Content uploaded by Ari Gomez-Borges
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Ari Gomez-Borges on Dec 17, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology
Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology (2022) 38(3) 231-239
Cite this article as: Gómez-Borges, A., Peláez Zuberbühler, M. J., Martínez, I. M., & Salanova, M. (2022). Self-care at work matters: How job and personal resources mediate between
self-care and psychological well-being.
Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 38
(3), 231-239. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2022a15
ISSN:1576-5962/© 2022 Colegio Oficial de la Psicología de Madrid. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Self-care at Work Matters: How Job and Personal Resources mediate between
Self-Care and Psychological Well-being
Ari Gómez-Borges, Mª Josefina Peláez Zuberbühler, Isabel M. Martínez, and Marisa Salanova
WANT Research Team, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
https://journals.copmadrid.org/jwop
Funding: This study was supported by a grant from Universitat Jaume I (#UJI-B2020-08). Correspondence: salanova@uji.es (M. Salanova).
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received 16 March 2022
Accepted 7 September 2022
Available online 19 October 2022
Keywords:
Self-care
Wellbeing
Job and personal resources
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to analyze the relationship between self-care activities (mindfulness and physical exercise) and
the use of personal and work resources and their relationship with well-being. The sample consisted of 294 workers
recruited from 20 organizations from different socioeconomic sectors in Spain. Results showed that mindfulness is
positively related to well-being through the mediating role of work resources and personal resources. However, whereas
personal resources showed a full mediating role in the hypothesized model, work resources did not show a significant
relationship with mindfulness. Finally, results showed positive and significant relationships between the mindfulness
x physical exercise interaction and all the dependent variables, and also the interaction between physical exercise and
mindfulness had a significant effect on each of these three dependent variables.
El autocuidado en el trabajo es importante: como los recursos personales y del
puesto median entre el autocuidado y el bienestar psicológico
RESUMEN
El objetivo de este estudio es analizar la relación entre las actividades de autocuidado (
mindfulness
y ejercicio físico) y el uso
de recursos personales y laborales y su relación con el bienestar. La muestra está formada por 294 trabajadores contratados
de 20 organizaciones de diferentes sectores socioeconómicos en España. Los resultados muestran que el
mindfulness
se
relaciona positivamente con el bienestar a través del papel mediador de los recursos laborales y personales. Sin embargo,
mientras que los últimos muestran un papel mediador completo en el modelo hipotético, los primeros no muestran una
relación significativa con el
mindfulness
. Finalmente, los resultados presentan una relación positiva y significativa entre la
interacción
mindfulness
-ejercicio físico y todas las variables dependiente; igualmente la interacción entre ejercicio físico y
mindfulness
tiene un efecto significativo en cada una de estas tres variables dependientes.
Palabras clave:
Autocuidado
Bienestar
Recursos laborales y personales
In recent years, a growing amount of attention has been paid to
workers’ self-care, especially in people who care for and assist others
in their daily work (Wise et al., 2012). In fact, self-care is even an
ethical responsibility for mental health professionals. For example,
the American Psychological Association’s Ethics Code (American
Psychological Association, 2017) states that psychologists strive to be
aware of the possible effects of their own physical and mental health
on the ability to help those with whom they work. Moreover, with
the growth of positive psychology, self-care has been increasingly
emphasized as a means of enhancing well-being.
In work settings, people are the core of organization, and employees
with high levels of well-being are crucial for organizational life. Thus,
caring for their emotional, physical, and psychological health really
matters. Organizations can implement different practices and job
resources (e.g., work family balance programs, wellness, and well-
being protocols, transparent communication channels) to cultivate
well-being (Salanova, 2021). Furthermore, also the employees can
self-implement different deliberate activities to cultivate their own
well-being. Although there is considerable research on healthy
organizational practices (Acosta et al., 2019; Alfes et al., 2012), self-
care practices and their effects on individuals’ well-being have been
explored less and seem to be a relevant topic in psychosocial research
(Rupert & Dorociak, 2019).
A sustained effort to promote a culture of self-care in healthcare
professionals can be seen throughout the scientific literature (Depner
et al., 2020; Jiang et al., 2020), as well as in specialized books with
suggestions and tips for improving self-care (Baker, 2003). However,
there is still a gap in the literature about the role of self-care
232
A. Gómez-Borges et al. / Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology (2022) 38(3) 231-239
activities in other fields or types of employees (i.e., non-healthcare
organizations). The current challenge is to identify the activities that
have the greatest impact on the psychosocial health of employees,
considering that each self-care strategy is unique and personal and
depends on multiple individual and contextual factors. Furthermore,
in the opinion of Rupert and Dorociak (2019), it is also important
to identify the most effective self-care behaviors within the work
context for maintaining personal and professional well-being while
dealing with work demands.
Psychosocial well-being at work has been related to work demands
and the job and personal resources of workers. Two models have
been essential to understand the role of personal resources in well-
being at work: the Conservation of Resources theory (COR) (Hobfoll,
2012) and the Job Demands-Resources Model (Bakker & Demerouti,
2017 ). In this context, self-care activities can act as personal resources
to cope with work demands and increase well-being (Callan et al.,
2020).
On the one hand, the Conservation of Resources theory (COR)
(Hobfoll, 1989; 2012) proposes that resources can be objects,
conditions, energies, and personal characteristics. This theory predicts
that people who obtain more resources will be able to cope better
with diversities and, thus, create a gain spiral and show less stress
than people who have a worse supply of resources. Therefore, people
who use more resources will have greater well-being (Hobfoll et al.,
2018). On the other hand, according to the Job Demands-Resources
Model (JD-R) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017), employee well-being is
highly influenced by individual and organizational factors, such as
job demands and resources, which are associated with employee
motivation and job performance. Job demands refer to physical,
psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that require
sustained physical and/or psychological effort, whereas job resources
refer to physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of
work that can be useful to achieve objectives, reduce job demands and
the associated physiological and psychological costs, and stimulate
growth and personal development. Bakker and Demerouti (2017) also
incorporate personal resources, which consist of the psychological
capital (e.g., emotional and mental competences) built up in order
to successfully adapt to the environment. These personal resources
can be instrumental in coping with demands, managing stress, and
promoting a healthy work environment. Additionally, the JD-R model
contemplates actions employees take based on their job demands
and resources (e.g., job crafting, self-undermining, self-care).
Work context is quite complex, and there are many interactive
variables related to personal and professional well-being. In this
relationship, it is essential to consider the effect of personal and
job resources on well-being. Self-care activities can act as personal
resources or interact with them. Each person uses these activities for
his/her own benefit.
Based on this reality and drawing on the COR and JD-R theories,
we examine the role of self-care activities in workers’ well-being
through the mediation role of job and personal resources. Few
studies have been carried out on activities and behaviors, such as
self-care activities, that can increase the appropriate use of job and
personal resources. Bakker and Demerouti (2017) point out the im-
portance of some actions that workers carry out in relation to their
resources, such as self-care activities. Our proposal can help to un-
derstand the role of self-care activities in achieving a more positive
perception of the work environment, obtaining better resources,
and increasing workers’ well-being. Self-care activities, such as
mindfulness, facilitate the positive perception of job and personal
resources through a cognitive and emotional mechanism. These
positive emotional and cognitive states resulting from self-care ac-
tivities favor the optimal use of resources, which, in turn, affects
well-being. When workers perform self-care activities, they make
better use of their resources to respond to demands and, thus, in-
crease their well-being. Therefore, the aim of this study is to show
the positive relationship between self-care activities and the use of
resources and workers’ well-being. We analyze the role of self-care
activities in well-being through the mediation of job and personal
resources in a sample of workers from organizations from different
socioeconomic sectors.
Self-Care and Self-care Activities
Myers and colleagues (Myers et al., 2012) define self-care as the
conscious participation in behaviors that maintain and promote
physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. In other words,
it refers to a set of activities people perform, such as mindfulness,
seeking social support, and physical activity, to maintain and
improve their life, health, and well-being. Thus, self-care involves
different dimensions of personal and professional life, and contains
an intentionality component, a decision to engage in specific
activities or behaviors (Wise et al., 2012) that involves self-reflection
and adaptation to one’s changing needs. Hence, self-care is a
multidimensional, multifaceted process of purposeful engagement in
strategies that promote healthy functioning and enhance well-being.
This definition implies potential activities, such as healthy
nutrition, exercise, mindfulness, maintaining a good sleep schedule,
engaging in hobbies or leisurely activities, and using adaptive
coping strategies (Carrol et al., 1999). All these activities involve a
purposeful effort to engage in them in order to maintain well-being.
These activities are not only able to enhance well-being, but can also
reduce unwell being. In this line, Zahniser et al. (2017) conceptualize
self-care as an anti-stress mechanism, and research has found that
reducing stress increases job performance. In a way, self-care is the
process of actively initiating a method to promote well-being (Bressi
& Vaden, 2017).
Research has also shown a positive relationship between self-care
and positive outcomes, such as less psychological distress and greater
life satisfaction, among others. In a meta-analysis, Colman et al. (2016)
found that people who practiced self-care activities (mindfulness,
seeking social support, or other self-care activities) experienced
more benefits (i.e., self-compassion, decreased psychological distress,
and greater life satisfaction) than people who did not. Myers et al.
(2012), in a research with a sample of 488 people, using multiple
regression analysis, indicated that self-care activities, such as sleep
hygiene, social support, emotion regulation, and acceptance within
a mindfulness framework, were significantly related to decreased
levels of perceived stress.
Some of the most important self-care activities used in research
are mindfulness and physical exercise activities (Colman et al.,
2016). On the one hand, mindfulness can be defined as a form of
awareness that stems from paying attention to the present moment
in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner (Bishop et al., 2004).
Effective mindfulness programs include breathing, body scan, anti-
stress, and self-compassion practices, among others (Coo & Salanova,
2018), and different studies provide evidence that the development
of mindfulness leads to positive affect and cognition, which are
key aspects of well-being. Mindfulness plays a crucial role in the
achievement of positive results related to well-being (Depner et
al., 2020; Garland et al., 2017); therefore, it is a key variable in the
present study.
On the other hand, the term physical exercise will be used to
refer to voluntary physical activity (Nägel et al., 2015). Physical
exercise is “a subset of planned, structured, and repetitive physical
activity with the ultimate or intermediate goal of improving
or maintaining physical fitness” (Caspersen et al., 1985 p. 128).
Different activities can be considered physical exercise if they meet
the voluntary requirement. In this study, activities of running,
walking, cycling, etc. were included. It is widely understood that
physical activity improves individual health and well-being (Biddle
233
Self-care and Wellbeing
et al., 2019; Piercy et al., 2018). Physical exercise sustained in
time leads to a series of physical benefits, such as improvements
in cardiorespiratory functions and, therefore, less risk of
cardiovascular diseases (Després, 2016).
Self-Care and Psychological Well-being
From Positive Psychology, the study of psychological well-being
has been addressed not only to improve the negative aspects, (e.g.,
anxiety, depression, or burnout), but also to enhance the positive
aspects (e.g., self-efficacy, work engagement, resilience) (Salanova
et al., 2019). Furthermore, Ryan and Deci (2001) noted that two
types of psychological well-being can be differentiated: hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being. Hedonic well-being involves ‘feeling good’,
and the concept most frequently used to measure it is subjective
well-being, which consists of high levels of positive affect and life
satisfaction along with low levels of negative affect. Also Salanova
et al. (2019) understand employee well-being to refer to the level
of positive psychological resources of workers with a high degree
of control and a positive impact on organizational results such as
performance. Some indicators of well-being in healthy workers are
efficacy beliefs, work engagement, vertical and horizontal trust, and
resilience.
Efficacy beliefs are defined as “beliefs about one’s ability to
organize and implement courses of action necessary to produce
certain achievements or results” (Bandura, 1997 p. 3), and could be
considered a dimension of “cognitive well-being” (Diener & Emmons,
198 4). Work engagement is defined as a key indicator of employee
well-being, specifically “organizational well-being” at different
levels (individual, group, leader, and organization), as well a core
dimension of a healthy organization, as in the Healthy and Resilient
Organization (HERO) Model (Salanova et al., 2012; Salanova et al.,
2019). Thus, employees with high levels of work engagement (i.e.,
vigor, dedication, and absorption) are characterized by a positive
pattern of psychological well-being at work. Team engagement or
collective engagement exists at different levels in organizations
(Salanova et al., 2003) and is an indicator of a healthy organization.
Research views trust as a relevant psychological construct related to
psychological well-being. It is defined by Mayer et al. (1995) as “the
willingness of one party to be vulnerable to the actions of another
party based on the expectation that the other party will perform a
particular action important to the trustor, irrespective of the ability
to monitor or control the other party” (p. 712). Trust can be vertical
(aggregated levels of trust that employees have in their supervisors
and top managers) and/or horizontal (aggregated levels of trust that
team members have in their fellow teammates; Peñalver et al., 2019).
Finally, resilience is considered a relevant dimension of employee
well-being (Salanova et al., 2012). Resilience is usually defined as a
person’s ability to recover after a traumatic situation or experience
(Tugade et al., 2004). From a positive psychology perspective, much
of the research focuses on well-being and the adaptation of responses
to stress based on resilience (Denovan et al., 2016). Resilience is an
important personal factor that can help individuals to deal with day-
to-day exhaustion and stress.
The self-care activities have been related to well-being.
Considering voluntary physical exercise and mindfulness as self-care
activities, we highlight the work by Nägel et al. (2015), who make it
clear that employees who do physical exercise after a stressful day
have higher levels of well-being than those who do not. In addition,
physical exercise has emotional effects. Positive affective states are
important antecedents of results related to work and success (Ilies &
Judge, 2005; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Tsai, 2007). After an exhausting
day at work, when affective states could be deteriorated, it is crucial
for employees to do activities such as PE in their free time to restore
these affects. Team sports have also received significant attention,
showing the benefits of team sports on health and well-being
(Reinboth & Duda, 2006). Some studies even analyze the relationship
between physical activity and health and well-being depending on
the type of physical activity and intensity (Klussman et al., 2021).
Various studies have highlighted physical exercise as an important
behavior for health and well-being and this is the reason for including
it as another key variable in our research. For example, Gil-Beltrán,
Meneghel, et al. (2020), in a sample of 319 employees (156 sedentary
and 163 non-sedentary employees), showed that non-sedentary
employees are more empathetic and absorbed in their jobs than
sedentary ones. Similarly, in another study with a sample of 485
workers from different Spanish and Latin American companies,
Gil-Beltrán, Llorens, et al. (2020) showed that physical exercise is
related to higher levels of vigor, which in turn is positively related to
organizational well-being. Doing physical exercise seems to create a
process of recovering and obtaining more resources, according to the
COR theory, which makes workers experience greater well-being at
work.
Likewise, Hülsheger et al. (2013) showed that mindfulness
improves job satisfaction, and Coo and Salanova (2018) found that
employees who completed a structured mindfulness program
obtained significant growth in their levels of happiness, work
engagement, and performance. More recently, Martín-Hernández et
al. (2020) indicated that workers who increased their mindfulness
capacity when facing job demands were more innovative in the
future. Moreover, in a meta-analysis about the efficacy of self-care
programs carried out by Colman et al. (2016) results showed that
programs that focused on life satisfaction and self-compassion
obtained better results than those that focused only on reducing
stress, although the results of the latter were also positively
significant. In summary, self-care activities (physical exercise and
mindfulness) are positively related to well-being. These results
indicate that self-care activities can help people to improve their
self-perception and feel more effective due to having a greater
flow of (job and personal) resources with which to positively face
moments of greater stress.
The Present Study
As stated above, each self-care strategy is unique and personal and
depends on multiple individual and contextual factors. Therefore, it
is important to study each self-care activity separately to find out
its effect on the psychosocial health of workers. Some of the most
important self-care activities used in research are mindfulness and
physical exercise activities (Colman et al., 2016). In our case, we focus
on these two activities. We pay attention to two self-care activities
related to two different aspects of health. Physical activity is mainly
related to physiological health, whereas mindfulness activities are
related to psychosocial health. In addition, these two activities can be
carried out without supervision, and workers can record and measure
them. No specific research has been found that reports the mediating
role of job and personal resources in the relationship between self-
care and well-being, although there are isolated studies, mentioned
above, on the impact of mindfulness and physical activities on well-
being. Moreover, the scientific literature has emphasized the impact
of self-care programs on healthcare workers. However, there is still
a gap to fill in the study of self-care for the promotion of well-being
in other occupational sectors, such as the industrial, commercial,
NGO, and public administration sectors, among others. For this
reason, our purpose is to address this issue in workers from different
socioeconomics sectors: services, productive, commercial, education,
and health.
The main objective of this study is to test the mediating role of job/
personal resources in the relationship between self-care activities
(mindfulness and physical exercise) and psychological well-being.
234
A. Gómez-Borges et al. / Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology (2022) 38(3) 231-239
Based on the above, we formulate the following hypotheses (see
Figure 1 and Figure 2):
H
1: There is a positive and significant relationship between
mindfulness activities and psychological well-being through the
mediating role of job resources.
H
2: There is a positive and significant relationship between
mindfulness activities and psychological well-being through the
mediating role of personal resources.
H
3: There is a positive and significant relationship between
physical exercise activities and psychological well-being through
the mediating role of job resources.
H
4: There is a positive and significant relationship between
physical exercise activities and psychological well-being through
the mediating role of personal resources.
As a complementary approach, we go a step further and test an
interaction hypothesis to determine whether the effects of each
self-care activity (mindfulness, physical exercise) on the dependent
variables (personal resources, job resource, well-being) are
independent or interactive (mindfulness x physical exercise).
H
5: There is a two-way interaction effect of mindfulness ×
physical exercise on personal resources, job resources, and we-
ll-being.
Method
Participants and Procedure
A total of 622 workers from Spain were invited to participate in the
study. Participation was voluntary, and the final sample consisted of
294 participants (47.27%) from 20 private organizations. Participants
ranged in age from 18 to 69 years (18-24 age range = 5.8%, 25-34 age
range = 25.8%, 35-44 age range = 30.3%, 45-54 age range = 29.55, > 54
= 9.5%); 52% were female.
The average age was 41 years old (
SD
= 9.9), average tenure
time was 10.04 years (
SD
= 9.58). Participants were recruited from
different organizations that belonged to different socioeconomic
sectors: services (45%), productive (30%), commercial (13%),
education (9%), and health (3%). Job positions were diverse: CEOs
(3.84%), directors (16%), department heads (9%), coordinators
(9.8%), administrative (18%), secretaries (6.5%), teachers (5%),
among other positions.
Procedure
This study is part of a broader project called “People Who Shine”
(PWS), which is a non-profit association that brings together 46
Spanish organizations committed to promoting health and well-
being at work. This project is divided into three main stages:
organizational diagnosis, implementation of healthy practices, and
solidarity collaboration with NGOs. To be part of this association, it
is necessary to implement all the stages. The organizational diagnosis
stage was carried out by the research team of this study.
The procedure followed different steps. First, 46 organizations
from the PWS association were contacted and invited to participate
voluntarily in the validation process of a tool for the identification
of psychosocial factors developed by the WANT research team.
Finally, 20 organizations filled out the questionnaires, and employees
reported the self-care activities required by the study (56% sample
mortality). Data collection consisted of identifying stakeholders
from each organization who were representative in terms of gender,
age, position held, hierarchy, and seniority. Second, semi-structured
interviews were carried out by researchers from the WANT research
team at the Universitat Jaume I, evaluating quantitative and
qualitative aspects of the variables (i.e., job and personal resources
and psychological well-being). The stakeholders who provided data
on their organization were informed that participation was voluntary
and that data would be protected according to the General Data
Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679. The Ethics Committee of the
University approved this study.
Third, workers from the PWS organizations were invited to
voluntarily use a mobile phone app called Run to the Moon. Through
this app, employees can access different mindfulness exercises and
record physical activities. The purpose of this mobile phone app is to
foster healthy habits and good practices through technological and
collaborative resources that improve quality of life in participants and
in the organization in general. Run to the moon app is available on IOS
and Android store. This smartphone application was easy to use, and
it was exclusively for the employees who worked in organizations
included in the People who Shine association.
Finally, participants were informed that the data obtained
from their recorded self-care activities (mindfulness and physical
exercise) through the Run to the Moon app would be analyzed
only for scientific purposes and under the confidential and ethical-
professional commitment of the researchers.
Measures
Mindfulness Activities
Mindfulness was measured with the Run to the Moon mobile
app. This smartphone application delivers short daily activities
based on mindfulness practices, which include breathing, body
scan, anti-stress, self-care, and various activities. Practice audio
files could be used every day, and lasted from 5 to 30 minutes.
Mindfulness activities were recorded in the span of one year, and
recording activities were based on the amount of time spent. We
evaluated the time invested in these activities by the user of the
Run to the Moon app.
Physical Exercise Activities
Physical exercise activities were measured with the Run to the
Moon mobile app. This mobile app worked as a record sheet of
physical activities such as walking, biking, running, and various
physical exercises. The physical activities were recorded during a
period of one year and were evaluated based on the time invested in
these activities by the user of the app.
The participating organizations of the People Who Shine
partnership invited their employees to use the app and record their
physical exercises and mindfulness activities. For this study, it was
considered the sum of the minutes recorded of the mindfulness
and physical activities of each organization.
Job Resources
Job resources were measured with the Healthy and Resilient
Organization (HERO) questionnaire (Salanova et al., 2012). The
responses range from 1 (
never
) to 6 (
always
), and the scale
includes five items: autonomy, feedback, social support climate,
coordination, and positive leadership (i.e., “Degree to which
people are coordinated with each other to act in work situations”;
coordination).
Personal Resources
Personal resources were measured with the Healthy and
Resilient Organization (HERO) questionnaire (Salanova et al.,
2012). The responses range from 1 (
never
) to 6 (
always
), and the
scale includes two items: mental competence and emotional
235
Self-care and Wellbeing
competence (i.e., “Degree to which employees feel they have the
emotional competence to cope with the job demands”; emotional
competence).
Well-being
Well-being was measured with the HERO questionnaire
(Salanova et al., 2012). Responses range from 1 (
never
) to 6 (
always
),
and the scale includes five items: collective efficacy, commitment,
vertical trust, horizontal trust, and resilience (i.e., “Degree to which
both you and the organization are able to emerge stronger in the
face of adversity and failures at work”; resilience).
Statistical Analyses
First, descriptive statistics (e.g., means, standard deviations,
and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients) were calculated, in addition
to the bivariate correlations between all the variables, using IBM
SPSS Statistics 25.0 package. Second, Harman’s single-factor test
(Podsakoff et al., 2003) was applied with confirmatory factor analysis
for the study variables (mindfulness, physical exercise, job resources,
personal resources, and well-being), using the SPSS AMOS 23.0
[analyses of moment structures] (Arbuckle, 2010) software package
to test for possible common method variance bias.
Third, structural equation modelling (SEM) was applied to test
the structural relations in the hypothesized models using AMOS.
The maximum likelihood method was used, and the goodness of fit
of each model was determined by considering absolute and relative
indices (Schermelleh-Engel et al., 2003): χ2, χ2/
df
, incremental fit
index (IFI), comparative fit index (CFI), normed fit index (NFI), root
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root-
mean-square residual (SRMR), and Akaike information criterion
(AIC). Furthermore, the product of coefficients method (MacKinnon
et al., 2002) was employed to test the mediation hypothesis.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Table 1 shows means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s α
indices, and Pearson’s correlations among the study variables.
Data show positive relationships between mindfulness activities
and resources and well-being, whereas physical exercise activities
do not show significant relationships with resources or well-
being. A one-factor ANOVA did not reveal any significant gender,
age, or tenure differences in the study variables. Next, results of
preliminary data analyses revealed a significantly poorer fit of the
Harman single-factor model to the study variables (See Table 2, M0;
Podsakoff et al., 2003). Therefore, common method variance cannot
be considered a serious deficiency in this dataset. Additionally, the
same analysis was performed to compare a single-factor model of
(job and personal) resource subdimensions with a bifactorial model
(job and personal resources separately). Results indicated a poor fit
of the single factor model to the data, χ²(14) = 64.533,
p
< .001,
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Internal Consistency, and Inter-correlations of the Study Variables (
N
= 294)
Variables
M SD
α1234567
1. A ge 40.67 10.28 ------ -
2. Gender 1.52 0.50 - .01 - - - - -
3. Tenure 10.04 9.58 - .61** -.03 - - - -
4. Mindfulness 27.65 43.36 .78 .14* -.06 -.01 - - -
5. Physical Activity 168.50 72.52 .72 .18** -.05 .03 .26** - -
6. Job Resources 4.52 0.87 .66 -.05 .04 -.06 .09* -.03 -
7. Personal Resources 4.36 0.79 .70 -.04 -.01 -.09 .11 * -.02 .48** -
8. Well-being 4.60 0.77 .80 -.06 .05 -.07 .12 * .01 .67** .59**
**
p
< .01.
Autonomy
Breathe
Body Scan
Anti-Stress
Care
Various
Mindflulness
Job Resources
Personal
Resources
Collective
Self Efficacy
Work
Engagement
Vertical
Trust
Horizontal
Trust
Resilience
Mental
Competence
Emotional
Competence
Well-Being
Feedback Coordination
Climate
Support
Positive
Leadership
.95** .50**
.69**
.49**
.67**
.72**
.23**
.09
.05,
ns
.51**
.67** .62**
.81**
.14**
.74** .73**
.49**
.69**
.96**
.94**
.94**
.97**
Figure 1. Research Model 1.
236
A. Gómez-Borges et al. / Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology (2022) 38(3) 231-239
RMSEA= .11, IFI = .87, CFI = .87, NFI = .85, TLI = .81, AIC = 92.53, and a
good fit of the two-factor model, χ²(13) = 23.435,
p
< .001, RMSEA=
.05, IFI = .97, CFI = .97, NFI = .95, TLI = .96, AIC = 53.43, as expected.
Model Fit: Structural Equation Modelling
Mindfulness, job resources, personal resources, and well-being
are represented as latent variables in the structural model shown
in Figure 1. Following James et al. (2006), different models were
tested to verify the hypotheses. Our research model (M1) assumes
that job resources and personal resources play full mediating roles
in the relationship between mindfulness activities and well-being.
The results in Table 2 show that M1 presented an acceptable fit to
the data, and that almost all the fit indices met the criteria. The path
from mindfulness to job resources was positive, but not statistically
significant (β = .09,
p
= .19,
ns
). The path from mindfulness to
personal resources was positive and statistically significant (β = .14,
p
< .05), as was the path from job resources to well-being (β = .81,
p
< .05) and from personal resources to well-being (β = .49,
p
< .001).
Furthermore, the sociodemographic variables age, gender, and
tenure were included in the initial SEM model as control variables.
Upon examination, none of them showed significant relationships
with the dependent variables (job resources, personal resources,
and well-being), and so they were excluded from further models.
Next, a new model (M2) was developed that proposes that
job resources and personal resources play partial mediating roles
between mindfulness and well-being, which means that there is
also a direct relationship between mindfulness and well-being.
The results indicate that, although M2 also fits the data, given
that most of the fit indices met the criteria, the data fit M1 better,
and most of the relationships between the variables in M2 were
not significant. Specifically, the path from mindfulness to job
resources was positive, but not significant (β = .07,
p
= .31,
ns
), as
was the path from mindfulness to personal resources (β = .12,
p
=
.06,
ns
) and from mindfulness to well-being (β = .05,
p
= .28,
ns
).
Although the difference between the two models (M1 and M2)
was not significant, ∆χ2 M2-M1(2) = 517,
ns
, M1 showed significant
relationships between the variables. Thus, we opted for our research
model (M1), which assumes that mindfulness is positively related
to well-being through the full mediating role of job resources and
personal resources. However, whereas personal resources showed
a full mediating role in the hypothesized model, job resources did
not show a significant relationship with mindfulness. These results
ruled out our Hypotheses 1 and confirmed our Hypothesis 2.
Furthermore, the structural model for Hypotheses 3 and 4,
shown in Figure 2, consisted of physical exercise, job resources,
personal resources, and well-being, which are represented as latent
variables. Our research model (M3) proposes that job resources
and personal resources play full mediating roles in the relationship
between physical exercise and well-being. The results presented in
Table 2 show that M3 did not fit the data, and that not all the fit
indices met the criteria. Additionally, although the relationships
between the variables were positive, neither the path from physical
exercise to job resources (β = .02,
p
= .63) nor the relationship
between physical exercise and personal resources (β = .04,
p
= .28)
was statistically significant.
Next, another model was developed (M4) that assumes that
job resources and personal resources play partial mediating roles
between physical exercise and well-being, which means that there
is also a direct relationship between physical exercise and well-
being. Results indicate that this new model did not fit the data,
and that most of the relationships between the variables were not
statistically significant, specifically the path from physical exercise
to job resources (β = .009,
p
= .79,
ns
), physical exercise to personal
resources (β = .05,
p
= .30,
ns
), and physical exercise to well-being
(β = .02,
p
= .47,
ns
). These results did not confirm our Hypotheses
3 and 4.
Table 2. Fit Indices of the Structural Equation Models
Model χ²
df
RMSEA IFI CFI NFI TLI AIC
M0 2288.363 179 . 21 .66 .66 .64 .60 2434.33
M1 289.491 111 .07 .97 .96 .95 .95 407.491
M2 288.974 110 .07 .96 .96 .94 .95 408.359
M3 430.249 98 . 11 .81 .81 .77 .77 538.249
M4 429.584 97 .11 .81 .81 .77 .77 539.584
Note
. M0 = Harman’s single factor test; M1 = Model 1; M2 = Model 2; M3 = Model 3;
M4 = Model 4.
Based on MacKinnon et al. (2002), the product of coefficients
method was estimated to test the mediation hypotheses for
H
2. The
Autonomy
Walk
Run
Bike
Various
Physical
Exercise
Job Resources
Personal
Resources
Collective
Self Efficacy
Work
Engagement
Vertical
Trust
Horizontal
Trust
Resilience
Mental
Competence
Emotional
Competence
Well-Being
Feedback Coordination
Climate
Support
Positive
Leadership
.15* .50**
.69**
.49**
.67**
.72**
.23**
.02,
ns
.02,
ns
.50**
.67** .62**
.82**
.04,
ns
.74** .73**
.49**
.69**
.37*
.39*
.34*
Figure 2. Research Model 3.
237
Self-care and Wellbeing
mediated effect of personal resources in the relationship between
mindfulness and well-being was statistically significant (P = Ζα ·
Ζβ = 24.14,
p
< .05). This result suggests a full mediation effect of
personal resources, thus supporting
H
2.
Interactive Effect
To determine whether the effects of each self-care activity
(mindfulness, physical exercise) on the dependent variables (personal
resources, job resources, well-being) are independent or interactive
(mindfulness x physical exercise), we tested an interaction hypothesis
(
H
5) via linear regression. We expected a two-way interaction effect
of mindfulness × physical exercise on the dependent variables. That
is, the combination of practicing mindfulness and physical exercise
activities would enhance personal resources, job resources, and well-
being.
A centering methodology was used to reduce multicollinearity.
Thus, each independent variable was centered, followed by
the creation of a new centered product variable by multiplying
mindfulness and physical exercise. Next, bivariate correlations
among the study variables were calculated, and the results showed
positive and significant relationships between the centered
mindfulness-physical exercise interaction and all the dependent
variables (personal resources = .13,
p
< .05; job resources = .12,
p
< .05; well-being = .15,
p
< .05). With these results, we proceeded
to carry out linear regression analysis to determine to what degree
the centered mindfulness-physical exercise interaction variable
contributes to each dependent variable. Results revealed that this
interaction variable was a significant predictor of personal resources
(
R
2 = .017, β = .13,
p
< .05), job resources (
R
2 = .014, β = .12,
p
< .05),
and well-being (
R
2 = .024, β = .15,
p
< .05) in our research model.
This means that the interaction between physical exercise and
mindfulness has a significant effect on each of these three variables.
Following Cohen (1983) and Jaccard et al., (1990), regression lines
were drawn separately for each regression equation to interpret
the relationship between mindfulness, physical exercise, and our
dependent variables at high levels (+1
SD
) and low levels (–1
SD
) of
the moderator variable.
Discussion
Based on the COR (Hobfoll, 1989; 2012) and JD-R (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2017) models, we examined in the current study the
mediating role of self-care activities (i.e., mindfulness and physical
exercise) and the use of personal and work resources and their
relationship with well-being. In other words, we proposed job
resources and personal resources as mediators in the relationship
between self-care activities and well-being.
More and more attention is paid to the self-care of workers
because its relationship with well-being and performance has been
shown. Specifically, the present study draws on the Conservation
of Resources Theory (COR) (Hobfoll, 1989, 2012) and the Job
Demands-Resources Model (JD-R) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017) to
test the mediating role of job resources and personal resources
in our research model. Therefore, our purpose was to study the
complexity of the effect of job resources and personal resources on
the well-being of workers.
Theoretical and Practical Implications
From a theoretical point of view, this study expands the
investigation of the COR model (Hobfoll, 1989) and the JD-R model
(Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Demerouti et al., 2001) by providing
evidence that personal resources, such as emotional and mental
competence, are mediators in the relationship between mindfulness,
self-care activities, and well-being at the workplace. Thus, a new
aspect of the relationship between resources and well-being is
shown by knowing variables that activate and make resources more
effective.
From a practical point of view, our results provide evidence for
promoting and implementing self-care activities, such as mindfulness,
which at the same time are related to a better perception of job and
personal resources and better well-being-related outcomes. These
positive practices may contribute to promoting healthy organizations
and providing evidence about useful digital tools (i.e., Run on the
Moon app) for organizations that want to optimize healthy self-care
practices in the work environment.
Therefore, it is important to study each self-care activity in order
to determine its effect on workers wellbeing. In our case, we focused
on physical exercise activities and mindfulness activities. The results
led to different conclusions about each self-care activity. Regarding
mindfulness activities, our results confirm the proposed hypotheses,
although in a specific way. Personal resources are mediators in the
relationship between mindfulness self-care activities and workers’
well-being. There is a positive relationship between mindfulness
activities and personal resources and between the latter and well-
being. In addition, we found a full mediation because it cancels the
direct relationship between mindfulness activities and well-being.
This result is interesting given that mindfulness care activities involve
mental, cognitive, and emotional processes and are related to personal
resources and these to well-being through a total mediation. This
mediation reveals the effect process of mindfulness activities on the
dependent variables. However, job resources are not mediators in the
relationship between mindfulness activities and workers’ well-being.
Mindfulness activities show a positive relationship with well-being,
but job resources do not intervene in this relationship. These results
have important practical implications for practitioners, because the
promotion of well-being can come from mindfulness activities when
workers have personal resources. But this relationship does not occur
in the case of job resources. Our results show different results for
each self-care activity and are important for scientific development
and the practice of professionals. Given that a study of the direct
relationship between self-care activities and well-being would be
incomplete, it is important to analyze the effect of the mediating
variables. Considering mediating variables involves identifying
specific aspects that might affect the relationship. In the case of
resources, considering general effects of “resources” could produce
unrealistic results. Therefore, we analyzed the differential effects of
each type of resource (job and personal).
Regarding physical exercise activities, we were not able to establish
a relationship between these activities and the use of job and personal
resources. The relationship between these activities and well-
being was not significant either. Therefore, we cannot confirm the
hypotheses about the potential effect of physical exercise activities on
resources as a way to increase well-being. However, it is important to
keep in mind that our study was carried out with a sample of workers
from different socioeconomic sectors: commercial, education,
productive, health, and services. Our results are not consistent with
previous studies carried out with samples of workers who care for
and assist others in their daily work, which obtained positive effects
of physical exercise on well-being (Gil-Beltrán, Meneghel, et al. 2020;
Nägel et al., 2015). We think it is important to study the specific
effects of self-care activities in different occupations with different
demands and working conditions.
However, our Hypothesis 5 was confirmed, suggesting that
there is a significant effect of physical exercise on the dependent
variables (personal resources, job resources, well-being) when
it is combined with the practice of mindfulness. This result is in
line with the self-care literature, which sustain that self-care is a
multidimensional process of engagement in strategies of personal
and professional life (i.e., mindfulness and physical exercise) that
238
A. Gómez-Borges et al. / Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology (2022) 38(3) 231-239
promote healthy functioning (Wise et al., 2012). This idea suggests
that mindfulness and physical exercise should be combined, and
thus interact in a synergetic way to have a greater impact on coping
with work demands, using resources and enhancing employee well-
being, than independently (Callan et al., 2020). Furthermore, these
results are consistent with the meta-analysis conducted by Colman,
et al. (2016), which highlighted mindfulness and physical activities
as the self-care activities more closely related to well-being. These
findings also support the complexity of the COR and JD-R models,
since considering the interaction between variables is fundamental
to knowing the antecedents of well-being.
Limitations and Future Research
Some limitations of this study must be acknowledged. First,
the groups of people who participated were not randomly chosen
because the organizations sent a general invitation to all the workers.
The second limitation is that it is a cross-sectional study. Finally, we
think that the use of digital technologies can discriminate the sample
based on the skills of using technology. Future studies should include
longitudinal designs in order to compare the effects of practicing
self-care activities at different times, using pre-post measurement
points and randomized controlled trials with experimental and
(waiting list)-control assignments. Moreover, the use of diary studies
could be interesting for future studies in order to obtain relevant
information about the psychological mechanisms underlying the
use of self-care activities that can influence the outcome variables.
Finally, replications with smartphone Apps are welcome, in order to
include the use of other self-care activities, such as social support,
gratitude interventions, optimism increment, as well as diverse
physical exercises, and analyze their impact on various organizational
outcomes such as organizational commitment and in-role and extra-
role performance, among others.
Final Note
In conclusion, self-care activities have a different effect on the well-
being of workers depending on the work context. Physical exercise
activities, which have been shown to have benefits for the well-
being of care workers in past studies (Gil-Beltrán, Meneghel, et al.,
2020; Nägel et al., 2015), do not show this relationship with the well-
being of workers in the socioeconomic sectors included in this study.
Mindfulness activities show a positive and significant relationship
with well-being, and this relationship is even more powerful when
the mediated effect of personal resources is considered. However, the
more powerful driver of workers’ well-being is just the interaction
between the body (physical activity) and the mind (mindfulness) as
we demonstrated in the current study and that could be replicated in
future research. Mind (mindfulness) and body (physical exercise) are
potential drivers of wellbeing when they work in an interaction way.
Thus, when physical exercise interacts with mindfulness activities,
they are positively and significantly related to job and personal
resource variables and to well-being. These interaction results are
very important and show the convenience of analyzing the effect
of each of the self-care activities on well-being and going one step
further by also analyzing the interaction between them.
Conflict of Interest
The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest.
References
Acosta, H., Llorens, S., Escaff, R., Díaz-Muñoz, J.-P., Troncoso, S., Salanova,
M., & Sanhueza, J. (2019). ¿Confiar o no confiar? El rol mediador de
la confianza entre el trabajo en equipo y el work engagement.
Revista
Interamericana de Psicología Ocupacional, 38
(1), 85-99. https://doi.
org/10.21772/ripo.v38n1a07
Alfes, K., Shantz, A., & Truss, C. (2012). The link between perceived HRM
practices, performance and well-being: The moderating effect of trust
in the employer.
Human Resource Management Journal, 22
(4), 409-427.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12005
American Psychological Association (APA, 2017).
Ethical principles of
psychologists and code conduct.
APA Publishing.
Arbuckle, J. L. (2010).
IBM SPSS Amos 19 user’s guide.
https://doi.
org/10.4135/9781526402257.n4
Baker, E. K. (2003).
Caring four ourselves: A therapist’s guide to personal and
professional well-being.
American Psychological Association. https://doi.
org/10.1037/10482-000
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands-resources theory: Taking
stock and looking forward.
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,
22
(3), 273-285. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000056
Bandura, A. (1997).
Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.
W. H. Freeman/Time
Books/Henry Holt & Co.
Biddle, S. J. H., Ciaccioni, S., Thomas, G., & Vergeer, I. (2019). Physical activity
and mental health in children and adolescents: An updated review of
reviews and an analysis of causality.
Psychology of Sport and Exercise,
42
(August), 146-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.08.011
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., Segal,
Z. V., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness:
A proposed operational definition.
Clinical Psychology: Science and
Practice, 11
(3), 230-241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bph077
Bressi, S. K., & Vaden, E. R. (2017). Reconsidering self-care.
Clinical Social Work
Journal, 45
(1), 33-38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-016-0575-4
Callan, S., Schwartz, J., & Arputhan, A. (2020). Training future psychologists to
be competent in self-care: A systematic review.
Training and Education
in Professional Psychology, 15
(2), 117-125. https://doi.org/10.1037/
tep0000345
Carrol, L., Paula, G., & Murra, J. (1999). The moral imperative - self-care for
women psychotherapists.
Women & Therapy, 22
(2), 133-143. https://doi.
org/10.1300/J015v22n02_10
Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K. E., & Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity,
exercise, and physical fitness: Definitions and distinctions for health-
related research.
Public Heatlh, 100
(2), 126-131.
Cohen, J. (1983). The cost of dichotomization.
Applied
Psychological Measurement, 7
(3), 249-253. https://doi.
org/10.1177/014662168300700301
Colman, D. E., Echon, R., Lemay, M. S., McDonald, J., Smith, K. R., Spencer,
J., & Swift, J. K. (2016). The efficacy of self-care for graduate students
in professional psychology: A meta-analysis.
Training and Education
in Professional Psychology, 10
(4), 188-197. https://doi.org/10.1037/
tep0000130
Coo, C., & Salanova, M. (2018). Mindfulness can make you happy-and-
productive: A mindfulness controlled trial and its effects on happiness,
work engagement and performance.
Journal of Happiness Studies, 19
(6),
1691-1711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9892-8
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job
demands-resources model of burnout.
Journal of Applied Psychology,
86
(3), 499-512. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.86.3.499
Denovan, A., Crust, L., & Clough, P. J. (2016). Resilience at work. In L. G. Oades, M.
F. Steger, A. Delle Fave, & J. Passmore (Eds.),
The Wiley Blackwell handbook
of the psychology of positivity and strengths-based approaches at work
(pp. 132-149). Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118977620.
ch9
Depner, R. M., Cook-Cottone, C. P., & Kim, S. (2020). Structural relationship
between mindful self-care, meaning made, and palliative worker’s quality
of life.
International Journal of Stress Management, 28
(1), 74-87. https://
doi.org/10.1037/str0000209
Després, J. P. (2016). Physical activity, sedentary behaviours, and cardiovascular
health: When will cardiorespiratory fitness become a vital sign?
Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 32
(4), 505-513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cjca.2015.12.006
Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independence of positive and negative
affect.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47
(5), 1105-1117.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.5.1105
Garland, E. L., Kiken, L. G., Faurot, K., Palsson, O., & Gaylord, S. A. (2017).
Upward spirals of mindfulness and reappraisal: Testing the mindfulness-
to-meaning theory with autoregressive latent trajectory modeling.
Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41
(3), 381-392. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10608-016-9768-y
Gil-Beltrán, E., Llorens, S., & Salanova, M. (2020). Employees’ physical exercise,
resources, engagement, and performance: A cross-sectional study from
HERO Model.
Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 36
(1), 39-
47. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2020a4
Gil-Beltrán, E., Meneghel, I., Llorens, S., & Salanova, M. (2020). Get vigorous
with physical exercise and improve your well-being at work!
International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17
(17), 1-10.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176384
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at
conceptualizing stress.
American Psychologist, 44
(3), 513-524. https://
doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
239
Self-care and Wellbeing
Hobfoll, S. E. (2012). Conservation of resources theory: Its implication for
stress, health, and resilience. In S. Folkman (Ed.),
The Oxford handbook
of stress, health, and coping
(pp. 127-147). Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195375343.013.0007
Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J. P., & Westman, M. (2018).
Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality
of resources and their consequences.
Annual Review of Organizational
Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5,
103-128. https://doi.
org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640
Hülsheger, U. R., Alberts, H. J. E. M., Feinholdt, A., & Lang, J. W. B. (2013).
Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion
regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction.
Journal of
Applied Psychology, 98
(2), 310-325. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031313
Ilies, R., & Judge, T. A. (2005). Goal regulation across time: The effects of
feedback and affect.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 90
(3), 453-467.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.3.453
Jaccard, J., Wan, C. K., & Turrisi, R. (1990). The detection and interpretation
of interaction effects between continuous variables in multiple
regression.
Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25
(4), 467-478. https://
doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2504_4
James, L. R., Mulaik, S. A., & Brett, J. M. (2006). A tale of two methods.
Organizational Research Methods, 9
(2), 233-244. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1094428105285144
Jiang, X., Topps, A. K., & Suzuki, R. (2020). A systematic review of self-care
measures for professionals and trainees.
Training and Education in
Professional Psychology.
Online publicacion. https://doi.org/10.1037/
tep0000318
Klussman, K. Julia Langer, J., & Lee Nichols, A. (2021). The relationship
between physical activity, health, and well-being.
European Journal of
Health Psychology, 28
(2), 59-70. https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/
a000070
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent
positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?
Psychological Bulletin,
131
(6), 803-855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets,
V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other
intervening variable effects.
Psychological Methods, 7
(1), 83-104.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83
Martín-Hernández, P., Ramos, J., Zornoza, A., Lira, E. M., & Peiró, J. M.
(2020). Mindfulness and job control as moderators of the relationship
between demands and innovative work behaviours.
Journal of Work
and Organizational Psychology, 36
(2), 95-101. https://doi.org/10.5093/
jwop2020a9
Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H., & Schoorman, F. D. (1995). an Integrative model of
organizational trust.
Academy of Management Review, 20
(3), 709-734.
https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1995.9508080335
Myers, S. B., Sweeney, A. C., Popick, V., Wesley, K., Bordfeld, A., & Fingerhut,
R. (2012). Self-care practices and perceived stress levels among
psychology graduate students.
Training and Education in Professional
Psychology, 6
(1), 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026534
Nägel, I. J., Sonnentag, S., & Kühnel, J. (2015). Motives matter: A diary study
on the relationship between job stressors and exercise after work.
International Journal of Stress Management, 22
(4), 346-371. https://
doi.org/10.1037/a0039115
Peñalver, J., Salanova, M., Martínez, I. M., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2019). Happy-
productive groups: How positive affect links to performance through
social resources
. Journal of Positive Psychology, 14
(3), 377-392. https://
doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1402076
Piercy, K. L., Troiano, R. P., Ballard, R. M., Carlson, S. A., Fulton, J. E., Galuska,
D. A., George, S. M., & Olson, R. D. (2018). The physical activity guidelines
for Americans.
JAMA - Journal of the American Medical Association,
320
(19), 2020-2028. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.14854
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003).
Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the
literature and recommended remedies.
Journal of Applied Psychology,
88
(5), 879-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Reinboth, M., & Duda, J. L. (2006). Perceived motivational climate, need
satisfaction and indices of well-being in team sports: A longitudinal
perspective.
Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7
(3), 269-286. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.06.002
Rupert, P. A., & Dorociak, K. E. (2019). Self-care, stress, and well-being
among practicing psychologists.
Professional Psychology: Research
and Practice, 50
(5), 343-350. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000251
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A
review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being.
Annual
Review of Psychology, 52,
141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.
psych.52.1.141
Salanova, M. (2021). Work-engagement: A key to HEROs - healthy
and resilient organizations. In J. P. Meyer & B. Schneider (Eds.),
A research agenda for employee engagement in a changing
world of work
(pp. 53-65). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.
org/10.4337/9781789907858.00011
Salanova, M., Acosta-Antognoni, H., Llorens, S., & Blanc, P. Le. (2021). We
trust you! a multilevel-multireferent model based on organizational
trust to explain performance.
International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 18
(8), Article 4241. https://doi.
org/10.3390/ijerph18084241
Salanova, M., Llorens, S., Cifre, E., & Martínez, I. M. (2012). We need a hero!
Toward a validation of the healthy and resilient organization (HERO)
model.
Group and Organization Management, 37
(6), 785-822. https://
doi.org/10.1177/1059601112470405
Salanova, M., Llorens, S., Cifre, E., Martínez, I. M., & Schaufeli, W.
B. (2003). Perceived collective efficacy, subjective well-being
and task performance among electronic work groups: An
experimental study.
Small Group Research, 34
(1), 43-73. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1046496402239577
Salanova, M., Llorens, S., & Martínez, I. M. (2019).
Organizaciones saludables.
Una mirada desde la psicología positiva.
Editorial Aranzadi.
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the
fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive
goodness-of-fit measures.
MPR-Online, 8
(2), 23-74.
Tsai, J. L. (2007). Ideal affect: Cultural causes and behavioral consequences.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2
(3), 242-259. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00043.x
Tugade, M. M., Fredrickson, B. L., & Barrett, L. F. (2004). Psychological
resilience and positive emotional granularity: Examining the benefits
of positive emotions on coping and health.
Journal of Personality,
72
(6), 1161-1190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00294.x
Wise, E. H., Hersh, M. A., & Gibson, C. M. (2012). Professional psychology:
Research and practice.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice,
43
(5), 487-494. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029446
Zahniser, E., Rupert, P. A., & Dorociak, K. E. (2017). Self-care in clinical
psychology graduate training.
Training and Education in Professional
Psychology, 11
(4), 283-289. https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000172
