Experimental investigation of behaviour of concrete mixed and cured with Nembe seawater

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Experimental investigation of behaviour of concrete
mixed and cured with Nembe seawater
Uchechi G. Eziefula, Uchenna C. Egbufor, Chioma L. Udoha
Online Publication Date: 30 Dec 2022
URL: http://www.jresm.org/archive/resm2022.531ma0921tn.html
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17515/resm2022.531ma0921tn
Journal Abbreviation: Res. Eng. Struct. Mater.
To cite this article
Eziefula UG, Egbufor UC, Udaha CL. Experimental investigation of behaviour of concrete
mixed and cured with Nembe seawater. Res. Eng. Struct. Mater., 2023; 9(2): 492-502.
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*Corresponding author: george.eziefula@uaes.edu.ng
a orcid.org/0000-0003-1636-6237; b orcid.org/0000-0001-9133-6877; c orcid.org/0000-0002-7928-6106
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17515/resm2022.531ma0921tn
Res. Eng. Struct. Mat. Vol. 9 Iss. 2 (2023) 492-502 493
Technical Note
Experimental investigation of behaviour of concrete mixed and
cured with Nembe seawater
Uchechi G. Eziefula*1,a, Uchenna C. Egbufor2,b, Chioma L. Udoha2,c
1Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Agriculture and Environmental
Sciences, Umuagwo, Nigeria
2Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering Technology, School of Engineering
Technology, Imo State Polytechnic, Omuma, Nigeria
Article Info
Abstract
Article history:
Received 21 Sep 2022
Revised 13 Dec 2022
Accepted 27 Dec 2022
Freshwater is conventionally used to produce concrete, but freshwater scarcity
has become a significant challenge worldwide. The aim of this study is to
experimentally investigate the workability and strength of Portland cement
concrete mixed and cured with Nembe seawater. The initial and final setting
times and slump of fresh concrete mixed with freshwater and seawater were
determined. Four sets of concrete specimens were produced for the compressive
strength tests: concrete cast and cured with freshwater, cast with freshwater and
cured with seawater, cast with seawater and cured with freshwater, and cast and
cured with seawater. The use of seawater for mixing concrete decreased the
initial setting time of the cement paste and the slump of concrete by
approximately 36% and 54%, respectively. Concrete specimens mixed with
seawater and cured with freshwater exhibited the highest compressive
strengths at the 60th and 90th days of curing. Although the concrete mixed with
seawater yielded slightly higher compressive strengths than concrete mixed
with freshwater, the difference between using freshwater and seawater as
mixing and curing water in terms of compressive strength was minimal.
© 2023 MIM Research Group. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Compressive strength;
Concrete;
Freshwater;
Seawater;
Setting time;
Slump
1. Introduction
Concrete is a widely used construction material composed of cement, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate, and water. The demand for concrete structures has increased in recent
decades because of their advantages, such as local availability of constituent materials,
cost-effectiveness, and good durability. Urbanisation and globalisation have contributed to
the rising demand for concrete structures. The increased use of concrete for constructing
buildings and civil engineering structures indicates that more constituent materials are
required to meet the current demand for concrete. Because of the enormous material and
energy resources consumed during concrete production, there is a need to improve the
sustainability of concrete. Sustainable construction aims at utilising recyclable materials
in building new structures, minimising waste generation, and reducing energy and
material consumption. Previous studies on the environmental impacts of concrete mainly
focused on energy and material consumption and carbon dioxide emissions; however, little
is known about its water consumption and the practical measures required to minimise
such consumption [1].
Water is used for mixing concrete components and curing concrete, and it plays a
significant role in determining the strength and durability of concrete. When water is
mixed with cement, a paste that binds the aggregate particles together produces a stiff
mass in a hardened state. Water is also used for curing, a critical process that enhances the

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strength development and durability of concrete. Conventionally, freshwater has been
used to produce concrete, but freshwater scarcity is a significant challenge facing the world
in the 21st century. Although water covers approximately 70% of the earth’s surface, water
scarcity affects every continent [2]. Water stress affects over two billion people globally,
and sub-Saharan Africa has more water-stressed countries than any region [2]. The
concrete industry competes for freshwater with many essential sectors, such as agriculture
and food processing. With the current water scarcity in Nigeria and many other countries,
there is an urgent need to seek alternative water sources for concrete production. The use
of seawater instead of freshwater is justified because the construction industry annually
utilises 16.6 × 109 m3 (16.6 km3) of water globally for concrete production (based on 2012
concrete consumption values) [1]. In some countries (for example, the United Arab
Emirates), most of the water used for concrete production is obtained through seawater
desalination [3], which increases production costs. The use of seawater in concrete is
expected to increase globally as the freshwater supply decreases. Approximately 97% of
the earth’s water is found in the oceans, 2% is frozen freshwater trapped in glaciers and
ice caps, and less than 1% is accessible freshwater [4]. Seawater refers to water in the seas
and oceans, and it is salty. Seawater contains small amounts of salts and smaller amounts
of other substances, including dissolved organic and inorganic materials. The principal
ions in seawater are chloride, sodium, sulphate, calcium, magnesium, and potassium. The
specific amounts of these salts in seawater vary but generally comprise approximately
99% of all sea salts. Sodium chloride is the most abundant salt in seawater, constituting
over 90% of the total salt weight [5]. Freshwater includes water from ponds, lakes,
streams, rivers, ice caps, glaciers, icebergs, and below the soil surface (groundwater).
Freshwater generally contains lower concentrations of dissolved salts and other total
dissolved solids than seawater.
Previous studies have suggested the possibility of using seawater in mixing and curing
cement-based materials. Despite the wide acceptance that seawater is unsuitable for
structural concrete, some structures have been successfully built using seawater concrete
[6]. Recent research indicates no significant adverse effects of seawater on the mechanical
properties of seawater concrete [7], and long-term exposure tests suggest high prospects
of using seawater as a material in reinforced concrete [8]. Mbadike and Elinwa [9] analysed
the effect of saltwater on the compressive and flexural strengths of concrete for different
target strengths. They used freshwater specimens as the control and found that saltwater
reduced the concrete strength by approximately 8%. Osuji and Nwankwo [10] evaluated
the effect of seawater collected from the Escravos area of the Niger Delta on the
compressive strength of concrete. They observed that concrete cast and cured with
seawater exhibited approximately 15% higher 28-day strength than concrete cast with
freshwater. Lim et al. [11] investigated the strength and corrosion behaviours of seawater-
mixed and seawater-cured mortar containing fly ash in various replacement percentages.
They reported that utilising seawater as the mixing water can yield comparable
compressive strength as freshwater, particularly when cured for extended periods. Younis
et al. [6] found that using seawater in concrete initially increased concrete strength up to
the seventh day, and a decrease of approximately 7%–10% was observed for Mix B
compared to those for Mix A after 28 days. Liu et al. [12] found that seawater and sea sand
increased the compressive strength of concrete but decreased the compressive elastic
modulus. Teng et al. [13] reported that the use of seawater and sea-sand slightly increases
the early-age strength of ultra-high performance concrete but slightly decreases the
strength at seven days and above. Vafaei et al. [14] investigated the mechanical properties
of fibre-reinforced seawater sea-sand concrete subjected to elevated temperatures. Choi
et al. [15] assessed the early-age mechanical properties and microstructures of Portland
cement mortars produced with various supplementary cementitious materials exposed to
seawater and found that the effect of seawater exposure was more significant on flexural

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495
strength than compressive strength. Sun et al. [16] investigated the physical degradation
behaviour of cement mortars at three different relative humidity levels based on variations
in the physical appearance, dynamic elastic modulus, and microstructure. Lin et al. [17]
examined the combined effects of expansive agents and glass fibres on the fracture
performance of seawater and sea-sand concrete and found that the optimal expansive
agent content was 3%–6%, which increased with increasing glass fibre content. Bachtiar
et al. [18] studied the effect of seawater as a curing/mixing constituent on high-
performance concrete and observed that seawater-treated concrete contained increased
hydration components (tobermorite and ettringite).
Concrete is reinforced with steel bars to improve its tensile resistance to applied loads. A
significant concern in using seawater for mixing and curing concrete is the corrosion of
steel reinforcement bars in structural concrete. The significant chloride ion concentration
of seawater, which can range from 14,000 to 34,000 ppm [19], accelerates the corrosion
process in concrete. Hence, preparing structural concrete with seawater is typically
discouraged if conventional steel reinforcement is applied. Nonetheless, unreinforced
concrete or concrete reinforced with non-corrosive reinforcement, such as fibre-
reinforced polymers, can be mixed with seawater if potable water is scarce [20]. This is
because not all types of concrete require reinforcement, depending on the intended
application. The application of seawater for mixing concrete constituents might affect the
durability of plain and reinforced concrete; however, understanding the durability of
seawater-mixed concrete is a critical factor limiting its widespread adoption, and further
research is required for clarification [21].
The justification for research on seawater in concrete stems from the fact that large
volumes of freshwater are used for cement-based construction each year, and freshwater
is becoming a relatively scarce resource. Some coastal areas with limited freshwater
supply are abundantly surrounded by seawater. With the current water supply shortage
in Nigeria and other parts of the world, there is a need to further explore seawater as an
alternative water source for concrete production. The aim of this study is to experimentally
investigate the workability and strength of Portland cement concrete mixed and cured
with Nembe seawater. Nembe seawater was used for mixing and curing concrete, with the
concrete specimens mixed with and cured in freshwater adopted as the control.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
Cement: Grade 42.5 Portland–limestone cement manufactured according to NIS 444-
1:2003 [22] specifications was purchased from a cement depot in Owerri, Imo State,
Nigeria. The properties of the cement provided by the manufacturer are listed in Table 1.
Aggregates: Clean river sand dredged from Otammiri River in Ihiagwa, Owerri West Local
Government Area, Imo State, was used as the fine aggregate. Crushed granite of 20 mm
nominal size processed at a quarry plant in Ishiagu, Ebonyi State, Nigeria, was used as the
coarse aggregate.
Water: Two sets of water were used for mixing the concrete ingredients and curing the
hardened concrete samples. Freshwater was obtained from a borehole tap at the Structural
Engineering Laboratory of the Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of
Technology, Owerri. The seawater was obtained from Nembe waterside, a water
transportation route between Port Harcourt in Rivers State and the Nembe Kingdom in
Bayelsa State. The seawater was temporarily stored in air-tight plastic containers and
transported to the laboratory.

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Table 1. Properties of Portland–limestone cement
Property
Value
Fineness
2%
Specific gravity
3.1
Density
1,440 kg/m3
Initial setting time
120 min
Final setting time
300 min
2.2 Methods
2.2.1 Materials
Before the constituent materials were utilised, they were subjected to preliminary
characterisation tests. The cement was in a dry state and free from lumps. The fine
aggregate was free from deleterious substances and had a specific gravity of 2.63, fineness
modulus of 2.92, water absorption of 1.6%, and bulk density of 1570 kg/m3. The coarse
aggregate had the following physical and mechanical properties: fineness modulus = 4.15,
specific gravity = 2.73, water absorption = 1.3%, bulk density = 1520 kg/m3, aggregate
impact value = 25%, and Los Angeles abrasion value = 12%. The particle size distribution
curves of the fine and coarse aggregates are shown in Figure 1. The freshwater and
seawater were subjected to physiochemical tests to determine their physical and chemical
compositions. Table 2 lists the physiochemical properties of the freshwater and seawater
samples.
Fig. 1 Particle size distribution curves of river sand and crushed granite
The hardened concrete specimens were denoted by two letters, ‘F’ and ‘S’, representing
freshwater and seawater, respectively. Each specimen was identified with two letters, such
that the first letter indicated the mixing water, whereas the second letter indicated the
curing water. For example, ‘FS’ represented a concrete specimen cast with freshwater and
cured with seawater. Four sets of hardened concrete were produced, as listed in Table 3.
0
20
40
60
80
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Percent passing
Particle size (mm)
River sand Crushed granite

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Table 2. Physiochemical properties of freshwater and seawater samples
Test
Freshwater
Seawater
pH
7.2
7.9
Electrical conductivity
1,053 micro s/cm
57.9 micro s/cm
Chloride
230 mg/L
19,352 mg/L
Sulphate
110 mg/L
2,649 mg/L
Nitrate
-
-
Calcium
63 mg/L
412 mg/L
Magnesium
28 mg/L
1,272 mg/L
Sodium
-
10,556 mg/L
Potassium
-
880 mg/L
Iron
-
0.14 mg/L
Chromium
-
0.03 mg/L
Phosphate
-
1.10 mg/L
Acidity
-
-
Alkalinity
-
0.8 mg/L
Salinity
-
35.7 mg/L
Total dissolved solids
1,500 mg/L
34,482 mg/L
Total suspended solids
-
-
Odour
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
Hardness
-
20.90 mg/L
Table 3. Details of concrete specimens
Notation
Meaning
FF
Concrete mixed and cured with freshwater
FS
Concrete mixed with freshwater and cured with seawater
SF
Concrete mixed with seawater and cured with freshwater
SS
Concrete mixed and cured with seawater
2.2.3 Tests
The setting times and slump of the fresh concrete and the compressive strength of the
hardened concrete were determined. The slump of the fresh concrete was evaluated
according to BS EN 12350-2:2009 [27], and the compressive strengths of the hardened
concrete cubes were measured according to BS EN 12350-3:2009 [28]. The values
reported in this paper were obtained as the mean of three measured values. Compressive
strength is typically investigated in experimental studies because its test is relatively easy
to perform, and the obtained results fairly represent an estimated measure of other
mechanical properties, such as flexural strength and splitting tensile strength.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Properties of Constituent Materials
The specific gravity of the river sand was within the range used for normal fine aggregate.
The fineness modulus of the river sand confirms that the sizes of the fine aggregate
particles lie between medium and coarse sands; thus, the river sand is suitable for

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manufacturing normal-strength concrete. The aggregate impact and Los Angeles abrasion
values of the coarse aggregate satisfied the requirements for manufacturing normal-
strength concrete. According to Shetty [29], the aggregate impact value and Los Angeles
abrasion value should not exceed 30% for wearing-surface concrete and 45% and 50%,
respectively, for non-wearing-surface concrete.
The seawater contained significantly high amounts of chloride and sulphate ions, and
sodium, magnesium, potassium, and calcium are the main constituent elements detected
in the seawater. The amounts of these ions and elements in the seawater were significantly
higher than those in the freshwater. Moreover, the seawater contained significantly higher
amounts of total dissolved solids than the freshwater (Table 2). The chloride content of the
seawater used in this study is within the typical range for seawater reported in the
literature [19]. High contents of chloride and sulphate ions affect the pH of water, which
significantly impacts the strength development of concrete [30]. Water with a pH ranging
between 6.0 and 8.0 has no significant effect on the compressive strength of concrete
[31,32]. The pH values of both water types are somewhat comparable, and the pH of
Nembe seawater (7.9) is within the range obtained for different seawaters (7.4–8.4) [33].
Chemical reactions between seawater and cement occur during the diffusion of sulphate
and chloride ions in the seawater in concrete. Generally, the chemical reactions of seawater
on concrete are generated by sulphate attacks, and crystallisation is the primary attacking
mode [34]. Sodium, potassium, and magnesium sulphates (Na2SO4, K2SO4, and MgSO4)
present in seawater may induce sulphate attacks in concrete because they can initially
react with calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] present in the set cement formed via hydration of
dicalcium silicate (C2S) and tricalcium silicate (C3S). The sulphate attacks eventually lead
to the formation of gypsum. The chemical reaction of the cement paste with the high-
chloride content of seawater is generally slight [34]. A possible chemical reaction between
seawater and cement is as follows [35].
3Ca(OH)2 + 3Na2SO4 → 3CaSO4 + 6NaOH
(1)
CaCl2 + 2NaOH → Ca(OH)2 + 2NaCl
(2)
3.2 Setting Time and Slump
The setting time and slump values of the concrete samples mixed with freshwater and
seawater are listed in Table 4. The initial setting time of the concrete specimen mixed with
freshwater was significantly longer than that mixed with seawater. Compared with
freshwater, the use of seawater in Portland-cement concrete decreased the initial setting
time of cement by approximately 36% (Table 4). The behaviour is attributed to the high
concentration of chloride ions in seawater. The sodium hydroxide produced during the
formation of gypsum reacts with salts in the seawater (for example, calcium chloride),
leading to the formation of sodium chloride and additional calcium hydroxide (Eq. (2)).
These chlorides and chloride ions accelerate the hydration of C3S pastes, shortening the
initial setting time of the seawater-mixed concrete (Table 4). The reduced initial setting
time may necessitate applying appropriate retarding admixtures when the rapid setting is
undesirable. However, the final setting times of the specimens mixed with freshwater and
seawater were approximately equal.
The slump of fresh concrete mixed with freshwater was higher than that of seawater;
seawater decreased the slump by approximately 54%. Thus, the concrete produced with
seawater was less workable and more viscous than that with freshwater. The total
dissolved solids and possible suspended particles in the seawater might have likely
increased the seawater viscosity (compared to the freshwater viscosity) and contributed

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to the decreased slump. Another probable reason for the reduced slump of the seawater
concrete sample is the accelerated cement hydration owing to the presence of chloride and
sulphate ions in the seawater.
Table 4. Setting times and slump values of fresh concrete
Test
CFW
CSW
Initial setting time (min)
88
56
Final setting time (min)
296
299
Slump (mm)
79
36
CFW = Concrete mixed with freshwater;
CSW = Concrete mixed with seawater
Chloride ions react with sodium hydroxide to produce additional calcium hydroxide,
inducing a faster setting and quicker fluidity loss. For the adopted water–cement ratio, the
fresh concrete samples containing freshwater and seawater exhibited medium
workability, as their slump values ranged between 25 and 100 mm [36]. Superplasticisers
may be added to concrete mixed with seawater to maintain an appreciable consistency
level and, thus, improve the workability of the concrete mixture.
3.3 Compressive Strength
The compressive strengths of the test specimens cured in freshwater and seawater up to
the 90th day were obtained (Figure 2). The different casting and curing conditions were
analysed by comparing the parameters with the control condition, that is, the FF
specimens. The rates of increase in the compressive strength of concrete specimens mixed
and cured with freshwater and seawater were similar; that is, the compressive strength
increased with curing age, irrespective of mixing and curing (Figure 2). The strength
development rates were high within the first few days and decreased at later curing ages.
Fig. 2 Compressive strength values for FF, FS, SF, and SS specimens
On the 7th day, the FS specimens had the highest compressive strength than those of the
SF, FS, and FF specimens; this trend was also observed on the 14th day. The seawater-mixed
concrete underwent an earlier gain in compressive strength before 28 days than the
freshwater-mixed concrete. This strength increment might be caused by the improved,
densified microstructure of concrete owing to accelerated hydration in the presence of
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
714 21 28 60 90
Compressive strength (MPa)
Curing age (days)
FF FS SF SS

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chloride ions. The FF specimens had lower compressive strength values than the FS
specimens up to the 21st day, but from the 28th day, they exhibited higher strengths than
the FS specimens. In addition, the SF specimens had higher compressive strength values
than the FS specimens. Moreover, the FS specimens had the lowest compressive strength
comparatively at the later stages. The low strength of the FS specimens could be caused by
a lack of adequate hydration, which may be attributed to the thin layer of minerals covering
the cement paste [11]. These minerals might have limited moisture penetration in the
specimen essential for continuous hydration. By the 90th day, no significant differences
between the compressive strength values for specimens subjected to different mixing and
curing conditions were observed. Hence, the hydration rates of the FF and SS specimens
decreased by then. The relative decrease in the rate of compressive strength gain of the SF
and SS specimens after the 28th day may be attributed to the crystallisation of salt in the
seawater [34].
4. Conclusions
In this study, the behaviour of concrete mixed and cured with Nembe seawater was
investigated. The behaviour of concrete mixed and/or cured with seawater is somewhat
linked to the chemical reactions between seawater and cement in concrete. Seawater
induces the formation of gypsum and the accelerated hydration of C3S pastes, leading to
the formation of chloride and sulphate salts. The use of seawater for mixing concrete
shortened the initial setting time of the cement paste and reduced the slump of the
concrete. Generally, the concrete specimens mixed and cured in fresh water at the earlier
curing ages (7, 14, and 21 days) had lower compressive strengths than specimens mixed
and cured in seawater. Among the four groups of concrete experimentally analysed in this
study, concrete specimens mixed and cured with seawater exhibited the highest
compressive strengths up to the 28th day. However, concrete specimens mixed with
seawater and cured with freshwater exhibited the highest compressive strengths at the
60th and 90th days of curing. From approximately the 60th day of curing, seawater curing
negatively influenced the compressive strength of the concrete. Although the concrete
specimens mixed with seawater yielded slightly higher compressive strength values than
concrete specimens mixed with freshwater, the difference between using freshwater and
seawater as mixing and curing water in terms of compressive strength is minimal.
The use of seawater for casting and curing concrete may be necessitated at construction
sites close to the sea where portable freshwater is unavailable or inaccessible. Plain
concrete may be mixed with seawater in locations where potable water is scarce. Such
concrete may be applied to construction cases where unreinforced concrete is acceptable,
such as concrete pavements and footpaths. However, adequate measures must be adopted
when using seawater in producing reinforced concrete to prevent or minimize corrosion,
such as painting or coating the reinforcement bars or using corrosion-resistant
reinforcements (for example, fibre-reinforced polymers). Further studies should be
conducted to clarify the influence of seawater on concrete properties, such as the long-
term strength properties of concrete mixed or cured with seawater. In addition, the
durability and microstructural characteristics of seawater concrete should be investigated
in detail.
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