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NABE Journal of Research and Practice
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Analyzing reading scores of elementary Latinx
bilingual learners in a one-way dual language
education program
Isela Almaguer & Jennifer Joy Esquierdo
To cite this article: Isela Almaguer & Jennifer Joy Esquierdo (2022) Analyzing reading scores
of elementary Latinx bilingual learners in a one-way dual language education program, NABE
Journal of Research and Practice, 12:3-4, 148-156, DOI: 10.1080/26390043.2022.2151855
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/26390043.2022.2151855
Published online: 18 Jan 2023.
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Analyzing reading scores of elementary Latinx bilingual learners in
a one-way dual language education program
Isela Almaguer and Jennifer Joy Esquierdo
The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley
ABSTRACT
Our nation is characterized by diversity in languages, ethnicities, national-
ities, and cultures with projected increases in English learners attending U.S.
schools. Consequently, it is imperative that we recognize how to maximize
the academic and linguistic assets of our English learner student population.
This study compared the performance on the State of Texas Assessment of
Academic Readiness (STAAR) Reading between bilingual learners in a one-
way dual language program compared to the average scale scores of English
learners in Texas. Data points taken in three dierent grade levels from the
same group of bilingual learners result in positive long-term outcomes of
bilingual learners by fth grade. Data analysis revealed that the percentage
of bilingual learners participating in the study scored above the Texas English
learners’ average score, and this increased exponentially through the grade
levels, reaching 64% in the STAAR English reading assessment. This supports
that students in dual-language education programs learning English as a
second language can develop English while maintaining and fostering their
native language. This study contributes to empirical studies focused on the
research-authenticated benets of Latinx bilingual learners’ participation in
one-way dual-language education programs.
The landscape of our nation has continuously transformed to include an increasingly culturally and
linguistically diverse population characterized by distinct languages, ethnicities, and nationalities yet
often interwoven by an array of analogous cultures, customs, and traditions. As such, a steadily
increasing number of Latinx students is corroborated by the substantially growing number of school-
aged Latinx students enrolled in U.S. public schools. Between 1996 and 2016, the total enrollment of
Latinx students in public elementary and secondary schools increased from 14.1% to 25% and is
projected to continue to increase to 29% by 2026 (Bauman & Murray, 2017; U.S. Department of
Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2015). While students from all over the world
bring a wide variety of languages to U.S. public schools, approximately 75% to 79% of students
classified as English learners share Spanish as a home language (García et al., 2008). Spanish is the
most commonly spoken language in 45 states and the District of Columbia (U.S. Department of
Education, Office of English Language Acquisition, 2017).
Latinx population growth makes Spanish the most common language encountered in non-native
English-speaking populations such as in Texas. The Texas Education Agency (TEA) reported that
between the 2006–2007 and 2017–2018 academic school years, Latinx student enrollment in Texas
public schools increased by 28.3%, resulting in Latinx students accounting for the majority of the
overall Texas student enrollment: 52.4% by the 2017–2018 academic school year (Texas Education
Agency, 2018). Most recently, the TEA reported that for spring 2020, there were 1,113,518 identified
English learners in Texas from prekindergarten to 12th grade. English learners make up 20% of the
CONTACT Isela Almaguer isela.almaguer@utrgv.edu The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
NABE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
2022, VOL. 12, NOS. 3–4, 148–156
https://doi.org/10.1080/26390043.2022.2151855
© 2023 the National Association for Bilingual Education
total student population in Texas, and 89% of them identified Spanish as their primary language
(Texas Education Agency, 2020). The 2018 and 2020 TEA reports reflect the steady increase in the
Latinx population that accounts for the exponential increase of the school-aged Latinx population in
schools.
Bilingual learners,
1
also commonly referred to as English language learners, English learners, or
emergent bilinguals, represent a steadfast and growing school-aged population in the U.S. school
system. In 2014, 9.3%, or 4.5 million, of the school-aged population were identified as bilingual
learners (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2015). This number
has continuously and rapidly increased. Additionally, in 2014 there was an increase of 100,000 in the
number of bilingual learners (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
2015). Subsequently, the U.S. Department of Education purports that English learner enrollment in
public schools has increased by more than 1 million students since 2000.
With many bilingual learners in the nation, research that identifies the best methods to educate and
support them in reaching academic success is critical. This study examined the outcomes of a state-
standardized reading assessment for Latinx bilingual learners in a one-way dual-language education
program implemented in a predominately low–socioeconomic status school district in deep South
Texas. Additionally, these scores were compared to the state averages of all students, English learners,
and students coded with Title I (low socioeconomic status) in Texas. The research objective of this
study was to inquire into the possible positive effects of implementing a one-way dual-language
education (DLE) program on the reported reading development of Latinx bilingual students as
indicated by the State of Texas Assessment of Academic Readiness (STAAR) standardized assessment.
Research question
The research question that guided this study was the following: What is the difference in average scale
scores as measured by the STAAR standardized assessment between Latinx bilingual learners in a one-
way dual-language program compared to the state average of English learners in bilingual education
programs?
Background in bilingual education programs
According to the TEA, there were 1,010,756 English learners (referred to as bilingual learners in this
article); 537,055 of them participated in bilingual education programs, and 468,710 participated in
English as a second language programs during the 2016–2017 school year. Bilingual education
program types and implementation vary from state to state. The state of Texas, where data for this
study were collected, allows various bilingual education program options that may vary by campus
within the same school district. The bilingual program types implemented in Texas allow the
implementation of English as a second language, transitional bilingual, and dual-language education
programs (Texas Education Code § 89.1210, 2018). These bilingual education programs can be
classified into two subcategories: (1) enrichment (also referred to as additive), continuing the devel-
opment of the native language while acquiring a second language (for most students, this is English),
or (2) remedial (also referred to as subtractive), reducing the use of the native language as the student is
developing a second language (for most students, this is English), eventually aiming to eliminate the
use of the native language during instruction (Cummins, 1979). The former benefits bilingual learners
the most by fostering their native language (L1), Spanish, and using the strength in their native
language (L1) to subsequently transfer to their second language (L2), English, which further supports
academic and linguistic growth and development (Cummins, 1979). The strength of the native
language is attributed to acceleration in language transfer and, thus, increased probability for academic
success. The benefits of educating bilingual students through dual-language programs that recognize
and use their primary literacy language to bridge academic success are considerable.
NABE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 149
The dual-language education program is considered an enrichment/additive bilingual education
program. The ultimate goals of dual-language education programs are bilingualism, biliteracy, and
biculturalism (Center for Applied Linguistics, 2019). This is achieved by offering students, especially
those from homes speaking a language other than English, namely Spanish, opportunities to develop at
least two languages in an academic setting. In dual-language programs, as per TAC89.1210(c)(3) and
(4), instruction in the partner language never falls below 50% of the overall instructional time (Texas
Education Agency, 2020). School content, such as social studies, science, math, and reading/language
arts, is delivered in two languages in a linguistically supported environment. There are two groups of
dual-language education programs defined by the students participating in the program: one-way and
two-way. In a one-way dual-language education program, the students participating are all from the
same language group learning in two languages. In Texas, an overwhelming number of dual-language
education programs are one-way programs. In two-way dual-language education programs, students
participating in the program are from two different language groups learning in two languages.
Although the overall design for dual-language education programs may vary, even within one-way
and two-way models, the goals remain the same.
Historically, implementation of dual-language education programs was uncommon; however, over
the past decade there has been consistent growth, especially Spanish–English programs at the
elementary level (Lessow-Hurley, 2013). The cause for this growth is the well-supported evidence
that demonstrates the potential of these programs to close the reported achievement gap for bilingual
learners (Lindholm-Leary, 2016; Thomas & Collier, 2002). There is much promise in participating in
dual-language education (DLE) programs. Highly regarded researchers and scholars Collier and
Thomas (2004), known for their significant longitudinal studies resulting in unwavering support for
the benefits of dual-language education, affirmed that “both one-way and two-way bilingual programs
lead to grade-level and above-grade-level achievement in second language, the only programs that
fully close the gap” (p. 11). Unequivocally, the effectiveness of one-way or two-way dual-language
programs relies on a sound design and fidelity of consistent implementation.
Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework that guided this study was grounded on previous analyses of empirical
studies that reported the positive effects of bilingual education program types on bilingual learners’
academic performance on elementary standardized reading assessments. Lindholm-Leary’s (2001)
meta-analysis of bilingual programs reported scores of bilingual learners in dual-language education
programs in Texas were, at the minimum, 20 normal curve equivalent scores higher than monolingual,
native English speakers on literacy tests by the fifth grade. De Jong (2002) also reviewed the academic
achievement of bilingual learners in a dual-language education program at the elementary level in
Texas and found 80% dual-language education students passing the state exam versus 25% of those
who did not participate in the dual-language education program. Han (2012) conducted a study of
a national cohort of more than 16,000 Hispanic, Asian, or non-Hispanic U.S. born White kindergart-
ners and followed students’ academic progress until fifth grade. Large databases are available owing to
national education policies requiring standardized testing on English literacy and math scores, and
included in the analyses outcome variables were results on standardized reading and math achieve-
ment scores. Although children entered kindergarten with limits to English proficiency and obtained
initial scores on both English and math tests that were lower than native English-speaking children,
they fully closed the math gap by fifth grade, an achievement that Han attributes to bilingualism and
hence benefits of bilingual education (Han, 2012). Researchers tracked student data from seven
cohorts of Spanish, Japanese, Mandarin Chinese, and Russian language immersion lottery applicants
in an urban school district. Student data revealed that students randomly assigned to dual-language
immersion programs outperformed their peers on state reading tests by 13% of a standard deviation in
fifth grade and by 22% of a standard deviation in eighth grade, resulting in seven additional months of
learning in fifth grade and nine additional months of learning in eigth grade (Steele et al., 2017).
150 I. ALMAGUER AND J. J. ESQUIERDO
In a review of studies that have examined the effect of various risk factors on children’s response to
bilingual education, Genesee and Fortune (2014) found no case in which the bilingual education
program contributed to poorer academic outcomes for these children than for similar children in
monolingual programs. This is possible with well-implemented enrichment programs that teach
curriculum through their native language and through English (Collier & Thomas, 2004). These
research studies purport similar outcomes of positive academic and linguistic benefits for Latinx
bilingual learners participating in dual-language education programs and further support Thomas and
Collier’s (2002) widely recognized research and longitudinal study. Accordingly, the present study
aimed to examine the difference in average scale scores as measured by the STAAR standardized
assessment between Latinx bilingual learners in a one-way dual-language program compared to the
state average of English learners in bilingual education programs.
Methodology
The archival data set was collected from a large rural school district with a student enrollment of
29,600 students who are 99.6% Latinx; 50.5% of the students are coded as English learners, 94.6% are
economically disadvantaged, and 79.9% are considered at-risk. The data set included the first one-way
dual-language education program cohort of bilingual learners who had started the dual-language
education program in at least kindergarten (about 73% enrolled in prekindergarten). The total number
of student data collected was 1,122, except in third grade, where 17 students were missing the reading
test score, but they continued to be enrolled in school. The data set comprised the same group of
students as they progressed from third grade to fifth grade.
The assessment results analyzed in the study were collected during the scheduled standardized
assessment calendar. The students in the data set had been enrolled in a one-way dual-language
program since kindergarten without interruption. Additionally, all bilingual learners in this study were
native Spanish speakers learning content in both English and Spanish. Reading instruction was
provided primarily in their native language, with structured opportunities for them to receive reading
and literacy development in both languages through the different content areas, such as math, science,
and social studies.
Third grade had 1,105 testers, fourth grade had 1,122, and fifth grade had 1,122. The group of
students were the same as they completed each grade level. There were 17 students who did not have
a reading score in third grade but received classroom instruction. The number of testers in the native
language (Spanish) was greater in third grade (first year of standardized assessment) and slightly
decreased in fourth and fifth grade. The administration of the standardized assessments followed the
state-required protocol. During the time of the study, school districts in Texas selected the language of
assessment between Spanish and English based on a variety of factors. The Language Proficiency
Assessment Committee makes the final decision on the language of the standardized assessment based
on data collected by the classroom teacher throughout the academic year and the performance of the
bilingual learner on the Texas English Language Assessment System. The research team did not
administer or directly collect the data from the students. The data set was retrieved from the district
database after all assessments had been administered and reported.
STAAR is the state testing program that was implemented in the 2011–2012 school year. The TEA,
in collaboration with the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board and Texas educators, developed
the STAAR program in response to requirements set forth by the 80th and 81st Texas legislatures.
STAAR is an assessment program designed to measure the extent to which students have learned and
are able to apply the knowledge and skills defined in the state-mandated curriculum standards, the
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS). Every STAAR question is directly aligned to the TEKS
currently implemented for the grade/subject or course being assessed. The STAAR program includes
STAAR and STAAR Spanish. There are large print, Braille, paper, and online versions of STAAR with
and without designated supports.
NABE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 151
Results and discussion
The research question of this study centered on measuring the difference in the STAAR Reading
assessment, in either English or Spanish, of bilingual learners enrolled in a one-way dual-language
education program compared to the mean average of all students and English learners in the state. In
Texas, English learners are students identified to come from environments in which the primary
language is other than English (TEA Chapter 29, 2017). Although the state average of English learners
includes students who speak Spanish or other native languages, the generalization of that group is
what we used as a benchmark. We also acknowledge that within the group of all English learners in
Texas are the students in this study. Another benchmark we used in the study was the state average of
all students that took the same reading assessment. Table 1 represents a comparison of STAAR
Reading Average Scale Scores for bilingual learners in the data set for the study and Texas students
through third grade to fifth grade. The STAAR Reading test was available for bilingual learners to take
in either English or Spanish, depending on their language classification determined by the Language
Proficiency Assessment Committee. Overall, the average STAAR Reading scale score of bilingual
learners in this study was slightly below the Texas average scale scores of all students. However, the
mean difference for the average Texas students’ scale score and bilingual learners’ scale score decreases
through the progression of the grade levels (see Table 1). This indicates that bilingual learners were
minimizing the difference between the two means as they developed their reading skills in both
languages, compared to the other students who only received reading instruction in one language.
Table 2 represents a comparison of STAAR Reading Average Scale Scores for bilingual learners in
the study and Texas English learners through third grade to fifth grade. The STAAR Reading test was
available for bilingual learners to take in either English or Spanish, dependent on their language
classification. Overall, the average STAAR Reading scale score of bilingual learners in the data set was
below the Texas English learners’ (formally referred to as English language learners or limited English
proficient) average scale scores. However, in fifth grade, bilingual learners (N = 650) who took the
STAAR Reading in English scored higher (mean average of 1,500) than the Texas English learners’
average scale score (mean average of 1,467). This demonstrates that as the bilingual learners in the
Table 1. Reading scale scores for BLs compared to Texas average scale scores of all students.
Grade
level
Language of
STAAR Reading
No. of
BLs
tested
BLs’ average
scale scores
TX average
scale score
% above TX
average scale
score
Mean
difference Significance t df
3rd grade English 78 1294.29 1,427 12.80% −132.71** .000 −9.38 77
Spanish 1,027 1345.71 1,360 44.40% −14.28** .002 −3.10 1,026
4th grade English 184 1404.20 1,509 22.30% −104.79** .000 −12.22 183
Spanish 938 1419.85 1,438 43.90% −18.39** .000 −3.78 937
5th grade English 650 1500.00 1,553 30.00% −52.62** .000 −12.05 649
Spanish 472 1493.78 1,505 39.60% −11.22** .017 −2.38 471
**p < .01.
BL = bilingual learner; STAAR; State of Texas Assessment of Academic Readiness.
Table 2. Reading scale scores for BLs compared to Texas EL average scale score.
Grade
level
Language of
STAAR Reading
No. of
BLs
tested
BLs’
average
scale scores
TX ELs’
average
scale score
% above TX Els’
average scale
score
Mean
difference Significance t df
3rd grade English 78 1,294.29 1,378 18.00% −83.7** .000 −5.92 77
Spanish 1,027 1,345.71 1,359 44.40% −13.29** .004 −2.88 1,026
4th grade English 184 1,404.2 1,437 36.00% −32.79** .000 −3.83 183
Spanish 938 1,419.85 1,436 56.00% −16.14** .001 −3.37 937
5th grade English 650 1,500.00 1,467 64.20% 33.37** .000 7.64 649
Spanish 472 1,493.78 1,505 39.60% −11.22 .017 −2.38 471
**p < .01.
BL = bilingual learner; EL = English learner; STAAR = State of Texas Assessment of Academic Readiness.
152 I. ALMAGUER AND J. J. ESQUIERDO
one-way dual-language education program progressed through the grade levels, their performance in
the state-standardized assessments improved significantly and outperformed the comparison group.
Interestingly, the opposite occurred with the students who took the Spanish version of the same
assessment. The Texas English learners (mean average of 1,505) slightly outperformed the bilingual
learners in the one-way dual-language education program (mean average of 1,493).
Additionally, it is important to highlight the results found when the percentage of the scale scores
measured above the Texas English learners’ average scale score was calculated for the STAAR Reading
in English. When the bilingual learner group was in third grade, 18% of them scored above the Texas
English learners’ average scale score in the STAAR Reading in English. That percentage doubled to
36% in fourth grade and almost doubled again in fifth grade, with 64.2% of the bilingual learners
scoring above the Texas English learners’ average scale score. This means that between third and fifth
grade, the students who scored above the Texas English learners’ average score increased by 46 per-
centage points, which is significant. By fifth grade, 64% of the bilingual learners in the one-way dual-
language education program in the study scored above the state average for the Texas English learners
(ELs), and their average score was higher than in the comparison group.
For the STAAR Reading in Spanish, the percentage above the Texas English learners’ average score
did not increase as significantly, but it did measure an increase nonetheless. In third grade, the
majority of the bilingual learners (93%) in the study took the STAAR Reading in Spanish. Of those
students, 44% scored higher than the Texas English learners’ average score of 1,359. In fourth grade,
the majority of the bilingual learners (84%) in the study took the STAAR Reading in Spanish; more
than half (56%) of them scored higher than the Texas English learners in the same assessment. In fifth
grade, 42% of the bilingual learners in the study took the STAAR Reading in Spanish; of those
students, almost 40% scored above the Texas English learners’ average score. As the number of
bilingual learners in the study decreased, so did the percentage of them scoring above the Texas
English learners’ average in the STAAR Reading in Spanish.
Overall, Table 2 supports the research that shows the long-term benefits of dual-language education
(Collier & Thomas, 2017; Thomas & Collier, 2002). The sharp percentage increase of the number of
bilingual learners above the Texas English learners’ average scale score for STAAR Reading in English
between fourth and fifth grade is evident. This shows that as bilingual learners in dual-language
education from at least kindergarten to fifth grade progress through the upcoming grade levels, their
performance in the English STAAR Reading test can possibly increase over time. This is a significant
outcome considering that there were 1,122 bilingual learners in the data set.
Figure 1 demonstrates the linear regression of means for the English STAAR Reading scale scores
for bilingual learners in comparison to the Texas average scale score, the Texas English learners’
average scale scores, and the average scale score of Texas students in the Title 1 through third grade to
fifth grade. The Title I group includes students who have been identified to come from low-income
families. A wide gap can be observed between the average STAAR scale score for bilingual learners in
third grade and Texas students, Texas English learners, and Texas Title 1 students. However, as the
same group of bilingual learners progressed through fourth and fifth grade, the gap between bilingual
learners and Texas students, Texas English learners, and Texas Title 1 students decreased.
Furthermore, in fifth grade, bilingual learners had a higher average STAAR scale score than the
Texas English learners.
Implications
The recommendations based on the results of this study are for educational leaders to acknowledge the
effectiveness of one-way dual-language education programs to educate bilingual learners. The results
of this study demonstrate that the mean scale scores of bilingual learners in a one-way dual-language
education program can start with lower scores as compared to the general student population but
show a significant increase as the students progress through the program. It is very important to
highlight that the students in the one-way dual-language education program were receiving content
NABE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 153
instruction in two languages, with no less than 50% in Spanish (as per the mandate set by the TEA).
Beyond the instruction of reading/language arts in two languages, the bilingual learners in the one-way
dual-language education program received science and social studies instruction primarily in Spanish
and math instruction primarily in English.
One of the positive outcomes of the one-way dual-language education program is that students
develop content knowledge in both languages without forfeiting development of their native language
to focus on their second language. The transitional bilingual education model, the most implemented
type of bilingual education program, is aimed to solely monitor and develop English for students who
enroll in schools with a home language other than English. The data in this study demonstrate that
with time, the bilingual learners in dual-language programs may perform at the same level or higher in
a state-standardized assessment in reading as English learners in other bilingual programs or even
native English speakers. This is important information for educational stakeholders who make
decisions in selecting the type of bilingual program to implement, especially for students who enroll
in school with a home language other than English.
Conclusion and limitations
In recent years, more studies have emerged on the effectiveness of dual-language education. There is
a growing trend to implement and study the effectiveness of one-way dual-language education
programs as well. The results of these data points taken in three different grade levels from the
same group of bilingual learners demonstrate the beginning of positive long-term outcomes by fifth
grade. This study aimed to compare the performance on the state assessment STAAR Reading between
bilingual learners in a one-way dual-language program to the average scale scores of other English
learners in the state of Texas and all Texas students. The data reflected the progression of bilingual
learners’ mean average increase significantly in the STAAR English Reading assessment. The analysis
also revealed that the percentage of bilingual learners in the study scoring above the Texas English
learners’ average score increased exponentially through the grade levels, reaching 64% in the STAAR
Reading in English assessment. This shows that students in a dual-language education program,
learning English as a second language, can develop English while maintaining and fostering their
native language. Unequivocally, English learners who participate in a one-way dual-language program
have the distinct benefit of further validating and affirming their bilingual and biliterate identity as
global scholars.
Figure 1. STAAR reading scores in grades 3–5. Mean averages of the four groups in STAAR Reading.STAAR = State of Texas
Assessment of Academic Readiness
154 I. ALMAGUER AND J. J. ESQUIERDO
These findings are vital for bilingual education, as enrichment programs whose goals are bilingu-
alism, biliteracy, and biculturalism. The researchers note that limitations of this research are that the
data set was collected from a predominantly Spanish-speaking Latinx population from the borderlands
on the U.S.–Mexican border. Also, data results are generalizable to students enrolled in a one-way
dual-language education program as results may differ if students are enrolled in a two-way dual-
language education program. Also, the research team could not examine factors such as quality of
teacher instruction or level of implementation of dual-language education programs. Equally impor-
tant from the data analysis conducted for this study, the research team recognized that further analysis
is needed to identify where the achievement gap may possibly close with this student data set.
Therefore, the research team plans to continue analyzing additional data to contribute to empirical
studies focused on the research authenticated benefits of Latinx bilingual learners’ participation in
one-way dual-language education programs.
Note
1. The term bilingual learners was selected for this article to acknowledge the strengths and linguistic skill sets of all
bilingual students, including various levels of bilingualism, and transition from deficit labels. Bilingual learners is
a term that we feel is more inclusive and celebratory of students’ bilingualism.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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