safety-tailored than quality, thus requiring certain level of
expertise (Njunina, 2022). Along with these preliminary five steps, the teams in charge of food
safety must put in place sanitary and safe conditions for prerequisite programs. These sanitary and
safe operation conditions establish the basic conditions for producing safe food product, and
should include employee health, effective maintenance programs, employee training, waste man-
agement, food hygiene, pest control, etc. These prerequisite programs control unsafe operating
conditions, thus preventing foodborne hazards (Tuyet Hanh & Hanh, 2020).
3.1. Building HACCP team
The first step in the development of the process of a HACCP plan is to assemble a group of experts
with sufficient expertise in many food processes or the product under consideration. The HACCP
team members may contain members from ingredients/raw material handling, processing/produc-
tion department, quality department, food production office, chemical and microbiological testing
laboratories, etc. (UN FAO, 2022a,b). The team should compose of multidisciplinary experts with
strong knowledge of the manufacturing process. These experts may come from the sanitation,
production, engineering, research and development, and quality control departments (Njunina,
2022). Having workers at all levels participate in HACCP team membership can benefit the overall
food safety management system. What is important is that they know the important criteria for
food safety from their respective departments. The principles upon which HACCP is built are based
on the prevention of potential hazard during the food manufacturing processes. Consequently, in
food processing plants, in-line workers with effective and substantial training see in real-time
everything taking place during manufacturing processes, and can offer valued inputs. Part of
responsibilities of the team include identifying and analyzing potential food safety hazard, estab-
lishing critical limits, monitor and record events, establishing critical control points, creating
corrective actions, establishing standard parameters, etc. All the members must know what the
possible food safety concerns and potential hazards are.
3.2. Define the food and its distributions
After putting a HACCP team in place for specific product, the food has to be comprehensively
defined in consideration to the 7 HACCP principles (Chiba, 2022). Defining the food in this context
means enlisting all the food ingredients along with the derivatives it might have, and the basic
process conditions for the product manufacturing. At this point, thorough knowledge of the food
product is critical. All the ingredients and any likely component must be described and analysed, as
their by-products may possibly become hazards or concerns in the manufacturing process (Chiba,
2022; Popova et al., 2016). As food components are most likely to react with the added ingredients
or their constituents, every possible interaction or reaction should be well noted and profiled for
possibly safety concern. Describing these ingredients and the food product’s characteristics would
help the HACCP team to analyse proper conditions for distribution. Some food products, e.g., ready-
to-eat foods, packaged in certain containers such as lunch boxes can become spoiled under
distribution at increased internal and surrounding temperatures (Bosch et al., 2018; Popova
et al., 2016). The minimum and maximum temperature requirements for the transportation of
foods must be declared for safety control purpose.
3.3. Identify the end use and consumers of the product
In the preliminary step to the principles, the HACCP team should be saddled with the responsibility
of identifying the target product consumers and the people that must be receive cautionary
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warning in consuming the food product (Atambayeva, Nurgazezova, Rebezov, Kazhibayeva,
Kassymov, Sviderskaya, Toleubekova, Assirzhanova, Ashakayeva, Apsalikova et al., 2022a;
Medeiros et al., 2022). In contrast to the target consumers, people with possible hypersensitivity
to the product have to be identified and warned accordingly (Medeiros et al., 2022; Weinroth et al.,
2018). Among the vulnerable groups may include immunocompromised patients, pregnant indivi-
duals, infants, the elderly, lactating mothers, those with illness, etc. Before applying the HACCP
principles, identifying the target consumers and end use of the product helps prevent any issues
related to food safety.
3.4. Develop a flow diagram (block-type) that describes the process
To appropriately outline all the intended product-related processes, the team has to develop a
detailed flow diagram that considers all the processes involved in the production scheme. This
block-type diagram need not to be expertly in design. The most important thing is that all
processes, conditions, and methods are described for thorough assessment (Njunina, 2022). This
helps to determine the process that can be a potential source of hazard (Atambayeva,
Nurgazezova, Rebezov, Kazhibayeva, Kassymov, Sviderskaya, Toleubekova, Assirzhanova,
Ashakayeva, Apsalikova et al., 2022a; Medeiros et al., 2022). In a proper flow diagram, every
potential safety risks must have safety measure/step to eliminate the risks or reduce them to
acceptable limits/levels.
3.5. Flow diagram verification
The flow diagram needs to be verified, by verifying the step in designed HACCP plan, aiming at
ensuring all subsequent steps have been captured in the block-type flow diagram (Mureşan et al.,
2020; Vu-Ngoc et al., 2018). This can be done by undertaking logical sequence of observations or
on-site physical assessment, and noting down the processes that must be captured in this flow
diagram.
4. HACCP principles to ensure food safety measures
4.1. Hazard analysis determination
The first thing to have in your mind is to conduct hazard analysis. This will include a plan to
evaluating the potential food safety hazards, and identifying preventive measures to apply for
controlling the hazards (Mureşan et al., 2020; Vu-Ngoc et al., 2018). A food safety hazard has been
described as any physical, biological, and/or chemical property that can make a food unsafe for
consumption.
4.2. Identification of critical control points (CCPs)
Critical control point (CCP) is any step, procedure, or point in the manufacturing process, where
control is applicable to prevent or eliminate food safety hazard, or at least reduce it to acceptable
level. To determine a critical control point, the following question can help; at this preparation step,
can the food get contaminated or can there be increase in contamination? (Maina et al., 2021;
Mureşan et al., 2020). Figure 2 shows steps that can help identify a CCP (Team Safesite, 2020).
4.3. There has to be critical limits established for every CCP
The critical limit is the minimum or maximum value to which a chemical, biological, or physical
hazard must be controlled at a CCP to prevent or eliminate hazard, or at least reduce it to
acceptable level (Team Maina et al., 2021; Safesite, 2020). Common examples of critical limit in
CCP are shown in Table 2.
4.4. Establish monitoring requirements for CCP
Monitoring is required to make sure that there is control on the process at every CCP. It may also
be required that each procedure for monitoring and its frequency are enlisted in the HACCP plan.
Factors that can be considered in establishing monitoring requirements for CCP include: quantity of
products at risk if deviation occurs at a critical control point; tolerance level between critical limit
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Figure 2. Decision tree for CCP
identification the HACCP team
can make use of (adapted from
team Safesite, 2020).
Table 2. Examples of critical limits in CCP
Critical limit Critical control point Hazards
Histamine levels of 25 ppm
maximum in evaluating tuna for
histamine
Receiving Histamine
Heating at 72°C for not less than
15 seconds
Pasteurization Non-sporulating pathogenic
bacteria
Metal fragments of at least
0.5 mm
Metal detector Metal trashes
Legible label that contains list of all
ingredients
Labelling Allergens
Water activity less than 0.85 for
growth control in dried food
products
Drying oven Pathogenic bacteria
Sodium nitrite at 200 ppm
maximum in finished products
Brining, curing room Excess nitrite
pH 4.6 limit for Clostridium
botulinum control in acidified food
Acidification stage Pathogenic bacteria
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and operating limit; variations in product and process; manual or automated processes; history of
previous checks, etc. (Raji et al., 2021; U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2022). HACCP Principles
& Application Guidelines. Adopted 1997).
4.5. Establish corrective action
Corrective actions have to be established as actions that would be taken when the monitoring
system shows deviations from the critical limit established. It is required that HACCP plan of a
plant identifies the corrective actions if there is nonconformity to the critical limit. These actions
are also meant to make sure that no food product is harmful to human or adulterated thereof if
this deviation finds its way into the market (Atambayeva, Nurgazezova, Rebezov, Kazhibayeva,
Kassymov, Sviderskaya, Toleubekova, Assirzhanova, Ashakayeva, Apsalikova et al., 2022a; Hung
et al., 2015). Implementing corrective actions on the HACCP system in industries will improve the
safety and quality of foods, while enhancing the production management (Hung et al., 2015).
4.6. Establish verification and validation procedures to ensure the HACCP system works as
planned
Validation and verification procedures help to ensure the HACCP system is working as expected.
Validation procedures in HACCP ensure that the manufacturing plants are doing what they are
meant for, with more emphasis on safety rather than quality, meaning that they achieve the aim
of ensuring the manufacturing of safe products (Atambayeva, Nurgazezova, Rebezov, Kazhibayeva,
Kassymov, Sviderskaya, Toleubekova, Assirzhanova, Ashakayeva, Apsalikova et al., 2022a; Hung
et al., 2015). Every plant should be responsible for validating its own HACCP plan, this should be
followed with review by independent higher experts in the industry who will approve or disapprove
the HACCP plan in advance, and also review the validation plan to ensure conformity. On the other
hand, verification procedures ensure the adequacy of the HACCP plan, and is working as planned.
HACCP verification is described as the activities, outside monitoring, which establish the HACCP
plans validity and ensure that the system of HACCP is operating as planned (Schmidt & Newslow,
2019). Verification procedure can include activities such as reviewing HACCP plans, critical limits,
microbial sampling/analysis, CCP records, critical control points. It is required that HACCP plan
include clear and concise verification tasks that should be done by the plant personnel. The
industry must undertake microbial analysis/testing as a component of many verification activities.
Verification also integrates validation, which centers on finding factual indication for the HACCP
system accuracy; this should be scientific evidence with more emphasis on critical limitations
(Ceylan et al., 2021; Schmidt & Newslow, 2019). Verification procedures determine if the proce-
dures used in the analysis are adequate and applied as laid out in the HACCP plans (Schmidt &
Newslow, 2019).
4.7. Establish procedures for record keeping
The regulation and sustainability of HACCP require the maintenance of maintain documents in all
plants, including written HACCP plan, hazard analysis, as well as records for monitoring CCPs,
verification activities, critical limits, and corrective actions for deviations. Implementation involves
verifying, monitoring, and validating daily work that complies with regulatory standards and
requirements all the time in all the stages (UN FAO, 2022a,b). Figure 3 summarizes the 7 principles
of HACCP for easy overview of all the principles involved in HACCP.
The application of these seven HACCP principles has been reliable for food safety management.
The seven basic HACCP principles should be applied in HACCP plans development to meet the
required goal of delivering safe foods to the consumers. These HACCP based principles offer cost
effective system for food safety control, starting from ingredients/raw material handling to pro-
duction, food storage, product distribution to the final consumer. The implementation of these
HACCP principles will control any potential hazards found in foods and consequently reduce the
risks to consumers
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5. Safe food handling procedures (from farm to market to consumer)
Safe food handling ensures that foods are handled in ways that guarantee food safety and reduce
risks to consumers. Safe handling of foods from farm to consumer ensures adequate food safety
management and delivery of safe product. Sanitary tools, good hygienic work spaces, proper
storage, proper heating and cooling to the required temperatures, and avoiding cross contamina-
tion can significantly decrease the possibility of food contamination. Hermetically sealed contain-
ers with excellent air and water barriers are good measures to drastically reduce the possibilities of
physical, biological, and chemical contamination under storage/shelf (Lema et al., 2020; Negassa
et al., 2022; Tadele et al., 2022). The use of clean, sanitary tools and surfaces, free of chemicals,
debris, standing liquids, etc., can reduce the possibility of any contamination.
Five major principles of food hygiene, include (Lema et al., 2020; Negassa et al., 2022):
(a) Foods should be cooked at the appropriate temperature and length of time to kill pathogens.
(b) There should be prevention of food contamination with pathogens, including the pathogens
that spread from pets, people, and pests.
(c) Prevent cross contamination by separating cooked foods from raw foods. Foods that are
meant to be eaten without further cooking/processing should also be separated from other
raw foods.
(d) Foods should be stored at the appropriate temperature.
(e) Safe raw materials and safe water should be used in food processing.
However, even after taking all the precautions and applying all the food safety measures, with the
food safely prepared/stored, microorganisms (pathogens), including bacteria, fungi, etc., can still
form after some period of time under storage. Food should be eaten within 1 to 7 days while stored
7. Establish
procedures for
record keeping
1. Hazard
analysis
determinaon
2.
Idenficaon
of crical
control points
(CCPs)
3. Establish
crical limits
for every CCP
4. Establish
monitoring
requirements
for CCP
5. Establish
correcve
acon
6. Establish
verificaon
and validaon
procedures
Figure 3. HACCP principles
should be applied as shown; the
process is cyclic and continues
throughout.
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under cold environment, or 1 to 12 months if under frozen environment and immediately frozen
after preparation. The period after which a food becomes unsafe for consumption depends on each
food, method of storage, the surrounding environment, and the food composition (Rajakrishnan
et al., 2022; Tadele et al., 2022). Perishable foods should be always be refrigerated within 2 hrs; for
a temperature above 32.2°C (90°F), 1 hour will do. Ideally, the refrigeration temperature should be
≤4.4°C, while the freezer at ≤-17.7°C. For instance, liquid foods such as soup stored under a hot
slow cooker at 65°C or 149°F may have a few hours shelf life before getting contaminated, while
fresh meats such as lamb, beef, chicken, etc., that are frozen promptly at −2°C can last for a year.
Geographical locations can be another considerable factor if they are very close to wildlife
(Rajakrishnan et al., 2022; Tadele et al., 2022). Rodents, insects, etc. can infiltrate a prep area or
a container if they are unattended. Foods stored while exposed to the environment have to be
hygienically inspected prior to consumption, especially when it may possibly come in contact with
insects, contaminated air, rodents, flies, and other animals. It is important to consider all forms of
biological, chemical, and physical contamination before concluding if foods are safe or unsafe for
consumption, as certain contaminants leave no visible signs, but pose deleterious risk to the
consumers (Awuchi et al., 2021a, 2021b; Rajakrishnan et al., 2022). Microorganisms are usually
unseen to the unaided eye, chemicals could be clear but tasteless, physical contaminants can be
underneath food surface, and the contaminated foods may not have any change in appearance,
taste, texture, and/or smell, and may still be heavily contaminated (Awuchi & Amagwula, 2021;
Awuchi et al., 2021c; Rajakrishnan et al., 2022; Tuglo et al., 2021). Foods considered to be
contaminated have to be gotten rid of as soon as possible, and any food close to them have to
be thoroughly checked for any form of contamination. As many microorganisms are airborne,
including some food pathogens, any foods exposed to the air should be checked for safety, and
may also under heating before consumption.
6. ISO 22000 and HACCP standards in food safety management
The global community has set standards for food safety management. ISO 22000 was developed
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as a standard that deals with food
safety management (“FAO/WHO,” 2021; International Organization for Standardization, 2022). The
ISO 22000, first published in 2005, is generally derived from ISO 9000, and is an international
standard that specifies a food safety management system’s requirements involving HACCP princi-
ples (Figure 3), interactive communication, prerequisite programs, and system management. It is a
combination of all the earlier attempts from many areas/sources of food safety concerns to
provide food products that are as safe and as free as possible from contaminants, including
pathogens (International Organization for Standardization, 2022). Standards are reviewed every
five years to determine whether a revision is necessary, to ensure that the standards remain as
relevant and useful to businesses as possible (International Organization for Standardization,
2022). The 7 HACCP principles (see, Figure 3) are included in the ISO 22000 international standard.
The standard is a complete quality and food safety management system integrating the elements
of HACCP principles, prerequisite programmes (SSOP and GMP), and quality management, all of
which together form the Total Quality Management system of an organization. ISO 22000 is
related to the “Food Code” or the Codex Alimentarius, which is a collection of international
standards, codes of practice, and guidelines to protect consumer health and ensure food trade’s
fair practices. Other schemes recognized by the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI), including the
Safe Quality Food Institute’s SQF Code, rely on HACCP methods as the basis to develop and
maintain food safety and food quality plans/programs in concert with the GMPs’ fundamental
prerequisites. Many countries have different agencies and parastatals that oversee the application
of HACCP. Table 3 shows an example of a HACCP plan.
7. Food labeling
Food labels play important role in food safety management and consumer awareness campaign.
The Codex Alimentarius guidelines state that “packaged food must be labelled with the name of
the food, list of ingredients, and its net contents, as well as the name and address of the
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Table 3. Typical HACCP plan for a canned mushroom, as guide to planning HACCP
Steps in processing Critical limits Descriptions of hazard Procedures for
monitoring
Actions against
deviation
HACCP documentation
or records
Inspection and depalletizing
of cans
Manufacturer’s specification;
no defects
Contamination after
processing due to incorrect
and damaged cans, as well
as cans with serious defect
Constant visual monitoring
by operator and depalletizers
The operator removes
damaged cans, incorrect
cans, and seriously defected
cans, and informs quality
controlofficer to withhold the
remainder of pallets for
quality investigation
Low vacuum detector and
empty container cull reports
Inspection and depalletizing
of cans and raw materials
No harmful extraneous
materials (HEM)
HEM, such as metal, glass,
wood and fragments
Constant visual monitoring
by operator and depalletizers
The operator removes cans
with HEM, and informs
quality controlofficer to
withhold the remainder of
pallets for quality
investigation
Empty container cull reports
Weighing stage Maximum weight of fill as per
scheduled process
Overfilling causing under-
processing
Online check-weigher to
eject over- and underfilled
cans after filling
Operator manually adjusts
ejected can weight by taking
away or adding mushrooms
Daily grading and fill control
report
Headspace Lowest headspace as
described in planned process
Inadequate headspace that
causes excess distorted
seams and internal pressure
Check on headspace carried
out after consecutive
samples’ closing, one or
more from every head, by
the seam mechanic at
commencement and hourly
Closing mechanic adjusts
headspaces and informs
QCto hold investigate every
product run starting from the
last acceptable results
Daily grading and double
seam inspection reports
End feeding/closing/
inspecting
Can manufacturer’s
specifications No serious
problems
Post-process contamination
resulting from damaged or
defective ends or improper
double seams
Continuous visual monitoring
of ends by closing machine
operator
Closing machine operator to
remove any damaged or
defective ends and to inform
QCOperator to hold and QC
to investigate ends and
sealed cans if necessary
Daily seamer report.Double
seam inspection reportLow
vacuum detector
reportContainer integrity
inspection report
(Continued)
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Table3. (Continued)
Steps in processing Critical limits Descriptions of hazard Procedures for
monitoring
Actions against
deviation
HACCP documentation
or records
Heat processing Highest time lapse between
retort up and closing,
minimum temperature/time
for cooking and venting as
specified by scheduled
process. Thermal-sensitive
indicators change colour
Insufficient heat application QC checks on time lapse
between retort up and
closing once or more every
period. Retort operator
checks temperature and
time for cooking, venting,
and thermograph. Busse
unloader checks thermal-
sensitive indicator tape and
also segregates products if
there is no indicator tape or
change in the colour of
indicator tape
Retort operators adjust the
temperature and time of
cooking according to the
approved contingency plan
and inform QCto hold and
investigate all products that
may have deviated
Thermograph charts, retort
operator’s log,heat-sensitive
indicator log, and low
vacuum detector reports
Cooling Detectable levels of residual
chlorine to 2 ppm in water
used for cooling
Contamination after product
processing from cooling
water
Checks for chlorine hourly at
the cooling water exit
Retort operator adjusts
chlorine and informs QCto
hold and investigate all
products run after the last
acceptable check
Low vacuum detector reports
and retort operator’s log
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manufacturer, distributor, importer, exporter/vendor, country of origin, lot identification, date
marking and storage instructions, and instructions for use” (Arendt, 2022; Mandell & Arendt,
2022). Foods in many countries have at least one label that indicates the nature of product
deterioration and any consequent health issue that may arise (Forsyth, 2021; Mandell & Arendt,
2022). Food hygiene or HACCP certification is usually required for preparation and distribution of
foods. While there may not be specific expiry date for such certification or legislation changes, it is
expected to be updated every 5-year intervals. In labels, “best before” shows a date in the future
beyond which the products may lose their quality such as taste, texture, nutrient loss, etc., but
does not suggest serious health concerns if the food is consumed after this “best before” date
within reasonable limit (Arendt, 2022; Forsyth, 2021; Mandell & Arendt, 2022). “Use by” shows a
legal date after which it is not permitted to sell the product, often one that rapidly deteriorates
after been manufactured, because of the potential severity consuming pathogens (Maio et al.,
2020; Zielińska et al., 2020). Sometimes leeway is given by manufacturers in including display until
dates for products not to be at their safe consumption limit on the stated actual date; being
voluntary, the latter is often not under regulatory control, allowing for the variation in production,
display, and storage methods.
Except baby foods and infant formula which must be withdrawn at the expiration date, laws in
many countries do not require or mandate expiry date (Mandell & Arendt, 2022; Nicewicz & Bilska,
2022). For most foods, with the exception of dairy products, freshness dating can be voluntary. As
a response to consumer demands, sell by dates are usually indicated on the labels of perishable
products. Consumers decide how long products are usable after sell by dates. Other dating
statements that are common include Pack date, Best if used by, Guaranteed fresh date, Use-by
date, etc. (Maio et al., 2020; Mandell & Arendt, 2022; Nicewicz & Bilska, 2022; Zielińska et al., 2020).
If used, freshness dating has to be validated with the guidelines of AOAC. Labelling should be
properly used in food safety management and consumer awareness.
8. Water quality management
HACCP use for the management of water quality was first proposed three decades ago. Ever since
then, many water quality initiatives made use of HACCP principles (see, Figure 3) and steps to
control waterborne infectious disease along with controlling factors that affect drinking water
safety (Figure 4(a) and (b)), and acted as the basis for the approach on “Water Safety Plan” (WSP)
in the fourth edition of the World Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality
(Cotruvo, 2017; WHO, 2017).
The “Water Safety Plan” is to adapt HACCP approach into drinking water system. Many forms of
hazards have been associated with water system, including biological (microbial), physical, and
chemical hazards (Li et al., 2022; Mabvouna Biguioh et al., 2020). Efforts have also been made in
HACCP education, certification, and training programs for building resilient food safety manage-
ment in water system worldwide. The programs usually center on adapting HACCP principles to
specific requirements of utility and domestic (cold/hot) water systems, especially in buildings, to
avoid manmade hazards, such as plumbing and defecating hazards, from harming individuals (Li
et al., 2022; Tsitsifli & Tsoukalas, 2021). Hazards that must be addressed are lead, disinfection
byproducts, scalding, as well as many clinically significant pathogens, including Naegleria,
Legionella, Elizabethkingia, Acinetobacter, nontuberculous mycobacteria, Pseudomonas, E. coli,
Coliform, etc. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). The steps employed in HACCP
and food safety management as described for other foods in previous sections should be con-
sidered in the management of drinking-water safety and quality. Figure 5 provides a guide on how
ti implement water safety plan (WSP).
9. Novel/Modern technology for HACCP and food safety management
Researchers and food innovators worldwide are pioneering novel technologies for HACCP and food
safety management. Many exciting modern inventions and innovations to improving food safety
are already imminent now and in the future. In this section, some modern and emerging
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technologies for improving HACCP and food safety management are described (He et al., 2021;
Jadhav et al., 2021). These were considered novel as they help simplify at least one aspect of
HACCP and food safety management. From early idea, to testing, development, and more
research, to mainstreaming, some of these developments mean big changes in global food
industries.
9.1. Light technologies in food safety management
There are modern technological developments that apply light to ensure food safety. Ultraviolet
(UV) processes have been conventionally used and are still being tested in food industries and in
food supply chain (Den Uijl et al., 2022; He et al., 2021). Some liquids and food contact surfaces are
now decontaminated using UV lights, an efficient and cost-effective way that ensures food safety
Figure 4. (a). Processes in the
drinking water distribution sys-
tem that influence water qual-
ity (adapted from Rubulis et al.,
2008; Tsaridou and Karabelas,
2021) Figure 4(b). Cultural
influences that affect safety
plans for drinking water
(adapted from Omar et al.,
2017)
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and cleanliness. Light technologies have also found recent applications in fresh fruit and vegeta-
bles (Kebbi et al., 2020). The produce is usually uncooked, so no “kill step”—a term used to
describe the point in food production when pathogenic microorganisms are eliminated from the
food products. The goals of using light technologies as a “kill step”, whether by treatment treating
plasma technology, pulsed light, irradiation, or ultraviolet light, are to safely reduce pathogenic
microorganisms while retaining the quality attributes of the produce, including its freshness and
nutrients (Den Uijl et al., 2022; Jadhav et al., 2021; Kebbi et al., 2020). If, in due course, the kill step
is applied to bagged salads, number of recalls may drastically drop, consequently reducing food
waste and the incidence of food-borne illness, while improving food safety.
9.2. Artificial intelligence (AI) in food production
From the field, artificial intelligence (AI) is playing important roles in making the imprecise science
of farming become more reliable, efficient, and predictive. Weather events and insects can have
predictable improvement or destructive influence on growing season, but artificial intelligence can
predict yields quite accurately, which when applied can help agriculturalists inform businesses and
people further down the supply chain (Mavani et al., 2022). Machine-learning tools use ultra-scale
images and computer vision in combination with GPS to classify crops, such as lettuce, gathering
information on their size, safety, quality, and quantity of the heads, allowing for more harvest time
efficiency. Food-borne diseases constitute major problem worldwide, affecting millions each year.
Ever since 1960s, over 25% of Salmonella outbreaks are caused by the Typhimurium variant. A
group of researchers trained a machine-learning algorithm on over 1,300 genomes of
Typhimurium with identified origins (Wheeler et al., 2018). The algorithm successfully predicted
some animal sources, mostly swine and poultry, that have the genome of Typhimurium, conse-
quently tracing food-borne diseases back to their source (Wheeler et al., 2018). AI has been in use
to reduce food wastes due to poor safety measures. A group of researchers in Singapore developed
AI-driven nose that detects meat freshness, by reacting to the gaseous compounds produced
when meat spoilage sets in (Guo et al., 2020; Nanyang Technological University, 2020). The AI-
driven nose can help reduce meat wastes and improve safe consumption, as foods can be
confirmed if it is safe for consumption irrespective of the expiry dates or best before date.
9.3. Novel freezing
The processors of frozen food are constantly looking for novel ways to maintain food safety while
reducing costs. Isochoric freezing, a novel freezing technique, can improve food quality and safety,
while reducing energy cost (Bilbao-Sainz et al., 2021). Isochoric freezing works by storing food in a
metal or hard plastic container full of liquid, such as water. Freezing foods often expose them to
air, but isochoric freezing employs a mechanism that preserves foods without undergoing through
solid ice, by preventing the formation of ice crystals on the foods, consequently making sure that
Figure 5. Steps to guide on
water safety plan (WSP)
(adapted from Omar et al.,
2017)
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foods taste better and last longer (Bilbao-Sainz et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021). This mechanism
saves energy as the processed foods do not need to be frozen entirely, contrary to traditional
methods of freezing which consume more power and emit more carbon. Isochoric freezing
improves food safety management by reducing the cost of freezing foods, along with reducing
carbon emissions (Kumari et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2021). Bilbao-Sainz et al. (2021) employed
isochoric freezing in the preservation of grape tomato, and reported promising results. In another
study, Zhao et al. (2021) tested isochoric freezing effectiveness in preserving the quality of cut
tomato, and also reported promising results. A year after, Kumari et al. (2022) concluded that
isochoric freezing is an emerging innovative technology that retains food quality and improves its
safety. More novel methods of freezing are emerging. Novel blanching method have also been
developed. Unlike blanching at high temperatures, frozen food blanching has been employed to
stabilize raw materials such as vegetables prior to freezing; it works by halting the cooking
procedure by dipping hot foods into cold water first (Akomea-Frempong et al., 2021; Zhang
et al., 2021). Studies have attempted to establish temperature-time regimen for blanching to
reduce pathogens in raw produce, therefore increasing consumers food safety (EFSA Panel on
Biological Akomea-Frempong et al., 2021; Koutsoumanis et al., 2020). For example, the innovation
reduces Listeria-associated risks in freezers (EFSA Panel on Biological Koutsoumanis et al., 2020;
Zhang et al., 2021).
9.4. Automation improves monitoring
Process automation may usually take some time to put in place, but the effort is an important
method industry can employ to increase food safety, reduce food wastes, and trace food-borne
diseases (Eldridge et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2022). Certain food safety software employed in food
monitoring includes the integrations of Bluetooth with many smartphone apps, meaning that
these tools can be practically accessible to anyone who owns a smartphone, thus reducing
difficulties and the need for one person to do all the checks (Ma et al., 2022; Ventola, 2014; Xiao
et al., 2022). Real-time automatic reporting can also prevent mistakes that may cost food busi-
nesses some fortune or become liabilities (Ma et al., 2022). Digital intelligence can track trends,
and authenticate compliance to proper procedures, making it harder to deliberately make several
accidental errors or alter data (Awuchi & Dendegh, 2022). Sensors in freezers and refrigerators can
automatically alert quality and safety managers whenever temperatures and time surpass safe
limits, so corrective actions (HACCP principle) can be taken to solve the problem immediately
instead of waiting for manual check. Manual checks are not as effective as automated checks, and
automated monitoring is gradually becoming the culture in commercial food production.
9.5. Easy contaminants detection
Novel technologies have been developed to easily detect food contaminants in real-time, with
more still under development. Novel systems for metal detection help small and medium scale
food manufacturers/co-packers boost productivity and conform with regulations, with compact
designs adaptable with time (Zappa, 2019; HitabatuHitabatuma et al., 2022). These systems are
designed to employ advanced algorithm for digital inspection of food products for traces of
contaminants (e.g., metals), make reading more accurate, reduce noise/vibration, stabilize core
sensors, and reduce false rejection of products (Zappa, 2019; HitabatuHitabatuma et al., 2022).
X-ray technology in food applications has significantly developed recently, with more development
expected. Physical contaminants, such as bones, pits, etc., are a hurdle to overcome by food
producers. Chicken is among the most common sources of proteins consumed worldwide. X-ray
technology development for better detection of cartilage and bones in chickens can save resources
and time, and improve food safety and consumer protection (Feng et al., 2021; Kotwaliwale et al.,
2014). The detection of contaminants in real-time is ripe for future exploration. Recent studies that
have attempted to improve HACCP and food safety management are shown in Table 4.
10. Current burden and future prospects of food safety management
Safe supplies of food support a nations’ economies, tourism, trade, reinforce sustainable develop-
ment, and improve food and nutrition security. Changes in consumers habit and urban growth
Awuchi, Cogent Food & Agriculture (2023), 9: 2176280
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Table 4. Recent studies demonstrating food safety measures to contain microbial pathogens
for sustainable food safety system
Title of the study Study objectives Results and
conclusion
Reference
“Probiotic Characteristics
and Antimicrobial
Potential of a Native
Bacillus subtilis Strain
Fa17.2 Rescued from
Wild Bromelia sp.
Flowers”
To identy the Bacillus
subtilis strain annotated
Fa17.2 from the
inflorescences of
Bromelia flower. The
probiotic properties and
antimicrobial potentials
against four foodborne
pathogens were
assessed.
The molecular weight of
partly purified
precipitated bacteriocin-
like substances was 14
kDa in 20% Tricine-SDS-
PAGE. The CE obtained
from Fa17.2 inhibited the
growth of Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus,
Shigella dysenteriae, and
Kosaconia cowanii, which
implies its potentials as
antimicrobial.
Tenea et al. (2022)
“The Bactericidal Effect of
a Combination of Food-
Grade Compounds and
their Application as
Alternative Antibacterial
Agents for Food Contact
Surfaces”
To develop a non-toxic
and “green” food-grade
alternative to chemical
sanitizers
A combination of these
food-grade antibacterials
is useful for inhibiting
b0acteria on food contact
surfaces, while using
lower concentrations of
its components than are
individually effective.
Park et al. (2020)
“Lactiplantibacillus
plantarum subsp.
plantarum and
Fructooligosaccharides
Combination Inhibits the
Growth, Adhesion,
Invasion, and Virulence of
Listeria monocytogenes”
This study aimed to
investigate the single and
combined effects of
Lactiplantibacillus
plantarum and
fructooligosaccharides on
the growth, invasion,
adhesion, and virulence
of gene expressions of
Listeria monocytogenes
L. plantarum in
combination with 2% and
4% (w/v)
fructooligosaccharides
significantly inhibited the
growth of L.
Monocytogenes at 10 °C
and 25 °C incubation
temperature. Overall, the
L. plantarum and
fructooligosaccharides
combination may be
effective against L.
monocytogenes.
Dong et al. (2022)
“Antimicrobial and
Antiviral (SARS-CoV-2)
Potential of Cannabinoids
and Cannabis sativa: A
Comprehensive Review”
This paper
comprehensively reviews
the antimicrobial and
antiviral properties of C.
sativa for potential novel
antibiotic drug and/or
natural antimicrobial
agents for agricultural/
industrial use
Cannabis and its
compounds have good
potentials as drug
candidates for novel
antibiotics
Mahmud et al. (2021)
“Durability Assessment of
a Plasma-Polymerized
Coating with Anti-Biofilm
Activity against L.
monocytogenes
Subjected to Repeated
Sanitization”
The aim of this study was
to assess the durability of
anti-biofilm capacity of
plasma-polymerized
coating comprising of a
functional coating of
acrylic acid and a base
coating of (3-
aminopropyl)
triethoxysilane
The study confirms the
effectiveness of the
coating for inhibiting
multi-strain Listeria
monocytogenes biofilm
formation using a three-
strain cocktail.
Muro-Fraguas et al.
(2021)
“Polymers and
Biopolymers with
Antiviral Activity:
Potential Applications for
Improving Food Safety”
This review compiles
existing studies on
polymers and
biopolymers with antiviral
activity for improved food
safety.
Many polymers and
biopolymers have
promising antiviral
activity against many
viruses
Randazzo et al. (2018)
(Continued)
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Table4. (Continued)
Title of the study Study objectives Results and
conclusion
Reference
“Antiviral Biodegradable
Food Packaging and
Edible Coating Materials
in the COVID-19 Era: A
Mini-Review”
This review aims to cover
the perspectives on
antiviral food packaging
materials.
The antiviral activities of
many nanomaterials,
biopolymers, extracts,
natural oils, polyphenolic
compounds, etc., are
identified for application
in food safety
management
Priyadarshi et al. (2022)
“Synthesis and enhanced
Antibacterial using Plant
extracts with Silver
nanoparticles:
Therapeutic Application”
This study evaluated the
antimicrobial properties
of silver nanoparticles
and plant extracts.
The study concluded that
the formulations of
AgNPs and plant extracts
improved the
antimicrobial activities of
the plant extracts for
food and pharmaceutical
applications
Kavitha et al. (2021)
“Antiprotozoal activity of
medicinal plants used by
Iquitos-Nauta road
communities in Loreto
(Peru)”
To validate and assess
the medicinal plant use
by people of Loreto
region
The ethanolic extract
from Grias neuberthii
bark and Costus
curvibracteatus leaves
showed strong in vitro
activity against P.
falciparum and L.
donovani, and moderate
activity against T. brucei
P. Vásquez-Ocmín et al.
(2018)
“Metabolomic approach
of the antiprotozoal
activity of medicinal Piper
species used in Peruvian
Amazon”
To validate use of Piper
species in Alto Amazonas
Province (Peru) and
annotate their bioactive
compounds
After metabolomic
analyses and annotation
of bioactive compounds
on Leishmania, P.
Pseudoarboreum and P.
strigosum were
concluded to be potential
sources of leishmanicidal
compounds.
P. G. Vásquez-Ocmín
et al. (2021)
“Phytochemical
Screening and
Antiprotozoal Effects of
the Methanolic Berberis
vulgaris and Acetonic
Rhus coriaria Extracts”
The study assessed the in
vitro and in vivo inhibitory
efficacy of methanolic
extract of B. vulgaris and
acetone extract of R.
coriaria on six piroplasm
parasites
The acetone extract of R.
coriaria and methanolic
extract of B. vulgaris
inhibited the
multiplication of Babesia
bovis, B. bigemina, B.
caballi, B. divergens, and
Theileria equi
Batiha et al. (2020)
“Hygienic Practices and
Structural Conditions of
the Food Processing
Premises Were the Main
Drivers of Microbiological
Quality of Edible Ice
Products in Binh Phuoc
Province, Vietnam 2019”
The study assessed the
food safety, quality of
edible ice product, and
associated factors at
manufacturing premises
This study presented
measures to ensure food
safety at ice producing
premises
Tuyet Hanh and Hanh
(2020)
“Historical Evolution of
Cattle Management and
Herd Health of Dairy
Farms in OECD Countries”
To described evolution of
dairy farms’ herd health
and cattle management
Adequate safety and
HACCP measures will help
improve herd health and
cattle management
Medeiros et al. (2022)
“A Risk and Hazard
Analysis Model for the
Production Process of a
New Meat Product
Blended With Germinated
Green Buckwheat and
Food Safety Awareness”
To carry out risk and
hazard analysis and
develop model for
producing novel meat
product with germinated
green buckwheat
Model for producing
novel meat product with
germinated green
buckwheat was
recommended
Atambayeva et al.
(2022a)
(Continued)
Awuchi, Cogent Food & Agriculture (2023), 9: 2176280
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Page 22 of 29
have led to an increase in the number of individuals purchasing and consuming foods made in
public places. This phenomenon is projected to increase in the future. Globalization and urbaniza-
tion have triggered growing demand for variety of foods by consumers, leading to an increased
longer and complex global food chain (WHO, 2022). This puts burden on food safety management
and demands for stricter but smarter HACCP plans. Climate change is expected to have huge
impact on food supplies and safety by 2050, with developing and underdeveloped nations
expected to be the worst affected, including small island developing states. These challenges
place more responsibilities on food producers/handlers, who need to ensure not just uninterrupted
food supplies, but also food safety and quality. Local events can rapidly grow into international and
intercontinental emergencies because of the range and speed of product distribution. The global
system of food supply chain is so interconnected that disruption in one region will consequently
affect other regions. A typical recent example is the Russian-Ukraine war that has disrupted the
supply chain for energy and grains such as wheat., affecting both developed and developing
countries. Such disruptions affect food safety and should be avoided in the future. National and
international governments have to make prioritize food safety for public health, as it plays an
important role in developing regulatory frameworks and policies, as well as in implementing and
establishing effective systems for food safety management. Food consumers and handlers have to
understand how to foods can be safely handled at home, factories, restaurants, or local market.
The burden of foodborne diseases to national economies and public health is usually under-
estimated because of underreporting and difficulty in establishing causal connections between the
contamination of foods and its associated illness/death. The WHO 2015 report on the global
burden estimates of foodborne diseases was the first estimates of disease burden resulting from
31 foodborne agents (toxins, chemicals, viruses, bacteria, parasites) at sub-regional and global
level, concluding that at least 600 million foodborne illness cases and420000death cases can
occur each year (WHO, 2022). The foodborne diseases’ burden disproportionately falls on vulner-
able groups, especially children below 5, with highest burden occurring in low- and middle-income
nations. The World Bank 2019 report on economic burdens of foodborne diseases showed that the
loss of total productivity associated with foodborne diseases in low- and middle-income nations
was US$ 95.2 billion every year, with the annual costs of foodborne illness treatment being US$ 15
billion (WHO, 2022).
In the industrialized countries, food production is facing an interesting paradox, with intense
flow of several foods and beverages, every year, and the simultaneous course for food safety
concern (Pellerito et al., 2019). In the event of this food sharing, comes the risks of exposure to
unsafe food and foodborne diseases. Social supermarkets, food banks, etc., need to analyze,
evaluate, and adopt defined HACCP plans and specific regulations to ensure safety. Even degraded
and recovered products may also be unsafe. Adequate measures should be put in place and also
explored further for food safety management.
Title of the study Study objectives Results and
conclusion
Reference
“History, development,
and current status of
food safety systems
worldwide”
To evaluate the history,
development, and
current status of food
safety systems
worldwide
The history,
development, and
current status of food
safety systems
worldwide can be
improved with adequate
food safety measures
Weinroth et al. (2018)
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11. Conclusion
HACCP is a food safety or food hygiene approach that employs systematic preventive methods to protect
foods and consumers from chemical, physical, and biological hazards/contaminants, and makes use of
scientific methods for preparation, handling, and storage of foods to prevent food-borne diseases/illness,
and maintain food quality. At least 600 million foodborne illness cases and420000death cases can occur
each year. Many factors of food contamination such as chemical, biological, and physical contaminants
can be well managed/controlled with proper HACCP application and other food safety measures. This
provides insights into the traditional and modern/novel approach to improving HACCP, food safety
management, and quality in food and agricultural systems. Novel/modern technologies for HACCP and
food safety management have been developed, including light technologies, novel freezing, AI, auto-
mation, etc., for easy detection/control of contaminants.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges Kampala International
University, Kampala, Uganda for providing the facilities
used in undertaking this study.
Funding
The authors have no funding to report.
Author details
Chinaza Godswill Awuchi
1,2
E-mail: awuchichinaza@gmail.com
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5071-8895
1
School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Kampala
International University, Kansanga, Uganda.
2
Department of Biochemistry, Kampala International
University, Bushenyi, Uganda.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Ethical approval and consent to participate
The study does not involve human or animal
Consent for publication
The author consents to the publication
Data availability
Additional data will be made available on request
Citation information
Cite this article as: HACCP, quality, and food safety man-
agement in food and agricultural systems, Chinaza
Godswill Awuchi, Cogent Food & Agriculture (2023), 9:
2176280.
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Awuchi, Cogent Food & Agriculture (2023), 9: 2176280
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2023.2176280
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