Examining the Discord Application in Higher Education: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Abstract

The ability to communicate is critical for enhancing the learning experience. Integrated messaging applications, such as Discord, are critical with the increased diffusion of digitally mediated courses. The Discord application allows educators and students to readily communicate learning experiences within asynchronous and synchronous environments by sending messages, images, links, audio, and video. Our systematic review sought to understand the benefits and challenges of using the Discord application in higher education courses. We summarized research from eight empirical studies within global higher education. Benefits of using Discord included ease of access, user-friendliness, useful communication and interaction, and increased social presence leading to enhanced student learning outcomes. Challenges included the increased potential for distraction and technology issues, both of which can inhibit engagement. Practical recommendations and future research recommendations regarding the use of Discord are provided.

Full text

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Examining the Discord Application in Higher Education:
A Systematic Review of the Literature
CHRIS D. CRAIG1, ROBIN KAY1
1 Ontario Tech University
Abstract
The ability to communicate is critical for enhancing the learning experience.
Integrated messaging applications, such as Discord, are critical with the increased
diffusion of digitally mediated courses. The Discord application allows educators
and students to readily communicate learning experiences within asynchronous and
synchronous environments by sending messages, images, links, audio, and video.
Our systematic review sought to understand the benefits and challenges of using
the Discord application in higher education courses. We summarized research from
eight empirical studies within global higher education. Benefits of using Discord
included ease of access, user-friendliness, useful communication and interaction,
and increased social presence leading to enhanced student learning outcomes.
Challenges included the increased potential for distraction and technology issues,
both of which can inhibit engagement. Practical recommendations and future
research recommendations regarding the use of Discord are provided.
Keywords: Higher education, Online communication, Learning networks, Discord,
Review
INTRODUCTION
ommunication in higher education is vital as it can enhance the learning experience with
increased opportunities or negatively influence it when options are limited (Schneider &
Preckel, 2017). Furthermore, the choice of educational technology will also affect how
effective the learning environment is (MacLeod et al., 2019). As higher education moves away
from teacher-centred education to student-centred learning environments, we must use
technologies that enhance supportive learning-focused digital communication (MacLeod et al.,
2019; Schneider & Preckel, 2017). Digital communication in educational environments affords the
ability to stimulate discussions that result in multiple responses, leading to enhanced peer-to-peer
engagement around the learning materials (Zhou, 2015). However, communication tools,
especially open-access social media apps, can promote toxic and destructive behaviours that
severely inhibit productive conversations and learning (Weller, 2020). The current challenge is to
develop an effective platform that maximizes effective communication among students (Weller,
2020).
C

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Multiple communication and interaction strategies are required to support successful online
communication in digitally mediated courses (Vlachopoulos & Makri, 2019). With the advent of
digital technologies, our communication ability extends to asynchronous and synchronous
environments and includes tools such as messages, images, audio, and video (Vlachopoulos &
Makri, 2019). With the deepening relationship between higher education and digital technology,
including more online classes or lectures (Johnson et al., 2019), educators and students seek
effective online tools to communicate and support learning outcomes. “Discord” is an application
initially released for gamers in 2015 that has emerged as a potential connector (Thornton, 2021).
Discord is a social communication application which gained popularity with online gamers
as a comprehensive tool supporting private and public interaction (Odinokaya et al., 2021). The
free application provides the opportunity to maintain “servers” which act as communication hubs,
housing scaffolded communication affordances known as “channels” (Odinokaya et al., 2021).
Administrators can set up protected channels that include diverse interaction methods such as chat
rooms, direct messaging, voice and video calls, and integrations with other gamer-focused
services.
Interaction is a critical element of learning (Dewey, 1916)—and, by extension,
communication (Vlachopoulos & Makri, 2019). Educators have taken note and started integrating
Discord into higher education settings to enhance communication. Communication reflects a
process of meaning-creation achieved through conditional relationships (Schirato & Yell, 2000).
Often, cultural, political, and social conditions influence communication, and its effectiveness
requires interaction to understand other perspectives and develop relationships (Schirato & Yell,
2000; Vlachopoulos & Makri, 2019).
Previous Research on Communication Tools
As Discord is a social networking site, we sought insight from early and modern
implementations. The following articles provide context from early social media implementation,
recent use, and insight from a similar application.
During social media’s initial growth, Tess (2013) conducted a literature review to
understand the role of social media in the higher education classroom. Early research found that
the forerunners in education settings were Facebook, MySpace, LinkedIn, Blogs, and Twitter.
Most articles used self-reported data and content analysis to gain insight; however, empirical
studies were limited. While promising, Tess (2013) suggested that many early-use cases were more
experimental and were still trying to figure out the best way to use the new digital affordances of
social media.
Through a systematic review of 57 articles, Al-Qaysi et al. (2020) sought to gain insight
into factors related to the adoption of social media in higher education. The authors found that the
most frequent factors influencing social media adoption were perceived enjoyment, subjective

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norm, self-efficacy, perceived critical mass, and openness. The authors suggest that the factors can
help guide future implementation insight.
Another application which provides similar affordances to Discord, notably its ability to
limit geographical and temporal restrictions to support digital connection and communication, is
the Meta-owned WhatsApp. Suárez-Lantarón et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of its
use across 192 articles primarily focused on higher education (87%). The primary applications of
WhatsApp included supporting the education process, increased participation, promotion of
collaboration, and student reminders. Suárez-Lantarón et al. (2022) found that WhatsApp
enhanced active learning, decision-making, and motivation.
Objective
In exploring the online communication hub, we used the Population, Exposure, Outcome
(PEO) framework to construct our research objective (Barroga & Matanguihan, 2022): what are
the benefits and challenges of using the Discord application in higher education courses? The
following sections outline the methodology, results, and suggestions for future research and
educator application.
METHOD
Overview
We undertook a rapid systematic review to assess Discord to deliver applicable information
for informed practice and decision-making (Tricco et al., 2022). Page et al.’s (2021) Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020 (PRISMA) guided our review
by affording clarity and transparency to our findings. We first carefully documented the search
process. Then we outlined and applied inclusion criteria for articles. Lastly, we use a mixed-
method result to build diverse insight and minimize methodological differences (Sandelowski et
al., 2006).
Search Process
Over three searches, we focused on exploring the characteristics, benefits, and challenges
of using the Discord application in higher education. The first search—Discord in education—
occurred through the Omni academic search tool via the Ontario Tech University Library, which
provides access to 392 high-quality databases. The delimiters included available online, articles,
English, and the title contains “discord education.” To elaborate on potential insight, we used
Google Scholar for the second search using the term “Discord education.” The delimiters of 2015+
(the year Discord was released) and all of the words: “Discord education” plus ‘in the title of the
article.’ The third search occurred through the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) with
the search term “Discord education” and the delimiter “articles.” We collected five more articles
for review through reference mining during the review process. Figure 1 outlines the article search
flow and final selection process.

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Figure 1
PRISMA Flow Diagram
Inclusion Criteria & Article Descriptions
For this review, we selected empirical studies that explicitly referenced the use of Discord
in higher education courses. The search, review, and retrieval process resulted in eight peer-
reviewed articles. Appendix A provides article summaries, and Appendix B offers detailed
descriptions of each paper. Due to the completion of three searches, duplicate articles were the
primary reason (n = 11) for exclusion. Next, six articles referenced ‘discord’ in the context of its

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actual meaning: a lack of harmony. Two articles did not reference higher education, and another
two focused on the conceptual application of Discord.
Analysis & Coding
We followed a three-step integrated analysis and synthesis of study outcomes to afford the
assimilation and expression from qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods investigations
(Sandelowski et al., 2006). First, we gathered article summaries, noting the database, resource,
title, and purpose (Appendix A). Step two included compiling demographic factors related to each
study, including the population, location, sample size, gender, average age, study type, reliability,
and validity (Appendix B). In the third step, emergent coding from thematic analysis resulted in
the development of primary and secondary themes through a four-phase integrated synthesis
(Popay et al., 2006; Sandelowski et al., 2006; Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014). The first phase
explored relationships between study attributes to direct secondary themes. The second phase
assessed the quality and quantity of the emergent themes through concept mapping (Popay et al.,
2006). To further hone the concepts, phases one and two are repeated. The findings section outlines
and summarizes the themes and sub-themes.
RESULTS
Study Characteristics
The eight studies in this review collected data through various research methods and levels
of rigour. Most studies used a mixed methods approach (n = 4), followed by qualitative (n = 3)
and quantitative (n = 1) methodologies. Four studies used a scaled survey, three used yes/no
surveys, and two used content analysis. Other sampling methods included interviews, open-ended
questions, and learner reflection.
Participants. In total, the research referenced 583 participants. Three fields of study used
Discord, most notably social science, which accounted for 63% (n =5) of the articles, four of which
focused on language studies. The remaining studies focused on computer technologies (n = 2) and
health sciences (n = 1). The primary academic level of study was undergraduate (n = 7), while two
studies included graduate students. The research was rooted in six countries, most notably
Indonesia (n = 3). Further research occurred in France, Peru, Romania, Russia, and the USA (n =
1 each). Only one study (Dayana et al., 2021) referenced participant gender but did not reflect on
its relationship with study outcomes (see Appendix B).
Quality. The quality of the articles used in this review is somewhat limited. Only one study
(Odinokaya et al., 2021) conducted checks for reliability and validity, reflected on individual
differences, used pre- and post-test design, and examined use over a full term with an experimental
and control group. Study duration varied, with one study occurring over two terms (Vladoiu &
Constantinescu, 2020) and five occurring over one term. Checks for individual differences (n = 2)

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and reliability (n = 2) were also rare. Five studies appeared in peer-reviewed journals, two in
conference proceedings, and one was a conference poster.
Benefits of Using Discord (n = 7)
Student Perceptions of Discord’s Usefulness (n = 6). A majority of the participants in
five of the eight studies indicated that Discord is a valuable tool in their learning experience for
three reasons. First, the application was beneficial to support peer-to-peer communication for
course-related insights and social integration within a course (Di Marco, 2021; Jannah &
Hentasmaka, 2021; Vladoiu & Constantinescu, 2020). Second, it supported course learning
objectives and the associated activities therein (Arifianto et al., 2021; Jannah & Hentasmaka, 2021;
Wulanjani, 2018). Finally, Discord was an effective and comfortable method for connecting with
instructors (Di Marco, 2021; Fonseca Cacho, 2020). Students in Fonseca Cacho’s (2020) study
reached out to educators more often than in traditional face-to-face scenarios.
Student Perceptions of Discord’s User-Friendliness (n = 4). Participants from four
studies indicated that using Discord in their learning experience was beneficial due to its ease of
use, attractiveness, and short learning curve (Arifianto et al., 2021; Dayana et al., 2021; Di Marco,
2021; Wulanjani, 2018). Students appreciated the application's ease of use and access (Arifianto
et al., 2021; Dayana et al., 2021; Di Marco, 2021; Wulanjani, 2018), further supported by its
potential for low internet bandwidth requirements when a video was not the primary method of
communication (Arifianto et al., 2021). A pleasant interface and overall perception of
attractiveness also endeared the application to participants (Arifianto et al., 2021; Dayana et al.,
2021). While some students in Wulanjani’s (2018) study initially found Discord unfamiliar, they
indicated that it did not take long to adapt and become familiar with it.
Challenges of Using Discord (n = 5)
We identified two primary challenges from five studies. First, that Discord was not ideal
for online lecturing and higher-level thinking (Di Marco, 2021; Vladoiu & Constantinescu, 2020).
Following the use of Discord to promote community and communication during the COVID-19
pandemic, Di Marco (2021) conducted a review to gain insight into student perceptions through a
validated rubric evaluation tool. The response analysis indicated that the application has limited
support in the context of cognitive engagement. Furthermore, Vladoiu and Constantinescu (2020),
who used the application as a course hub, found that students were more easily distracted with
detrimental implications for learning complex subjects.
Second, several technology issues emerged (Arifianto et al., 2021; Wulanjani, 2018).
Contrasting with earlier studies, over half of the students who had never previously used Discord
in Arifianto et al.’s (2021) article found it confusing, complicated, and strange. Meanwhile,
students surveyed in Wulanjani’s (2018) research indicated that internet connectivity was
inhibitive—noting regular issues with connection in class and impaired audio quality.

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Educator Perceptions (n = 3)
Three studies offered educators insight into using Discord, reflecting positive perceptions
(Dayana et al., 2021; Di Marco, 2021; Odinokaya et al., 2021). Dayana et al. (2021) expressed that
the application was effective for conducting an online class and providing an easily accessible
online social space. Similarly, Di Marco (2021) found that it was beneficial for analyzing learner
performance, customizing learning content, and teaching presence. Regarding its impact on
learning outcomes, Odinokaya et al. (2021) noted that during the use of Discord in an EFL course,
students showed increased vocabulary skill development compared with the traditional in-person
groups.
DISCUSSION
Following our research objective, our review outlines the benefits, challenges, and educator
perceptions of using the Discord application in higher education. Our review reflects similar study
characteristics as previous reviews of social media classroom use in higher education. Like the
early adopters referenced in Tess’ (2013) review, educators are in the experimental phase of
introducing Discord into practice. Furthermore, studies reflected on self-reported data and content
analysis with limited longitudinal insight. The application’s ease of use, attractiveness, social
connectivity, and affordance for enhanced teaching presence reflect similar insight from Al-Qaysi
et al.’s (2020) and Suárez-Lantarón et al.’s (2022) systematic reviews. Potentially new insight
includes reflection on the learning curve required for practical use in higher education.
Benefits
The two primary benefits of using Discord are student perceptions of its usefulness and
user-friendliness. The application is perceived as beneficial for supporting student communication
with their peers and educators regarding course-related insight and social integration within a
course. Perceptions of user-friendliness were rooted in ease of use, attractiveness, and a short
learning curve.
Challenges
Educators who plan to implement Discord in their courses should consider the two
challenges associated with its use. First, the application is not well suited for online lecturing and
cognitive engagement due to a high potential for distraction. Second, technology issues such as
negative stress states associated with using a new technology and internet connection inhibited
student engagement.
Educator Perception
Of the studies that offered educator insight, the overall perception was positive. Primarily,
the application provides an easily accessible form of digital communication that enhanced social

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learning presence through its ease of use (Dayana et al., 2021; Di Marco, 2021; Odinokaya et al.,
2021). As a result, students were likely to experience enhanced learning outcomes.
The insight from this review can help guide educators during their implementation of the
Discord application in higher education. Towards practical application, we offer the following
suggestions. Based on our findings, we should use Discord as a user-friendly and easily accessible
tool to support learning objectives by streamlining course-based communication between students
and educators (Arifianto et al., 2021; Dayana et al., 2021; Di Marco, 2021; Jannah & Hentasmaka,
2021; Odinokaya et al., 2021; Vladoiu & Constantinescu, 2020; Wulanjani, 2018). If implemented,
educators can anticipate that students are more likely to reach out through Discord than in
traditional face-to-face environments and are encouraged to outline their availability at the onset
of a course (Fonseca Cacho, 2020).
However, Discord use is best as a tool for direct communication. Currently, there is limited
support for practical cognitive engagement due to increased distraction and a limited level of
technological diffusion (Arifianto et al., 2021; Di Marco, 2021; Vladoiu & Constantinescu, 2020;
Wulanjani, 2018). The lack of diffusion references a potentially limited pre-existing knowledge
which can unnecessarily increase the learning curve allotted to course time and hinder student
accessibility. Furthermore, educators will want to receive institutional approval as they often need
to vet technology to ensure that it aligns with institutionally-defined student privacy and
accessibility guidelines.
Future Research
Based on the results of this review, we offer four suggestions for future research on the use
of Discord. First, research is needed to understand how participant characteristics impact learning
outcomes or experiences. To date limited research has been conducted on individual differences
and experience using Discord. Second, considerations of student privacy need to be reviewed and
assessed when Discord is implemented. Third, research on Discord needs to expand to more
diverse subject areas and geographical locations. Lastly, a content analysis of communication
quality and flow would help explore the impact of Discord in more depth. These recommendations
are non-exhaustive but can offer greater insight as we navigate beyond the early adopter phase of
implementing Discord for communication and interaction.
CONCLUSION
While further research is required, the Discord application is an effective tool for peer-
based learning and communication. Early indications from our review suggest that students and
educators positively perceive Discord due to its ability to support effective communication,
learning outcomes, and social interaction. We propose that insights in this article provide context
and guidance for using Discord by educators and future researchers.

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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Article Description Summaries
Citation
Search Terms
Article Type
Search
Consortium
Database
Resource
Title
Arifianto et al. (2021)
discord
education
Peer-reviewed
journal
DOAJ
DOAJ
International Journal of
Emerging Technologies
in Learning
Students' acceptance of Discord as
an alternative online learning
media
Dayana et al. (2021)
discord app
education
Peer-reviewed
journal
Google Search
Google
Proceedings of the 19th
LACCEI International
Multi-Conference for
Engineering and
Technology
Design of the Discord application
as an e-learning tool at the
University of Sciences and
Humanities
Di Marco (2021)
discord in
education
Peer-reviewed
journal
OTU
DOAJ
European Journal of
Midwifery
User-centered evaluation of
Discord in midwifery education
during the COVID-19 pandemic:
Analysis of the adaptation of the
tool to student needs
Fonseca Cacho (2020)
reference
mining
Conference Poster
-
Digital
Scholarship
@ UNLV
UNLV Best Teaching
Practices Expo
Using Discord to improve student
communication, engagement, and
performance
Jannah &
Hentasmaka (2021)
discord
education
Peer-reviewed
journal
DOAJ
DOAJ
Premise: Journal of
English Education and
Applied Linguistics
The use of Discord application in
virtual English learning: An
investigation on students'
perceptions
Odinokaya et al. (2021)
discord app
education
Peer-reviewed
journal
Google Search
MDPI
Education Sciences
Using the Discord application to
facilitate EFL vocabulary
acquisition

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Citation
Search Terms
Article Type
Search
Consortium
Database
Resource
Title
Vladoiu &
Constantinescu (2020)
discord in
education
Conference
proceedings
OTU
IEEE
Proceedings -
RoEduNet IEEE
International
Conference, 2020
Learning during COVID-19
pandemic: Online education
community, based on Discord
Wulanjani (2018)
reference
mining
Conference
proceedings
-
Google
Scholar
English Language and
Literature International
Conference (ELLiC)
Proceedings
Discord application: Turning a
voice chat application for gamers
into a virtual listening class

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Appendix B: Article Characteristic Insights
Purpose
Pop.
Sample
Size
Location
Female
Male
Subject
Reliab.
Valid.
Ind.
Dif.
Study
Length
Study
Type
Design,
Materials/Instruments
To identify student
perceptions of Discord as
a digital learning tool
during the pandemic.
UG
44
Indonesia
-
-
Language
studies
Y
N
N
-
MM
Tech Acceptance Model
(TAM), Theory of Reasoned
Action (TRA).
Qualitative questions and
Likert5
To demonstrate Discord's
potential for effective and
efficient communication
in online learning.
UG,
Educator
20
Peru
10
10
SSH
N
N
N
1 session
Qual.
Case study,
Survey, yes/no responses
Class simulation
To determine student
perceptions of Discord
and if it met the standards
for using software in
learning.
Grad,
Educator
84
France
-
-
Health
sciences
N
N
N
1 term
MM
Anstey & Watson's Rubric for
eLearning Tool Evaluation
(scaled criteria)
To use a modern system
for discourse and
communication.
UG
69
USA
-
-
Computer
tech
N
N
N
1 term
Quant.
Scaled survey (5 points)
To determine student
perceptions of learning
English through Discord.
UG
20
Indonesia
-
-
Language
studies
N
N
N
1 term
Qual.
Intrinsic case study,
yes/no questions with 3
interviews
To explore the application
of Discord in facilitating
EFL in higher education.
UG,
Educator
80
Russia
-
-
Language
studies
Y
Y
Y
1 term
MM
Control and in-person Discord
groups, Pre- and post-test
design, Online testing,
vocabulary test, speech
transcription, questionnaire
(Likert5)

Journal of Digital Life and Learning 2022, Vol. 2, No. 2, 52-66
DOI: 10.51357/jdll.v2i2.205
-66-
Purpose
Pop.
Sample
Size
Location
Female
Male
Subject
Reliab.
Valid.
Ind.
Dif.
Study
Length
Study
Type
Design,
Materials/Instruments
To reflect on various
perspectives of how
Discord affects the learning
experience.
UG,
Grad
226
Romania
-
-
Computer
tech
N
N
Y
2 terms
MM
BSc, MSc teachers, and alumni
Content analysis, questionnaire,
learner reflections.
To explain how Discord
can support listening
classes towards education
4.0.
UG
31
Indonesia
-
-
Language
studies
N
N
N
1 term
Qual.
Case study
Yes/no questionnaire & semi-
structured questionnaire.
AUTHORS
Chris D. Craig is an educator and coach who provides and supports quality lifelong learning experiences through creative but
relevant opportunities. Currently, he is pursuing his Ed.D. at Ontario Tech University. Work in higher education includes roles as a
lecturer, instructor, instructional designer, academic coach, projects coordinator, and microcredential facilitator. Author insights are
grounded in adult education and digital technology studies built on life experiences in art, construction, fitness, and small business.
Chris’s recent joy—and sources of conversation outside of education—include coffee, graphic novels, strength and conditioning, and
random TV or movies. M.Ed., B.A.EdT., A.S.Phys-Ed.
Dr. Robin Kay is the Dean of and a Full Professor in the Faculty of Education at Ontario Tech University. He has published over 160
articles, chapters, and conference papers in pedagogy technology in education. As an educator, Robin has over 25 years of experience
teaching computer science, mathematics, learning and development, and educational technology at the high school, college,
undergraduate, and graduate levels. His research focuses on factors influencing student learning and digital technology, including
wearable tech, web-based learning tools, learning environments, scale development, and BYOD learning. Dr. Kay received his M.A.
in Computer Applications in Education at the University of Toronto and his Ph.D. in Cognitive Science (Educational Psychology) at
the University of Toronto.
Corresponding Author:
Chris D. Craig
christopher.craig@ontariotechu.net