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Ann. Anim. Sci., Vol. 23, No. 1 (2023) 25–38 DOI: 10.2478/aoas-2022-0082
RECENT ADVANCES, CHALLENGES, OPPORTUNITIES, PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
AND SUSTAINABILITY OF MAIN AGRICULTURAL WASTES FOR THE AQUACULTURE FEED
INDUSTRY – A REVIEW
Zulhisyam Abdul Kari1,2♦, Suniza Anis Mohamad Sukri1,2, Nor Dini Rusli1,2, Khairiyah Mat1,2, M.B. Mahmud1,2, Nik Nur Azwanida Zakaria2,3,
Wendy Wee4, Noor Khalidah Abdul Hamid5, Muhammad Anamul Kabir 6, Nik Shahman Nik Ahmad Ariff7, Shahriman Zainal Abidin8,
Muhammad Khairulanam Zakaria1, Khang Wen Goh9, Martina Irwan Khoo10, Hien Van Doan11,12♦, Albaris Tahiluddin13, Lee Seong Wei1,2♦
1Department of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agro-Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan,
Malaysia
2Advanced Livestock and Aquaculture Research Group, Faculty of Agro-Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus,
17600 Jeli, Kelantan, Malaysia
3Department of Agro-based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus, Jeli 17600, Malaysia
4Center of Fundamental and Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia
5School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
6Department of Aquaculture, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100, Bangladesh
7Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
8Faculty of Art and Design, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
9Faculty of Data Science and Information Technology, INTI International University, 71800 Nilai, Malaysia
10Department of Chemical Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
11Department of Animal and Aquatic Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
12Science and Technology Research Institute, Chiang Mai University, 239 Huay Keaw Rd., Suthep, Muang, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
13College of Fisheries, Mindanao State University-Tawi-Tawi, College of Technology and Oceanography, Sanga-Sanga, Bongao,
Tawi-Tawi 7500, Philippines
♦Corresponding authors: zulhisyam.a@umk.edu.my, leeseong@umk.edu.my, hien.d@cmu.ac.th
Abstract
Million tonnes of agricultural waste are generated annually worldwide. Agricultural wastes possess similar proles to the main products
but are lower in quality. Managing these agricultural wastes is costly and requires strict regulation to minimise environmental stress.
Thus, these by-products could be repurposed for industrial use, such as alternative resources for aquafeed to reduce reliance on sh meal
and soybean meal, fertilisers to enrich medium for growing live feed, antimicrobial agents, and immunostimulatory enhancers. Further-
more, utilising agricultural wastes and other products can help mitigate the existing environmental and economic dilemmas. Therefore,
transforming these agricultural wastes into valuable products helps sustain the agricultural industry, minimises environmental impacts,
and benets industry players. Aquaculture is an important sector to supply affordable protein sources for billions worldwide. Thus, it is
essential to explore inexpensive and sustainable resources to enhance aquaculture production and minimise environmental and public
health impacts. Additionally, researchers and farmers need to understand the elements involved in new product development, particular-
ly the production of novel innovations, to provide the highest quality products for consumers. In summary, agriculture waste is a valuable
resource for the aquafeed industry that depends on several factors: formulation, costing, supply, feed treatment and nutritional value.
Key words: aquaculture feed, plant-based protein, animal-based protein, immunostimulator, protein replacement, environmental stress,
sustainability
Agricultural waste refers to residues resulting from
various agricultural activities, such as the production and
processing of plantation crops, livestock, fruits and veg-
etable farming (Kari et al., 2020; Ramírez-García et al.,
2019). The agricultural industry continues to expand in
tandem with the increasing global human population and
food demand, hence the increase in agricultural waste.
The agricultural waste covers between 0.5% and 50% of
production, depending on the agricultural activity and
the plant processing management. Therefore, agricultural
waste will be a liability to the environment, economy,
and human health without proper waste management
plans and actions. In addition, agricultural waste is high-
ly nutritious but not t for human consumption (Ajila et
al., 2012). Therefore, repurposing or transforming waste
into functional forms, such as animal feed, is a sustain-
able alternative for agricultural waste management.
Over the last 20 years, many animal feed manufac-
turers and researchers have begun incorporating agri-
cultural waste into their feed formulations to save costs
(Van Doan et al., 2021). For instance, rice bran is used
in poultry feed, while palm kernel cake is used in ru-
minant feed. Meanwhile, agricultural waste is incorpo-
rated into aquafeed ingredients for effective production
cost, waste management, and industrial sustainability.
The aquaculture industry has been relying on sh meal
(FM) as farmed sh feed for years, but the option is no
longer economically viable or environmental practical
26 Z.A. Kari et al.
due to the depleting natural resources. Apart from that,
FM has long been a highly sought-after ingredient for
aquafeed, farm animal feed and pet food, resulting in the
skyrocketing commodity price (Frempong et al., 2019;
Galkanda-Arachchige et al., 2020). Therefore, substitut-
ing FM with alternative ingredients, such as agricultural
waste, is one of many ways to sustain the aquaculture
industry. Aquafeed is of low priority in the animal feed
industry for various reasons: 1) The dominance of poul-
try and ruminant farms in the world food supply; 2) The
ability of terrestrial animals to better utilise plant-based
sources than aquatic animals. Despite the limited success
in incorporating agricultural waste into aquafeed, this al-
ternative remains viable as studies have reported favour-
able results. Therefore, agricultural waste inclusion in
aquafeed is expected to become a mainstay in the near fu-
ture.
Aquaculture and sustainability
Fish is a cheap and primary protein source for more
than 1 billion people worldwide (Omojowo and Omoj-
asola, 2013). The total live weight of the world aquacul-
ture production was 114.5 million in 2018 (FAO, 2020).
As the aquaculture business intensies to meet the global
sh demand, the benets and drawbacks of these activi-
ties are increasingly recognised. For example, echino-
derms, bivalves, and seaweed farming are economically
viable and environmentally friendly. It has been reported
that Kappaphycus spp. seaweed farming can help reduce
open sea acidication by utilising nutrients and maintain-
ing good water quality for other aquatic life (Garland,
2021). Seaweed is also a source of valuable compounds
such as carrageenan, which are benecial as food, bever-
ages and healthcare. Furthermore, detritus consumption
by sea cucumbers can aid in seaoor cleanup. The in-
creasing sea cucumber production can also cater to the
growing demand for seafood, particularly in Asia.
One of the main reasons for the rising environmen-
tal concerns is the high dependency of the aquaculture
industry on the sh meal as the primary protein source
in aquafeed formulation (Sprague et al., 2016). Despite
decades of research on alternative ingredients that can
replace FM, total replacement of this gold standard in-
gredient is impossible due to practicality and feasibility
issues (Turchini et al., 2019). For instance, the formu-
lation of salmon aquafeed requires a signicant amount
of FM. The amount of FM used in salmon farming has
decreased signicantly over the years (from 4.4 kg to 0.7
kg of FM to produce 1 kg of sh), and the inclusion of
FM in the dietary formulation remains critical (Ytrestøyl
et al., 2015). In addition, extensive studies have been
conducted to reduce the sh in/sh out (FIFO) value by
using alternative ingredients such as insect meal and ag-
ricultural waste.
Global scenario and trend of agricultural waste
Million tonnes of agricultural waste are generated
annually due to the cultivation and processing of crops,
fruits, and animals (Ytrestøyl et al., 2015). The total ag-
ricultural waste from main producer countries was esti-
mated to be 60 million tonnes of wheat bran, 150 million
tonnes of soy pulp, 45 million tonnes of rice bran and
200 million tonnes of palm kernel cake. These wastes are
generated by all types of agricultural activities at differ-
ent phases. Figure 1 illustrates the estimated global ma-
jor agricultural (crop) waste products in 2020. Besides
proper management, most agricultural wastes contain
nutrients essential for aquaculture.
Figure 1. Global production of the leading agricultural products and estimated potential agricultural wastes production in 2020; Source: FAO
(FAO, 2021)
27Agricultural wastes in the aquaculture feed industry – a review
Table 1. Recent studies on aquaculture species fed with agricultural waste diets
Agriculture waste Aquaculture species Dose Time Findings References
Fermented rice
bran
Pacic White shrimp, Penaeus
vannamei
50% fermented rice
bran + 50% commercial
probiotic
Four weeks Reduced pathogenic
bacteria in the shrimp
culture system
Liñan-Vidriales et
al., 2021
Fermented soy
pulp
African catsh, Clarias
gariepinus
50% of FM replace-
ment in the diet
Eight weeks Enhanced the growth
and health status of
sh; Improved protein
digestibility of the sh
and increased essen-
tial amino acid prole
in the sh muscle
Kari et al., 2022 b;
Kari et al., 2021
Molasses Whiteleg shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei
Molasses combined
with corn starch (2 mo-
lasses: 1 corn starch)
Five weeks Enhanced growth per-
formance of whiteleg
shrimp
Tinh et al., 2021
African catsh Molasses addition
based on C:N ratio
10 :20
30 days Enhanced growth
performance of catsh
and maintained good
water quality
Rahmatullah and
Rahardja, 2020
Carica papaya
leaf extract
Red hybrid tilapia, Oreo-
chromis mossambicus × Oreo-
chromis niloticus
Replacement of 1%
and 2%
12 weeks Promoted sh growth Hamid et al., 2022
Pineapple waste Nile tilapia, O. niloticus 50% of replacement
with FM
Eight weeks Improved growth
conditions
Sukri et al., 2022
Germinated pea-
nut meal
Barramundi, L. calcarifer Replacement of 15%
FM
Eight weeks Cost effective Vo et al., 2020
Palm Oil Mill
Efuent (POME)
Rotifer, Brachionus rotundi-
formis (live feed)
POME combined with
photobacterium at
biomass 2.58 ppt
Six days As fertiliser to grow
live feed
Poh-Leong et al.,
2012
Palm kernel cake
(PKC)
Juvenile rohu, Labeo rohita Replacement of 10%
FM
60 days Cost-effective Sangavi et al., 2020
Olive leaf Nile tilapia, O. niloticus 1% in feed Two months Enhanced the growth
and health status of
sh
Fazio et al., 2022
Olive waste Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus
mykiss
2.5 g olive waste per kg
of sh
Six weeks Enhanced the growth
of the sh
Hoseinifar et al.,
2020
Banana peel our Rohu, L. rohita 5% of feed weight 60 days Enhanced the health
status of sh
Giri et al., 2016
Orange peel Gilthead seabream, Sparus
aurata L.
2.9 to 5.5 ppm of sh
weight
60 days Enhanced the health
status of sh
Salem et al., 2019
Yeast-fermented
poultry
by-product meal
(PPM)
Nile tilapia, O. niloticus 11.17–25.14% as a
protein source
Eight weeks Alternative protein
source
Dawood and Koshio,
2020
Fermented
chicken manure
(FCM)
Nile tilapia, O. niloticus 25% (FCM) + 75%
commercial feed
60 days Alternative feed Elsaidy et al., 2015
Pig manure Nile tilapia, O. niloticus 15% replacement of
FM
120 days Alternative protein
source
Tongmee et al., 2020
The application of agricultural waste for aquafeed
and aquaculture practices
Agricultural crops include grain, oil-barrier plants,
legumes, vegetables and fruits. Meanwhile, agricultural
animals refer to poultry, ruminants, aquaculture, and
sheries. The agricultural wastes comprise farm or eld
residues, processing and industrial waste from the agri-
cultural sector (Agrawal et al., 2018). Farm or eld resi-
dues are waste produced directly at the eld, such as the
leaf, stalk, seed and stem of the plant, and solid waste of
farmed animals. Processing residuals refer to waste from
the processing facility, such as husks and bran from grain
mills, molasses from sugarcane processing, and blood
and mucus from abattoirs. Industrial residues are by-
products of the processing of food products before reach-
ing store shelves. In addition, fruit peels, okara, palm
kernel cake, rendered fat, and bone meal are by-products
of the food processing industry. To date, all types of
agricultural waste have been incorporated in aquafeed
depending on suitability. Table 1 presents recent aqua-
culture studies, where various species are provided with
agricultural waste diets. The agricultural waste can be
used for replacement, inclusion or additive in the sh diet
(see Figure 2).
28 Z.A. Kari et al.
Overview of the sustainability of agricultural
waste in aquaculture activities
Crop agricultural waste
Rice bran
Rice bran is a by-product of rice production. A total
of 63 million tonnes of rice bran are produced annually
worldwide and primarily used as animal feed (Webber
et al., 2014). Rice bran contains about 17% lipid, 12%
protein, 7% ash, 28% bre and 50% carbohydrate (Choi
et al., 2011; Khir et al., 2019). Rice bran has a good nu-
tritional prole, making it a highly sought-after ingredi-
ent for poultry and ruminant feed, and aquafeed. In aq-
uaculture, rice bran is also used to fertilise water in the
aquaculture system, apart from being included in the feed
formulation. For instance, Limbu et al. (2016) evaluated
the potential of rice bran as a sole tilapia feed in a semi-
intensive system. It was reported that rice bran (single
ingredient) produced a similar sh yield as those fed with
mixed diets. Furthermore, rice bran usage as an aquafeed
was enhanced via fermentation. Liñan-Vidriales et al.
(2021) reported feeding Pacic white shrimp, Penaeus
vannamei, and commercial feed combined with ferment-
ed rice bran improved shrimp production. In another
study, fermented rice bran enhanced the growth and sur-
vival rate of tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Muaddama
and Putri, 2021). Likewise, Romano et al. (2018) discov-
ered that the fermented rice bran application via biooc
technology in African catsh, Clarias gariepinus, farm-
ing showed promising results in maintaining good water
quality and promoting sh growth and survival rate. Fer-
mented rice bran via biooc technology is also benecial
in white leg shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, culture (Ab-
del-Tawwab et al., 2020). Moreover, Yanto et al. (2018)
highlighted using fermented rice bran as a probiotic pro-
moter in jelawat Leptobarbus hoevenii farming.
Wheat bran
Wheat bran is a bre-rich by-product from wheat
our mill production (Wieser et al., 2020). Raw wheat
bran is composed of 16% protein, 5% lipid, 6% ash, 12%
carbohydrate and 43% bre (Yan et al., 2015). Wheat
bran is rarely used in sh feed due to the high bre con-
tent. Initially, the utilisation of wheat bran in sh feed
was conducted by Hilton and Slinger (1983) on rainbow
trout. It was reported that middling wheat replacement
using wheat bran improved the growth and body indices
of the experimental sh. In recent years, the fermentation
technique was employed as a pre-treatment for wheat
bran to degrade the bre structure and increase the pro-
tein content (Pangestika and Putra, 2020). The use of
fermented wheat bran in Nile tilapia, O. niloticus, diet
improved their growth performance (Pangestika and Pu-
tra, 2020). To date, the research on wheat bran utilisation
in aquaculture remains limited, but earlier research dem-
onstrated the potential of wheat bran as a raw material
in sh feed formulation. Furthermore, fermented wheat
bran performs better than non-fermented wheat bran.
Soy pulp/Okara
Soy pulp, also known as okara, is a by-product of the
soy milking industry. Soybeans are legumes with a high
protein content that bind nitrogen from the soil. Despite
the high protein loss during the milk pressing process,
the soy pulp still contains a high protein concentration (±
25%) (Li et al., 2012). Okara is ideal and widely used as
feed for livestock as a supplemental protein source and
plant fertiliser due to the high bre content (>50%) (Li
et al., 2012; Rahman et al., 2021). Furthermore, fermen-
tation can boost the nutritional value of soy pulp by re-
ducing the bre content and increasing the protein level.
A study showed that dietary fermented soy pulp could
be increased by up to 50% without adverse effects on
African catsh, besides improving their general health
(Kari et al., 2021). In addition, Kari et al. (2022 a) found
that 50% replacement of FM with fermented soy pulp
enhanced the protein digestibility in sh and increased
the essential amino acid prole in their muscles. Moreo-
ver, utilising soy pulp (10 to 20%) as a FM replacement
in Pacic white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, improved
their growth performance without negative impacts
(Forster et al., 2010). In summary, soy pulp is a high
potential protein source in sh feed formulation but out-
performed by fermented soy pulp in FM replacement
rate.
Figure 2. Overview of the sustainability of agricultural waste in aquaculture activities
29Agricultural wastes in the aquaculture feed industry – a review
Peanut (groundnut) meal
Peanut meal or peanut by-products are produced from
industrial peanut oil extraction (Sorita et al., 2020; Zhao
et al., 2012). This waste contains approximately 45%
protein and <10% bre (Batal et al., 2005), and is widely
used for livestock, including aquaculture. Based on the
literature, peanut meal can be included in sh feed for-
mulations at a specic dosage to avoid adverse effects on
their growth. The application of peanut meal to replace
expensive ingredients such as soy meal and FM signi-
cantly reduced the cost of feed formulation. For instance,
peanut meal replaced FM in a hybrid grouper diet by up
to 50% without adversely affecting sh growth (Ye et al.,
2020). Nevertheless, the diet replacement resulted in the
increment of pathogenic bacteria in the hybrid grouper’s
intestine (Ye et al., 2020). In a different study, Li and col-
leagues suggested that peanut meal is a suitable soybean
meal replacement in channel catsh diets up to 25% with-
out any adverse effects on sh growth (Li et al., 2018).
Olapade and George (2019) suggested that defatted
peanut meal is suitable as a FM replacement of up to 50%
for catsh feed formulation without any adverse effect on
sh growth, while maintaining water quality. Other stud-
ies that evaluated the potential of peanut meal in aqua-
culture with positive responses include Xu et al. (2012)
in Pacic white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, Yıldırım
et al. (2014) in Mozambique tilapia fries, Oreochromis
mossambicus and Vo et al. (2020) in juveniles of barra-
mundi, Lates calcarifer. Furthermore, peanut meal blend
can replace up to 60% of soybean meal in Yellow River
carp without harming sh growth (Wang et al., 2020).
Molasses
Molasses is a by-product of sugar production. This
thick and brown syrup was widely used in food, bever-
age, and health supplements due to the high nutritional
value, abundance and low cost. Therefore, molasses is
widely used in animal farming, including in aquaculture.
A recent study by Tinh et al. (2021) stated that molas-
ses combined with corn starch promoted the growth of
whiteleg shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, in a biooc sys-
tem by increasing the biooc yield, hence more feed for
the aquaculture species. Furthermore, molasses added
into L. vannamei farming system improved shrimp pro-
duction and water quality compared to the system with
rice bran and dextrose (Serra et al., 2015). Thus, molas-
ses helps control water quality while boosting shrimp
production.
Molasses can also remove and degrade aquaculture
wastewater by contributing external carbon sources pro-
moting aerobic denitrication in an aquaculture system
(Tong et al., 2019). Furthermore, the presence of molas-
ses in an aquaculture system can stimulate and increase
denitrifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Comamonas
and Zoogloea, thus enhancing waste removal in an aqua-
culture system. Similarly, Samocha et al. (2007) found
that adding molasses into the grow-out system of L. van-
namei helped control water quality by reducing total am-
monia nitrogen (TAN) in the system. Moreover, Willett
and Morrison (2006) agreed that molasses at appropriate
concentrations could help reduce TAN in an aquaculture
system by providing carbon sources for the blooming of
the denitrifying bacteria. Likewise, several studies have
reported the impact of molasses in controlling water
quality by reducing TAN in aquaculture systems, such
as Schneider et al. (2006), Panjaitan (2010), De Souza
et al. (2014), Pantjara et al. (2013), Duy and Van Khanh
(2018), and Rahmatullah and Rahardja (2020). In conclu-
sion, molasses can be used as a wastewater bioremedia-
tion agent in aquaculture systems.
Palm oil by-product: Palm oil mill efuent (POME)
Oil palm is an oil-bearing plant. In the renery, palm
oil mill efuent (POME) is the wastewater produced dur-
ing palm oil processing (Poh et al., 2010). This efuent
can be harmful to the environment if untreated before be-
ing discharged into the environment because of the high
biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen
demand (COD) (Aziz et al., 2020). Despite being a non-
toxic efuent, POME high nutrient content will result in
eutrophication, eventually eradicating aquatic life in the
ecosystem if not properly managed. Muliari et al. (2020)
found that POME is harmful to aquatic animals, particu-
larly in the early stages, because POME compromises
the egg-hatching and larvae survival rate of Nile tilapia,
O. niloticus. In addition, a high concentration of POME
will lead to high malformation and abnormal heart rate
in the sh larvae. Numerous studies were performed to
repurpose POME. For example, Poh-Leong et al. (2012)
found that POME is a suitable medium for the photo-
trophic bacterium, Rhodovulum suldophilum culture.
The combination medium is known as POME-PB and is
used as feed for rotifer, Brachionus rotundiformis, and
live feed for larvae of marble goby, Oxyeleotris marm-
orata, yielding positive results. Furthermore, Habib et al.
(1997) revealed the potential of POME as a fertiliser to
propagate live feed for aquaculture. In the study, POME
can be used as a medium to propagate microalgae, Chlo-
rella vulgaris, and grow chironomid larvae effectively.
Both live feeds are highly nutritious feed for aquaculture
species larvae.
Palm oil by-product: Palm kernel cake (PKC)
Palm kernel cake (PKC) is a substrate derived from
palm oil extraction. This by-product is rich in protein and
fat and commonly used in the livestock feed industry.
Several studies have evaluated the potential of PKC as
a protein source in sh feed formulation (Ng and Chen,
2002). For instance, Sukasem and Ruangsri (2007)
claimed that PKC is a promising protein source for red
tilapia, Oreochromis spp., and feed formulation at 15%
to 45% inclusion without compromising the sh growth
and health. Nevertheless, >45% PKC in tilapia feed for-
mulation can lead to steosis in sh. Likewise, Ng and
Chen (2002) reported adverse effects in catsh that re-
ceived 40% of PKC feed formulation. Meanwhile, there
30 Z.A. Kari et al.
was no difference in the growth performance of catsh
receiving <40% of PKC feed formulation compared to
the control group fed with commercial feed containing
soybean meal. In addition, Sangavi et al. (2020) showed
that 0.26 to 10% PKC inclusion promoted the growth of
juvenile rohu, Labeo rohita without compromising the
sh growth performance. Iluyemi et al. (2010) fermented
PKC to reduce the fat content before including the in-
gredient in red tilapia feed formulation. At the end of the
experiment, it was found that higher fermented PKC in-
clusion in the feed led to a decrease in red tilapia weight
gain. Therefore, it can be concluded that PKC can be in-
cluded as protein and fat sources in sh feed formulation
but not at high percentages, which may be detrimental to
sh health.
Olive oil by-products
The olive oil, Olea europaea, industry produces high
amounts of by-products. Olive oil wastes included leaf
(5% of the weight of the olive in oil extraction), 35 kg
of crude olive cake per 100 kg olives, and 100 litres
of oil mill wastewater per 100 kg olives (Alcaide and
Nefzaoui, 1996; Hazreen Nita et al., 2022). This oldest
cultivated crop (Kapellakis et al., 2008) is widely used in
food, beverage and traditional medicine (Acar-Tek and
Ağagündüz, 2020). Recent study ndings suggest that
olive oil by-products are useful in managing aquaculture
species’ health. Various studies have revealed the poten-
tial of these wastes for aquaculture uses. For example,
Hoseinifar et al. (2020) claimed that olive waste incor-
porated with feed (2.5 g olive waste per kg of sh) in
a six-week feeding trial enhanced the growth of rainbow
trout, O. mykiss. Meanwhile, Fazio et al. (2022) discov-
ered that olive leaf extract added to sh feed at 1% im-
proved the growth performance and health states of Nile
tilapia, O. niloticus. Besides sh, the olive leaf extract is
useful for shrimp health management. Gholamhosseini
et al. (2020) reported that methanolic olive leaf extract
is useful against white spot virus syndrome in P. van-
namei. The extract was mixed with the feed and fed to
the shrimp for two weeks before exposing them to viral-
medicated feed. The shrimp exhibited resistance towards
the virus at the end of the experiment.
Vegetables and fruits waste
Fruit processing wastes and products were estimat-
ed to be approximately 100 million tonnes, and man-
agement has become challenging for industrial players
(Fierascu et al., 2020; Marić et al., 2018). Studies have
shown that fruit processing wastes and by-products are
promising supplements for aquaculture species due to
the presence of bioactive compounds and exogenous en-
zymes (Dawood et al., 2022; Habotta et al., 2022). For
instance, banana peel our incorporated with sh feed
5% promoted the health of rohu, L. rohita (Giri et al.,
2016). Meanwhile, Salem et al. (2019) claimed that or-
ange peel fed to gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata, at 2.9
to 5.5 ppm of sh weight for 60 consecutive days helped
maintain good sh health. Chinese yam peel, a fruit pro-
cessing by-product, contains properties that could elimi-
nate pathogenic bacteria in sh intestines by increasing
benecial microbiota in their digestive system. Similarly,
Meng et al. (2019) claimed that a bioactive compound
in the Chinese yam peel, known as the yam polysaccha-
ride, promoted good microbial growth while eliminating
pathogenic bacteria, such as Vibrio and Pseudomonas.
In addition, the pineapple crown, skin and core contain
bromelain, a proteolytic enzyme that improves digestion
and the immune system in tilapia (Sukri et al., 2021; Van
Doan et al., 2021; Yuangsoi et al., 2018). Papaya plant
waste contains papain, a proteolytic enzyme found only
in Papaya carica. Several studies demonstrated that pa-
paya waste extracts such as leaf, skin, and seed improved
growth performance and blood parameters in various sh
species (Kareem et al., 2016; Olmoss, 2012; Olusola and
Nwokike, 2018; Sukri et al., 2021).
Animal-based by-products
Blood meal
Blood meal is the puried blood of slaughtered ani-
mals collected from the abattoir and animal processing
plants, containing approximately 90% protein, 3% lipid
and 4% ash (Do Carmo Gominho-Rosa et al., 2015). Fur-
thermore, this high-quality protein meal possesses an ex-
cellent essential amino acid prole except for isoleucine.
Despite the imbalance in the amino acid prole, studies
in Nile tilapia showed that blood meal could replace up
to 50% of dietary FM without causing adverse effects
(Montoya-Camacho et al., 2019). FM replacement us-
ing blood meal has also been studied in other species,
such as red hybrid tilapia (Fasakin et al., 2005), palmetto
bass (Gallagher and LaDouceur, 1996), African catsh
(Ogunji and Iheanacho, 2021; Ogunji et al., 2020), rohu
(Hussain et al., 2011), rainbow trout (Bahrevar and Fa-
ghani-Langroudi, 2015), channel catsh (Mohsen and
Lovell, 1990) and white shrimp (Ye et al., 2011). None-
theless, the response of other sh species towards the in-
clusion of blood meal is different to that of Nile tilapia.
In most reports, blood meal is only benecial at a low
inclusion level.
Poultry by-product meal (PPM)
Poultry by-product meal (PPM) is a feed ingredient
made from wastes obtained from poultry slaughterhous-
es and processing plants. There are two types of PPM
commonly used for animal or sh feed: poultry offal
meal (POM) and feather meal. Numerous studies have
evaluated the potential of PPM in replacing FM in fresh-
water sh, marine sh and crustacean feed formulation
(Galkanda-Arachchige et al., 2020). Poultry offal meal,
for example, has been evaluated in many sh species,
and among those that have been studied were silver sea-
bream (El-Sayed, 1994), Atlantic salmon (Rocker et al.,
2021), humpback grouper (Shapawi et al., 2007), sea-
bass (Siddik et al., 2019), African catsh (El-Husseiny
et al., 2018). Feather meal: gilthead seabream (Al-Souti
31Agricultural wastes in the aquaculture feed industry – a review
et al., 2019; Psofakis et al., 2020), tilapia (Alves et al.,
2019; Poolsawat et al., 2021) and giant croaker (Wu et
al., 2018). Galkanda-Arachchige et al. (2020), in their
review report, mentioned that the substitution of FM
with PPM in aquaculture feed is promising in shrimp
compared to marine and freshwater sh. At the same
time, marine sh performed better feed conversion rates
(FCR) than freshwater sh by using PPM in feed for-
mulation (Galkanda-Arachchige et al., 2020; Ghosh et
al., 2022). Srour et al. (2016) reported that PPM could
replace FM as high as 40% without any compromising
to the growth performance of marine sh European sea-
bass, Dicentrarchus labrax, fry. However, Chaklader et
al. (2020) found that total replacement of FM with PPM
negatively affected the growth performance of juvenile
barramundi, Lates calcarifer. However, combination
of insect meal and PPM in feed formulation to totally
replace plant-based protein source was found promis-
ing in gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata (Randazzo et
al., 2021). Total replacement of PPM in feed formula-
tion for freshwater sh is not promising. For instance,
Dawood et al. (2020) reported that fermented PPM
alone can be used as low as 11.17 to 25.14% as protein
source in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, feed for-
mulation in order to avoid adverse effect to the growth
performance of the sh and to maintain the sh health.
Fermented feather meal in tiger shrimp and silver pom-
pano, treated feather meal for largemouth bass (Ren et
al., 2020) and enzymatic treated PFM on rainbow trout
(Pfeuti et al., 2019).
Fish processing wastes
Fish products will be processed before selling into the
market. Almost 70% of sh products will be processed
(grading, beheading, scaling, gutting, ns cutting, bone
separation, steak and llets) and produce considerable
waste (Ghaly et al., 2013). This waste is known as sh
processing waste. Not all sh processing wastes can be
processed into FM for aquaculture feed formulation. The
market rejected whole or low-quality sh, which will be
transformed into FM for pig feed, poultry feed, and aqua
feed (FAO, 2012). Besides FM, other sh processing
wastes such as skin, bone and shellsh wastes (shrimp
head, appendages and exoskeleton) are also nutritious
(Afreen and Ucak, 2020), hence suitable for aquafeed
formulation. Fish skin is rich in gelatine and collagen
(Afreen and Ucak, 2020), sh bone is a good source of
antioxidants (Morimura et al., 2002), and shellsh wastes
are rich in methionine and lysine (Fanimo et al., 2000).
Nonetheless, FM remains the highly-sorted sh process-
ing waste for aquaculture and other animal feed. There-
fore, more studies need to explore other sh processing
wastes as potential raw materials for aquaculture feed
formulation in the near future.
Chicken manure
Chicken manure is commonly used in extensive and
semi-intensive aquaculture systems. This poultry by-
product is used as a fertiliser to propagate microalgae,
a primary feed for zooplankton in an aquaculture system.
Zooplankton is the primary source of live feed for vari-
ous aquaculture species. Furthermore, numerous stud-
ies have highlighted the potential of chicken manure
for aquaculture uses. For example, Knud-Hansen et al.
(1993) claimed that chicken manure added to Nile tilapia,
O. niloticus farming pond, could promote microalgae
growth and act as a feed that could enhance the growth of
farmed sh. Meanwhile, Mataka and Kang’ombe (2007)
claimed that maize bran, in combination with chicken
manure as a dietary supplement for Tilapia rendalli farm-
ing exhibited promising results. Despite that, fermented
chicken manure was recently reported as bacteriologi-
cally safe compared to non-fermented chicken manure in
Nile tilapia, O. niloticus farming (Elsaidy et al., 2015).
Despite the potential to enhance sh production, a study
highlighted the risk of farmed sh exposure to heavy
metals (Nnaji et al., 2011) and coliform bacteria from
chicken manure. Thus, the application of chicken manure
in aquaculture requires proper disinfection to address the
safety issues concerning aquaculture products for human
consumption.
Pig manure
The swine by-product can be processed and utilised
as a FM or soybean meal replacement as a protein source.
Feeding trials were conducted using fermented pig ma-
nure and fresh pig manure in silver carp (Hypothal-
michthys molitrix), bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis),
crucian carp (Carassius auratus) and common carp (Cy-
prinus carpio). The ndings indicated that fresh pig ma-
nure promoted the growth of all the tested sh by more
than 144% compared to fermented pig manure; thus,
fresh pig manure can be used directly in sh farming.
Meanwhile, Zoccarato et al. (1995) proposed that fresh
pig manure can be directly applied as a fertiliser in carp
sh Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngodon idella farm-
ing in Northern Italy. In the study, high mortality was
observed in the treatment using total pig manure, where-
as a 100% survival rate was recorded when partial pig
manure was combined with a commercial pellet. There-
fore, Zoccarato et al. (1995) suggested that pig manure in
moderation is acceptable to maintain good water quality
and sh health. Conversely, Bwala and Omoregie (2009)
found that a high dosage of pig manure in tilapia farming
increased production and maintained optimal water qual-
ity in the sh pond. Moreover, pig manure was useful as
a fertiliser by enriching phytoplankton and zooplankton
in carp ponds (Dhawan and Kaur, 2002). A recent study
by Tongmee et al. (2020) revealed that fermented pig
manure could replace FM as a protein source up to 15%
in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) feed formulation
without compromising their growth performance. Based
on the literature, fresh pig manure can be applied directly
into sh ponds as fertiliser to bloom phytoplankton and
zooplankton as natural live feed for the aquaculture spe-
cies.
32 Z.A. Kari et al.
Advantages of incorporating agricultural waste in
aquafeed
Repurposing agricultural by-products as aquafeed is
economical and environmentally favourable due to the
improvement in waste management, reduced exploita-
tion of natural resources, and enhanced general well-be-
ing of farmed sh. Infectious diseases have also become
a main concern in the aquaculture industry. Additionally,
more farms have intensied the culture systems to ensure
a consistent and sufcient supply for consumers. Re-
sultantly, aquaculture species stress levels will rise and
impair their immune system, hence increasing their sus-
ceptibility to disease infection (Dawood et al., 2021; Ho-
seinifar et al., 2020; Kari et al., 2022 b, 2021, 2020; Van
Doan et al., 2021). Synthetic antibiotics do more harm
than good for the environment and consumers. Therefore,
it is essential to opt for organic or environmental-safe
supplements. Studies have shown that including agricul-
tural waste-derived probiotics in supplements improves
the immune system in farmed sh. Various research has
evaluated the potential of primary agricultural wastes
(Abdel-Latif et al., 2022; Dawood et al., 2021; Kari et
al., 2022 a, 2020, 2022 c; Mat et al., 2022), and identied
several agricultural wastes valuable for the aquaculture
industry. Inexpensive and abundant agricultural wastes
provide opportunities for aquaculture industry players
to explore the properties and nutritional values of these
wastes and sustain the agriculture industry.
In 2030, aquaculture production is expected to be ap-
proximately 109 million tonnes and to exceed sheries
production by 2050 as the main global aquatic protein
producer (FAO, 2020). As the aquaculture industry is
gearing toward tremendous expansion, more resources
are vital in supporting the aquaculture industry develop-
ment, such as new raw material for sh feed formulation,
fertiliser to promote the growth of microalgae and other
live feed and new antimicrobial or immunostimulatory
agents to maintain the health of aquaculture species. An-
imal-based agricultural waste, such as blood meal, could
compensate for the incomplete essential amino acids
from plant-based ingredients. Despite the indispensable
amino acid prole of blood meal compared to FM, an
optimum balance can be achieved with other ingredi-
ents. Likewise, poultry waste is a protein form that can
be readily digested by the sh and contains no cellulose.
Challenges of using agricultural waste in aquafeed
and aquaculture practices
A classic challenge in using plant-based agricultural
waste is the presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs)
and high cellulose content. At a low level, ANFs is bene-
cial to the sh but not at higher concentrations. Accord-
ing to Soetan and Oyewole (2009) and Kari et al. (2021),
ANFs are compounds that can reduce the nutritional val-
ue of plant products consumed by humans and animals.
The ANFs are crucial in determining the suitability of
plants as an ingredient in feed formulation. Several plant
ANFs identied are tannins, phytate, oxalate, saponins,
lectins, alkaloids, protease inhibitors, and cyanogenic
glycosides (Gemede and Ratta, 2014).
The increasing utilisation of agricultural residues has
prompted researchers to nd ways to remove or reduce
ANFs in plant proteins. Various methods have been es-
tablished to extract ANFs from plant protein without
reducing the nutritional values, namely soaking, germi-
nation, boiling, autoclaving, fermentation, and genetic
manipulation (Thakur and Kumar, 2017). The fermenta-
tion process is one of the most popular and well-practised
methods in the aquaculture industry. Today, fermentative
nutrition in aquatic animals is still not well understood
(Esakkiraj et al., 2009), but in vitro processing of plant
ingredients via fermentation is recommended to decrease
the ANFs and increase nutrient availability (Ramachan-
dran and Ray, 2007). Nevertheless, fermentation is a new
biological technique used on plant-based ingredients,
such as soybean meal, to increase nutrient bioavailability
through microbial enzymatic activities (Khan and Ghosh,
2013). Furthermore, the ANFs at low levels have a posi-
tive impact on animal health. For example, phytate, lec-
tins, tannins, amylase inhibitors and saponins can reduce
the blood glucose and insulin level in the body (Gemede
and Ratta, 2014). Notably, pesticide residues in plant-
based agricultural waste constitute a signicant concern
among sh farmers. Studies have shown that pesticides
used for crops, such as paddy, can be detected in rice bran,
leading to environmental and sh safety issues (Pareja
et al., 2012). Likewise, synthetic antibiotics in animal
waste, such as poultry waste (Gong et al., 2021), may
affect the sh culture. The full impacts of pesticides and
synthetic antibiotics on agricultural waste have not been
explored in aquaculture; thus, more research is needed
to evaluate the potential risk of synthetic residues from
agricultural waste in sh.
Economic value and new product development
from agricultural waste: waste to wealth
Advanced techniques and innovation have been de-
veloped to convert agricultural waste into valuable and
sustainable resources (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2020).
Basically, the waste management system consists of pro-
duction, collection, storage, treatment, transfer and utili-
sation (Banga and Kumar, 2019). These fundamentals in
the waste management system will lead to a more sus-
tainable economy in the long term. Moreover, converting
agricultural waste into wealth allows stakeholders to ex-
plore opportunities in a green environment, thus, improv-
ing scal activity and quality of life (Banga and Kumar,
2019). Researchers need to understand the market, con-
sumer needs and competitors when establishing innova-
tions involving agricultural waste for aquaculture usage.
Consequently, the research products will be of superior
value and cater to the needs of consumers (Schilling and
Hill, 1998). Ultimately, new product development in-
volving agriculture waste requires an in-depth analysis
by researchers, which can be summarised into eight ma-
jor steps (see Figure 3).
33Agricultural wastes in the aquaculture feed industry – a review
The concept of utilising agriculture waste in aquacul-
ture begins with idea generation. Typically, researchers
will generate hundreds of ideas based on the research (Nik
Ahmad Ariff et al., 2013), including visualising, commu-
nicating, transferring (Ariff et al., 2012) and morphing the
conceptual ideas (Jamaludin et al., 2015), before proceed-
ing with prototyping and production to identify high po-
tential ideas. Subsequently, researchers will conduct idea
screening, concept development and testing, marketing
strategy development, business analysis, product develop-
ment, test marketing, and commercialisation.
Feed cost makes up 30–70% of the overall farm op-
erational costs, inuencing protability in aquaculture
investments (Daniel, 2018; Muzinic et al., 2006). There-
fore, it is crucial to identify alternative protein sources
as a FM replacement, which is gradually decreasing in
production. A high-quality feed ingredient should yield
the best growth and health performances in sh and have
economic efciency; thus, evaluating these criteria be-
fore introducing the feed to local farmers and feed pro-
ducers is important. For example, Ngugi et al. (2016)
reported that rice bran, in combination with C. nilotica,
resulted in superior growth performance and suitable FM
replacement without compromising economic benets
in Nile tilapia farming. Nevertheless, the same study
observed that the sh growth performance was lower
in sh fed solely with rice bran. In addition, Kishawy
et al. (2021) revealed that rice protein sources exhibited
no adverse effects on growth parameters besides offering
high economic efciencies and net returns. Furthermore,
FM-based feed recorded the highest total feed cost per
sh compared to other treatments. In conclusion, agri-
culture waste is a promising and potentially sustainable
alternative in producing quality feed, which aligns with
the waste to wealth concept.
Conclusion and recommendations
Years of research have revealed the potential of agri-
cultural wastes for aquaculture applications. Agricultural
by-products are highly nutritious and benecial for aq-
uaculturists, particularly in cost reduction. Furthermore,
improper management of these wastes may lead to en-
vironmental pollution and harm public health. There-
fore, converting these wastes into valuable resources
is a good management strategy that can benet com-
munities, reduce environmental pollution and produce
affordable aquaculture products. Despite that, several
limitations have been identied in incorporating agri-
cultural by-products in aquaculture activities, and stud-
ies regarding the potential risk and economic value of
utilising agricultural waste in aquafeed remain lacking.
Thus, it is recommended for future studies to conduct
the necessary assessments and improvements before
agricultural waste can become a mainstay in the aqua-
culture industry.
Author Contributions
Writing – original draft, review and editing: Z.A.K,
L.S.W, N.K.A.H, H.V.D; Writing – review and editing:
S.A.M.S, N.D.R, K.M, N.N.A.Z, W.W; Writing – re-
view and editing on new product development section:
N.S.N.A.A, S.Z.A, M.B.M; Writing – review and edit-
ing, conceptualization: M.A.K, M.K.Z, K.W.G, M.I.K,
A.T.
Funding
This research was funded by the Ministry of Educa-
tion, Malaysia, under the Fundamental Research Grant
Scheme (FRGS) (FRGS/1/2022/STG03/UMK/03/1),
Niche Research Grant Scheme (NRGS) (R/NRGS/
A0.700/00387A/006/2014/00152) and Prototype De-
velopment Research Grant (PRGS/1/2021/WAB04/
UMK/03/1). This work was partially supported by Chi-
ang Mai University.
Acknowledgments
This review paper is a collaboration between Univer-
siti Malaysia Kelantan, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi Malay-
sia, Chiangmai University, Sylhet Agricultural Univer-
Figure 3. New Product Development process (Reid et al., 2016)
34 Z.A. Kari et al.
sity, INTI International University, Universiti Teknologi
MARA and Mindanao State University-Tawi-Tawi Col-
lege of Technology and Oceanography. Special thanks
to Nik Shahman Nik Ahmad Ariff, Shahriman Zainal
Abidin and M.B Mahmud for contributing the knowl-
edge, specically on New Product Development. This
collaboration is a part of the research planning by the
Advanced Livestock and Aquaculture Research Group
– ALAReG under the Faculty of Agro-Based Industry,
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus.
Conicts of Interest
The authors declare no conict of interest.
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Received: 11 VIII 2022
Accepted: 26 X 2022
