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A turisztikai fogyasztók magatartásának vizsgálata a Covid19-pandémia első hullámának árnyékában
Abstract
2020 tavaszán a koronavírus-világjárvány korábban sosem látott társadalmi változást okozott. A korábban megszokott szabad mozgás és az utazási lehetőség korlátozásra került, mert egy újfajta veszéllyel kellett megküzdenie az államoknak és a lakosságnak. Sokak a nyári utazásukat a tavaszi időszakban foglalják le, véglegesítik, de a 2020-as tavaszi időszakot egészen a június elején történő nyitásig a teljes bizonytalanság jellemezte. A kutatás célja az volt, hogy feltárja: a Covid19-pandémia első hulláma milyen hatást gyakorolt a magyar társadalom veszélyérzetére a 2020. évi nyaralásuk tervezésével és megvalósításával kapcsolatosan. Ehhez kvalitatív adatgyűjtés végeztünk, 111 fő megkérdezésével, strukturált interjúk formájában. Az adatokat háromszintű dimenzióalkotással, illetve magnitudinális kódolással kvantifikáltan is feldolgoztuk. Az eredmények alapján megállapítható volt, hogy a koronavírushoz közvetlenül kapcsolódó egészségügyi és mentális félelmek, illetve a közvetetten kapcsolódó teljesítménybeli és pénzügyi kockázatészlelések voltak a leginkább dominánsak a veszélyek említése során. Az információgyűjtés mellett az úti cél kiválasztása jelentette a fő kockázatcsökkentési eszközt, azonban ez nem jelentette azt, hogy a belföldi utazók teljes mértékben biztonságban érezték magukat vagy kevésbé érezték magukat veszélyben, mint azok, akik külföldre utaztak. Az eredményeink között mind a társadalomtudomány akadémiai szereplői, mind a gyakorlati szereplők találhatnak hasznosítható következtetéseket.
... A valószínűség elhanyagolásának nevezett torzítás (Slovic & Peters, 2006) pedig arra készteti az utazókat, hogy túlbecsüljék a kis valószínűséggel bekövetkező negatív események -például a terror-vagy a cápatámadás -kockázatát, és alábecsüljék a nagyobb valószínűséggel bekövetkező hétköznapi események -például az influenza vagy a napon való leégés -kockázatát (Gaissmaier & Gigerenzer, 2012). További probléma lehet, hogy a turisták hajlamosak a magukkal kapcsolatos lehetséges negatív kimenetek számát korlátozni a mérlegelés során (Kökény & Kenesei, 2022b). ...
... Ezen kívül szerepel-tek még a demográfiai jellemzőket vizsgáló kérdések is. Az interjúk egy előre pontosan meghatározott, merev és jól fókuszált struktúrát követtek, ezzel minimalizáltuk a különböző alanyoktól kapott válaszokban fellelhető esetleges torzítás lehetőségét (Corley & Goia, 2004;Kökény & Kenesei, 2022b). ...
... Ez azért fontos, mivel az incentív utak több mint 90%-a távoli, repülőgéppel megközelíthető helyen történik a desztinációk jellegéből adódóan. E félelmek kapcsolódnak leginkább a szabadidős céllal utazók kockázatészleléseihez is (Adam, 2015;Lee et al., 2019;Kökény & Kenesei, 2022a;2022b). ...
Az incentív utazásokat a vállalkozások a munkavállalóik ösztönzésére alkalmazzák, a témakör biztonsággal való kapcsolata kutatási résnek tekinthető. Jelen tanulmány célja az incentív utazásokon részt vevő munkavállalók kockázatészlelésének és kockázatcsökkentési stratégiáinak vizsgálata. A szerzők a kvalitatív kutatás során 43 olyan munkavállalót kérdeztek meg, akik 2017-2021 között utaztak incentív turisztikai célból. A vizsgálat során az utazásokon átélt veszélyeket, illetve a biztonságot garantáló elemek feltárását végezték el. Az incentív utazásokkal kapcsolatos kockázatészlelés tárgykörében hat másodrendű faktort tártak fel: a közbiztonság hiányából, az egészségi állapotból, a problémás teljesítményből, az információhiányból, a repüléssel és az utazással kapcsolatos félelmekből, valamint az incentív utazás jellegéből adódó aggodalmakat. A kutatás alapján meghatároztak három kockázatcsökkentő faktort: a bizalmat a munkaadóban, a helyszíni szolgáltatókban, valamint az önbizalmat és a magabiztosságot. Több gyakorlati javaslatot fogalmaztak meg: az incentív utazások előkészítésébe érdemes tapasztalt kollégákat bevonni, egy tájékoztató keretében felkészíteni az utazókat, valamint feladat a munkavállalók önbizalmának növelése.
Tudjuk, hogy a fogyasztói döntések szempontjai, illetve meghozataluk módjai időről időre változnak, ezért a döntéshozóknak és a kutatóknak is újabb és újabb kérdéseket kell megvizsgálniuk, hogy releváns megállapításokat tehessenek. Bár mindig is jelen volt a desztinációválasztásban, a biztonság kérdésköre nem túl régen jelent meg fokozottabb jelentőséggel a döntési szempontok között. Azért nyert ma más jelentőséget ez a kérdéskör, mert napjainkban a turizmussal egyre több olyan térség érhető el a szélesebb célközönség számára is, amelyek esetében relevánssá válik a biztonság vizsgálata, akár elsődleges szempontként kezelve azt. A tömegturizmus kedvelői nem vágynak kockázatra, sokkal inkább a kiszámíthatóságot preferálják, így számukra alapvető a biztonság. Tudjuk, hogy a vásárlási döntések komplexek, és nem csupán egyetlen tényező határozza meg a kimenetet, mégis célszerű időnként egy összetevőre koncentrálva feltenni az arra vonatkozó kérdéseket. Tanulmányunkban azt vizsgáljuk, mennyiben határozzák meg a magyar lakosság döntéseit a biztonság különböző területei, milyen szegmensek esetében játszanak kiemelt szerepet, és milyen arányú csoportok számára válnak sokadlagos kérdéssé. Munkánk alapja egy 2018-ban végzett országos, a felnőtt 15-74 éves lakosságra reprezentatív online megkérdezés adatbázisa. Ennek elemzésével jutunk eredményekhez.
Jelen kutatásban azt elemezzük, hogyan válaszoltak magyarországi turisztikai szolgáltatók a koronavírus-járvány első hullámára 2020 tavaszán.
A tanulmány először a turizmus krízishelyzeteit sorolja fel, külön kitérve az egészségügyi válságok bemutatására; majd szekunder kutatások segítségével összefoglalja, milyen hatással volt a magyar turisztikai szektorra a járvány.
A tanulmány második része empirikus kutatáson alapul: 2020 április-májusában adatokat gyűjtöttünk a turizmus-szektor magyarországi szereplőitől annak érdekében, hogy pontosabban fel tudjuk térképezni a válsághelyzetre – a járványra – való azonnali reakcióikat.
Az elemzett adatok alapján rámutatunk, hogy a szolgáltatók kettős krízishelyzettel találták szemben magukat: egyrészt egy egészségügyi válságra kellett reagálniuk, másrészt ez a krízishelyzet egy gazdasági-pénzügyi válságot is okozott. Az egészségügyi és a gazdasági-pénzügyi krízishelyzet nem párhuzamosan zajlott: míg előbbinek öt, utóbbinak csak három szakasza volt. Mint rámutatunk, a szolgáltatók legnagyobb kihívása ezen kettős, részben különböző szakaszokban levő krízishelyzetek párhuzamos menedzselése volt.
A Covid19-világjárvány miatti szigorú korlátozások új, alternatív programok kialakítására kényszerítették rá az egyes turisztikai szolgáltatásokat. Kutatásunkban azt vizsgáltuk, hogy milyen, a fogyasztókra gyakorolt hatásokat lehet megfigyelni egy újfajta szolgáltatás esetében. Ez a szolgáltatás a „Flight to nowhere” nevet viselte, amely Magyarország határain belüli, utasszállító repülőgéppel történő légi közlekedést jelentett. Kutatásunkban a programon részt vett 130 fő kérdőíves megkérdezésével készítettünk elemzést arra vonatkozóan, hogy a résztvevők milyen élményeket éltek át a fogyasztás során, illetve hogyan értékelték a szolgáltatás teljesítményét és ajánlanák-e a programot. Vizsgáltuk még a Covid19-pandémia okozta bezártsággal kapcsolatos mentális problémák kapcsolódási pontjait is. Az eredmények azt mutatják, hogy a válaszadók jellemzően esztétikai és eszképista jellegű élményeket éltek át. Az élmény átélésének mértéke növelte a szolgáltatás teljesítményének magasabb színvonalú megítélését és a továbbajánlási szándékot. A negatív irányú érzelmek esetében, amelyek az élet folytonosságának érzetét mérték, az eszképizmus jellegű élmények megélése kismértékben enyhíteni tudta a bezártság okozta hátrányokat.
A szolidaritást meghatározó értelmezések és értékelések alapvetően hallgatólagos háttértudásként adottak. Válságok idején ugyanakkor vitatottá és megvitathatóvá válnak. A koronavírus járvány ebben az értelemben kivételes vizsgálati lehetőség. Ahogy az érdemesség, társadalmi felelősség, segítségnyújtással és -kapással kapcsolatos értelmezések és stratégiák mozgásba lendülnek, egyúttal a hétköznapi cselekvők számára is reflektálttá válnak. Ezek feltérképezése lehetőséget teremt a szolidaritás mechanizmusait meghatározó mezőviszonyok, habitusok és illúziók (Bourdieu 2002) azonosítására, vagyis azoknak a szimbolikus és materiális küzdelmeknek a leírására, melyek meghatározzák a társadalmi segítségnyújtás kereteit. A járvány első hullámát követően készített online, reprezentatív kérdőíves kutatásunkban (n=800) arra tettünk kísérletet, hogy a privát szférán és a nyilvánosságon belüli materiális és szimbolikus segítési és segítségkapási folyamatokról átfogó képet alkossunk. Klaszteranalízis segítségével ideáltipikus mezőpozíciókat dolgoztunk ki. Ezek strukturális és attitűd szerinti elemzése alapján a járvány által mozgásba lendített szolidaritási mező dinamikáit értelmeztük.
Purpose
This study aims to analyse the factors that caused Indian tourists to avoid travelling abroad because of the recent outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020. It will also identify the relationship between the perceived risk of travelling and the probability of travel evading in India owing to COVID-19.
Design/methodology/approach
This study used an online structured questionnaire to collect data from Indian tourists to study six independent variables linked with their behavioural intentions (travel evading). The health belief model was used to examine tourist behaviour.
Findings
The results revealed a positive correlation between the perceived risk associated with COVID-19 and travel avoidance. Familiarity with COVID-19 was positively correlated with travel evading behaviours.
Practical implications
This study will assist stakeholders from around the world to adequately identify and thoroughly plan for logistical problems associated with travel such as travel insurance and pre-travel booking expenses to reduce travel evading behaviour and promote travel.
Originality/value
While a few studies have been conducted related to pandemics (Ebola, MERS-CoV, SARS), there is a paucity of literature that examines the factors which influence tourists’ travel evading behaviour owing to COVID-19. Moreover, most of the previous literature on pandemics is concentrated on American and European countries, whereas studies on the Indian sub-continent are very scarce. This study will fill this gap and will identify the factors which influence tourists in India to evade travel in response to COVID-19.
This study examines the relationship between perceived impacts of COVID-19, risk perceptions, emotions, and travel intentions within selected higher education institutions of the Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR). The paper argues that hospitality and tourism recovery strategies should focus on specific internal market segments by understanding their cognitive appraisal of the current situation, their emotional state, and possible responses to future travel. Through an online survey, data were gathered using convenience sampling of 412 respondents comprising students and workers of three Macau Higher Educational Institutions – which form a segment of Macau’s domestic tourism market. The results indicate that a high perceived risk of travelling during COVID-19 has increased negative emotions and reduced intentions to travel. Nonetheless, most students and workers of these institutions in Macau do not feel vulnerable to the virus due to the stringent health and policy measures in place. As government strict measures ‘protect’ internal customers within the city but ‘paralyse’ travel outside the city, promoting domestic travel becomes a practical way to reset tourism but would require understanding the perceptions and risk concerns of specific market segments.
This paper investigates the influence of governance, media coverage, crisis severity, former travel practice, and Covid-19 incidences on the perceived risk related to travel and tourism by the pandemic's time and cross-countries.
We collected the data from a sample of 1845 individuals from more than twelve countries and four continents representing quarantined and most impacted areas in the world in March and April 2020. A multilevel linear model was applied to predict the perceived risk across countries as a level 2 research unit.
The finding confirms the clustering in the data with media coverage, governance, and crisis growth affecting the outcome. There are cross-level interaction effects, as the growth rate of the pandemic per country and media coverage impact tourists' perception of risk. Finally, there are lower-level direct effects, with lower-level variables affecting tourists' perceived risks.
This research pinpointed the impacts of predictors, concerning the countries' level, during the crisis phase on the perceived risk. Therefore, it gives insights to professional bodies on future concerns to be considered by the recovery phase.
The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of Serbian tourists' risk perception on their intentions to travel during the COVID-19 pandemic with the control of socio-demographic characteristics. This research was conducted in the period from 18 May until 24 May 2020, on a sample of 348 respondents, through an online questionnaire. The principal component analysis identified five categories of the perceived risk affecting travel intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic: the health risk, the psychological risk, the financial risk, the destination risk and the travel risk. Logistic regression was used to examine the way in which risk perception affects the intentions and destinations of travel during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research findings indicate that the risk perception (health, psychological, financial and destination risks) among Serbian tourists negatively affects their travel intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic. In terms of travel destinations, the results indicate that the travel risk negatively affects travel abroad, while the health risk, being on the verge of significance, proved to be a predictor of travel abroad during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the variable of monthly income of the respondents was singled out as a significant predictor of travel abroad during the pandemic. Finally, the implications, limitations and recommendations for future research are presented in the paper.
This research investigates the influence of Media Coverage and the perceived risks related to travel and tourism by the pandemic's time on the odds of potential outbound tourists' level of awareness. The data of 1845 individuals nested from more than 12 countries and 4 continents representing quarantined and most impacted areas in the world during the crisis phase. A multilevel model with a categorical dichotomous outcome was applied. The findings confirm that media have preeminent control on accentuating potential travellers' awareness during a crisis as the primary source of information. Besides, the physical perceived risk influences the likelihood to fall in the group of aware individuals. The research gives insights and evidence to practitioners of the tourism industry in destinations to plan and organize better with governmental authorities and provide ethical, responsible, and accurate information about the real situation and the health system's responses through their communication and information efforts during the recovery phase.
The paper examines which travel risks are more salient for tourists' destination choice. An integrated travel-decision risk typology with survey data from 835 potential tourists is developed and tested. Specifically, this paper explores the interplay of risk types, tourist attributes and destination characteristics. It examines if travel risks linked to nature, health, terrorism, criminality, political instability are more salient for tourists' destination choice, and how risk perceptions influence tourists in the key stages of the decision-making process. Results offer an important baseline for future studies in the post-COVID-19 phase. First, the integrated travel-decision risk typology distinguishes between sociodemographic, psychological and travel-related factors. It shows that past travel experience shapes risk perceptions and impacts tourists’ future destination choice. Second, the study reveals that natural hazards are not the key barrier in the early decision-making stage of the destination choice process. Third, tourist segments that are resilient to certain risks are identified. This paper concludes with implications for the tourism practice with recommendations on how to manage travel risk and decision-making behaviours in the post-COVID-19 phase.
The study examined the relationship between perception of COVID-19, travel risk perception and travel behaviour among travellers in the DACH region (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) – an important tourism market and, after Italy, the second region in Europe that was impacted by COVID-19. Data were collected at two points of time: the sample of the study in Period 1 (n = 1158) was collected at a critical point in time in the beginning of March 2020, when Italy was already massively affected by COVID-19; the sample of the study in Period 2 (n = 212) was collected two weeks later, when Europe has seen immense impacts and COVID-19 was declared a pandemic. Cluster analysis was performed and defined three unique clusters in both periods with distinctive characteristics. In addition, results revealed a significant increase in risk perception of COVID-19, travel risk perception and travel behaviour over a short period of time.
Research and clinical observations suggest that during times of pandemic many people exhibit stress- or anxiety-related psychopathology that include fear of becoming infected, fear of coming into contact with possibly contaminated objects or surfaces, fear of foreigners who might be carrying infection (i.e., disease-related xenophobia), fear of the socio-economic consequences of the pandemic, compulsive checking and reassurance-seeking regarding possible pandemic-related threats, and traumatic stress symptoms about the pandemic (e.g., nightmares, intrusive thoughts). We developed the 36-item COVID Stress Scales (CSS) to measure these features, as they pertain to COVID-19. The CSS were developed to better understand and assess COVID-19-related psychopathology. The scales were intentionally designed so they could be readily adapted for future pandemics. The CSS were developed and initially validated in population-representative samples from Canada (N = 3,479) and the United States (N = 3,375). A stable 5-factor solution was identified, corresponding to scales assessing COVID-related stress and anxiety symptoms: (1) Danger and contamination fears, (2) fears about economic consequences, (3) xenophobia, (4) compulsive checking, and (5) traumatic stress symptoms about COVID-19. The scales performed well on various indices of reliability and validity. The scales were intercorrelated, providing evidence of a COVID Stress Syndrome. The scales offer promise as tools for better understanding the psychopathology associated with COVID-19 and for identifying people in need of mental health services.
Background
The emergence of the COVID-19 and its consequences has led to fears, worries, and anxiety among individuals worldwide. The present study developed the Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S) to complement the clinical efforts in preventing the spread and treating of COVID-19 cases.Methods
The sample comprised 717 Iranian participants. The items of the FCV-19S were constructed based on extensive review of existing scales on fears, expert evaluations, and participant interviews. Several psychometric tests were conducted to ascertain its reliability and validity properties.ResultsAfter panel review and corrected item-total correlation testing, seven items with acceptable corrected item-total correlation (0.47 to 0.56) were retained and further confirmed by significant and strong factor loadings (0.66 to 0.74). Also, other properties evaluated using both classical test theory and Rasch model were satisfactory on the seven-item scale. More specifically, reliability values such as internal consistency (α = .82) and test–retest reliability (ICC = .72) were acceptable. Concurrent validity was supported by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (with depression, r = 0.425 and anxiety, r = 0.511) and the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Scale (with perceived infectability, r = 0.483 and germ aversion, r = 0.459).Conclusion
The Fear of COVID-19 Scale, a seven-item scale, has robust psychometric properties. It is reliable and valid in assessing fear of COVID-19 among the general population and will also be useful in allaying COVID-19 fears among individuals.
In recent years, people pay more and more attention to travel safety and travel risks. Tourism risk perception is a quantitative assessment of tourism security. Destination risk perception of tourists directly affects tourists purchase intention. The asymmetry of the objective existence of tourist safety information and the subjective perception of tourists determines that tourists are extremely sensitive to travel risks. The inevitability of tourism risks requests that tourists have a certain level knowledge of destination environment. This study aimed to systematically review existing researches of tourism risk perception. The study shows: (1) Tourism risk perception includes three views, which were subjective feelings, objective evaluation and the cognition of exceeding the threshold portion of the negative consequences or negative impact that may occur during travel. (2) The subjective factors of tourism risk perception were the physical characteristics and psychological processes. The objective factors include physical risk, economic risk, equipment risk, social risk, psychological risk, time risk and opportunity loss. (3) The multi-dimensional model and the two-factor model were the two main types of risk perception assessment models. The survey (with interviews) and mathematical statistical analysis were the main research methods. Besides, this article highlights three points. (1) There is a certain critical value for travel risk perception of tourists; (2) cognitive ability is an important factor affecting the level of tourists objective risk perception; and (3) quantitative assessment of tourism risk perception level is helpful to the tourism decision making and destination management.
We report on the findings of an inductive, interpretive case study of organizational identity change in the spin-off of a Fortune 100 company's top-performing organizational unit into an independent organization. We examined the processes by which the labels and meanings associated with the organization's identity underwent changes during and after the spin-off, as well as how the organization responded to these changes. The emergent model of identity change revolved around a collective state of identity ambiguity, the details of which provide insight into processes whereby organizational identity change can occur. Additionally, our findings revealed previously unreported aspects of organizational change, including organization members' collective experience of “change overload” and the presence of temporal identity discrepancies in the emergence of the identity ambiguity.
Theoretically, in the tourism context this study introduced a new concept of non-pharmaceutical intervention (NPI) for influenza, and tested the impact of NPI on the behavioral intention of potential international tourists. This study also extended the model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) by incorporating the new concepts of NPI, and the perception of 2009 H1N1. The model found that desire, perceived behavioral control, frequency of past behavior, and non-pharmaceutical interventions predicted tourists’ intention but perceptions of 2009 H1N1 had nil effect on desire and intention. Personal non-pharmaceutical interventions were theorized as adaptive behavior of tourists intending to travel during a pandemic which should be supported by tourism operators on a system-wide basis. Practically, this study dealt with the issue of influenza 2009 H1N1 with the study findings and implications providing government agencies, tourism marketers, policy-makers, transport systems, and hospitality services with important suggestions for NPI and international tourism during pandemics.
Destination image is commonly accepted as an important aspect in successful tourism development and destination marketing due to its impact on both supply- and demand-side aspects of marketing. Despite the ample amount of literature, a comprehensive conceptualization of destination image comprising its intricate relationships with several other factors on the supply and demand sides of the market has yet to emerge. In this study, a large body of literature on destination image and related concepts is reviewed and a comprehensive conceptualization of destination image is modeled. It was concluded that there are still many facets of this complex construct yet to be investigated empirically.
A COVID-19 járvány lecsengésével egyidejűleg a nemzetközi utazások is elkezdődnek majd. Azonban sem az utazás megszokott formái, sem az utazók utazással kapcsolatos attitűdjei nem lesznek ugyanazok, mint járvány előtt. Mivel mindenkinek a biztonságos utazás az érdeke, a járványos megbetegedések prevenciója elsődleges fontosságúvá válik. Ennek egyetlen módja az utazás előtti egészségügyi felkészítés. Az orvosi tanácsadással az utazással összefüggő betegségek nagy része megelőzhető. A tanácsadás a COVID járvány után ki kell, hogy terjedjen a vírusfertőzés megelőzésének módjaira, illetve a biztonsági rendszabályok ismertetésére is. Azonban a biztonságos utazás és utaztatás biztosítása nem csak orvosi feladat. A megelőző intézkedések az utazási iparág minden szereplőjének ismeretanyagát kell, hogy képezzék. Ezeket az új ismereteket foglalja össze a tanulmány. = International travel will resume in parallel to the decline of COVID-19 pandemic. However, neither travel practices nor travellers’ attitudes will be the same as before. Travel safety is in the common interest of both travellers and of the actors in the travel business, and so the prevention of travelrelated illnesses and communicable diseases is of fundamental importance. The only way to manage this is appropriate pre-travel advice for travellers. Withh the help of pre-travel counselling, the majority of medical problems could be prevented. The post-covid way of pre-travel advice must include the prevention of COVID infection, as well as other safety measures. At the same time, the task of ensuring safe travel is not exclusively medical business. All safety and preventive measures must be known and must be implemented by all participants in the travel business. This article offers a brief summary of these issues.
Applying protection motivation theory, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of social media on customer brand engagement (CBE) and their consequent impact on co-creation and revisit intention in pandemic environment. This study also examines the moderation impact of fear of COVID-19 and perceived risk on associations between social media, CBE, and co-creation/revisit intention, thus further contributing to existing literature. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was adopted to examine the data collected from key tourism-destinations in Jammu/Kashmir. The findings propose that social media positively and significantly effects the CBE, which subsequently affects co-creation and revisit intention in COVID-19 times. Second, findings found that CBE's positive impact on co-creation and revisit intention. Third, findings indicated the social media's indirect effect on co-creation and revisit intention, as mediated via CBE. Thus, social media's effect on co-creation and revisit intention are more prominent under elevated CBE in pandemics. Finally, fear of COVID-19 and perceived risk negatively moderates the linkage between social media, CBE, and co-creation/revisit intention. This study concludes with key implications arising from the analyses and further research opportunities.
Purpose
This paper aims to report on the findings emerging from an international study focused on the COVID-19 pandemic impact on travel attitudes and behavioral intentions .
Design/methodology/approach
An online survey created with SurveyMonkey was distributed to a sample of 216 international travelers who were at least 18 years of age.
Findings
The findings suggest that attribution theory (locus of control) may account for international travel. Individuals attributing the spread of COVID-19 to their own countries (internal locus of control) are more likely to travel abroad. Statistically significant differences are observed between various generational cohorts concerning perceived travel risk, domestic and international travel.
Originality/value
The impact of a health crisis on domestic and international travels conceptualized in a single model is absent from the literature. The authors propose a model to account for the influence of pandemics on tourists’ attitudes and intentions to travel and whether attribution of blame influences travel destination choices (domestic or international).
COVID-19 has generated an unprecedented level of public fear, likely impeding tourism industry recovery after the pandemic is over. This study explores what trigger the public's pandemic 'travel fear' and how people impose self-protection, coping and resilience related to travel. The study integrates theories including protection motivation theory, coping and resilience theories to address the research aim. Using a quota sampling, an online survey of 1208 respondents across mainland China was conducted. Results found that threat severity and susceptibility can cause 'travel fear', which leads to protection motivation and protective travel behaviors after the pandemic outbreak. Findings also revealed that 'travel fear' can evoke different coping strategies, which increases people's psychological resilience and adoption of cautious travel behaviors. Several strategies are provided on how to mitigate people's 'travel fear' and encourage travel in a post-COVID-19 world.
As tourists are increasingly putting off their air travel due to the COVID-19
pandemic that has tremendously affected the travel and tourism industry,
this study examined the role of negative affect, perceived health risk,
perceived uncertainty, and mental wellbeing in forming travel attitudes
and temporal avoidance behaviour to global destinations seriously-hit
by the COVID-19 pandemic from a U.S. tourist perspective. The cross-sectional
online survey showed that negative affect as a result of
COVID-19 significantly influenced perceived health risk, which in turn
induced mental wellbeing and perceived uncertainty. While mental
wellbeing significantly predicted attitudes towards international travel
and temporal avoidance behaviour, perceived uncertainty significantly
predicted short-term avoidance behaviour. The insight obtained from
this study provides a mechanism behind tourist avoidance behaviour in
times of global health crises and implications for tourism reliant
destinations to develop recovery strategies in coping with the impact of
the pandemic.
As an essential risk-reduction strategy, technology innovation is likely to play a key role in the hotel industry's recovery from the 2020 coronavirus pandemic. However, its impact on customer decision-making behavior is unknown. Focusing on technology innovation for reducing guest interaction with employees and enhancing cleanliness, the purpose of this research was to examine the impact of expected interaction and expected cleanliness on perceived health risk and hotel booking intention. Three experimental studies were conducted using online consumer samples. The studies found that low levels of expected interaction through technology-mediated systems lead to low levels of perceived health risk. Perceived health risk mediates the relationship between expected interaction and hotel booking intention. In addition, high levels of expected cleanliness through advanced cleaning technologies moderate the impacts of expected interaction on perceived health risk. Importantly, the proposed perceived risk mechanism was effective in post-pandemic scenarios. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
This study highlights ‘untact’ tourism as a health-protective behaviour stemming from individuals’ perceptions of COVID-19 risk. Based on the frameworks of the Health Belief Model and the extended Theory of Planned Behaviour, this study examines the effect of COVID-19 risk perception on behavioural intention towards untact tourism. The online survey was administered to South Korean citizens in March and April 2020. A total of 877 questionnaires were used for data analysis. The results indicate that affective risk perception is a significant antecedent of attitude, while cognitive risk perception was found to positively influence subjective norms. Despite the significant influence of both cognitive and affective risk perceptions on behavioural intention, affective risk perception exerts a negative influence on behavioural intention, which is in opposition to the original hypothesis. Attitude was found to be a significant mediator between affective risk perception and behavioural intention whereas subjective norms mediated the relationship between cognitive perception and behavioural intention. Gender and marital status partially moderated the hypothesized relationships among the constructs. This study provides timely and insightful implications for tourism practitioners who will be expected to prepare the post-corona field for a new normal after the experience of restricted living during an unprecedented pandemic.
Tourist safety is a pertinent global issue affecting travellers and destinations. This study presents a conceptualization of tourists’ sense of safety, including their expected and experienced safety. This study outlines the measurement of tourists’ expected and experienced safety by surveying Chinese domestic tourists who visited Xiamen, China. The results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyzes reveal 20 measurement items that fall under 5 dimensions of tourists’ expected and experienced safety: safety concerns, tourism environment, facilities and services, regional culture, and safety information. Significant differences emerged on all five dimensions and most measurement items related to tourists’ sense of safety. Overall, tourists’ experienced safety exceeded their expected safety, and tourists generally felt safe while visiting Xiamen.
While hosting mega sporting events brings various benefits to the host regions from the increased number of tourists, one of the main factors that deters tourists is the various types of risks associated with international travels. The sport tourism literature has highlighted terrorism risk and political instability as major concerns that impact travel intentions. This study examined and compared the influence of tourists’ risk perceptions on travel intentions across mega sporting event host destinations with different levels (i.e. apparent risks, less imminent risks, and unidentified risks) of such risks. Data were collected from 571 potential tourists via an online survey software and analyzed using a structural equation modeling technique. The results indicated that perceived terrorism risk significantly influenced the tourists’ travel intentions. Tourists’ terrorism risk perceptions toward South Korea (apparent risks) most significantly impacted their travel intentions, followed by general destinations outside of the United States (unidentified risks), while political instability was not significantly related to travel intentions. These findings offer practical implications for mega sporting event organizers.
This study examines the extent to which three types of online media (i.e., consumer reviews, personal references, advertisements) change consumers' attitudes toward a tourism product. Using a 3 × 3 × 2 fractional factorial design, this study also tests how visual format and message framing interact with media type to influence attitude change. Findings indicate that online consumer reviews change tourists' attitudes more than the other two media types, with empathetic persuasiveness playing the most influential role in negative product reviews and information involvement playing a critical role in positive online consumer reviews and advertisements. Moreover, visual format influences the effects of media type and message framing on attitude change.
Safety and security are key aspects for the success of tourism in every destination. Rather than objective risks it is the tourist’s individual and subjective perception of these risks that will influence destination choice and in the long run tourism flows from one country to another. The concept of risk perception has been highly studied in tourism, however the literature remains fragmented resulting in lack of a cohesive and comprehensive framework. It is not yet clear how risk perception as one important determinant of destination choice acts as an influencing factor in the destination choice process. The purpose of this paper is to review and synthesise literature from tourism research and other disciplines on risk and particularly risk perception to develop a framework that offers a better understanding of the role of risk (perception) in the destination choice process. Although travel decision-making and destination choice is a negotiation process between tourist needs and destination offer, most past research has mainly concentrated on the tourist rather than the specific attributes of a destination. The aim is therefore to develop a literature-based framework, including tourist and destination attributes, which is built upon a meta-review of fundamental and recent studies from various disciplines. This paper concludes with implications for future research which are based on contradictions and limitations in past research.
Despite the rapid increase in online shopping, the literature is silent in terms of the interrelationship between perceived risk factors, the marketing impacts, and their influence on product and web-vendor consumer trust. This research focuses on holidaymakers’ perspectives using Internet bookings for their holidays. The findings reveal the associations between Internet perceived risks and the relatively equal influence of product and e-channel risks in consumers’ trust, and that online purchasing intentions are equally influenced by product and e-channel consumer trust. They also illustrate the relationship between marketing strategies and perceived risks, and provide managerial suggestions for further e-purchasing tourism improvement.
This paper investigates and compares acceptability, perceptions, initiatives and obstacles perceived by public and private manufacturing concerns in India in respect of green marketing. The sample of companies was selected from Delhi and north-western region of India. The study reveals that both public-sector and private-sector companies are concerned for environment and believe that green marketing is relevant for sustainable development. It is also perceived as a promotional tool to build customer trust. Obstacles concerning adoption of green marketing by Indian industry are highlighted. The study calls for business firms to adopt environmentalism as a market opportunity rather than merely as compliance to increasing environmental pressures and legislations. Green marketing should become a norm in a developing country like India rather than an exception as it has the potential to contribute substantially in saving the world from environmental pollution and contribute to sustainable development. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment
This study examines the influences of en route information on travel behaviours, based on cognitive dissonance theory, which explains that selective exposure to new information leads to the presence of dissonance. Fifteen travel activities were identified from the related literature to measure levels of unplanned travel behaviours. Moreover, two types of information sources used during trips were tested to evaluate the degree of dissonance in accordance with new information provided to travellers while on vacation. The results indicated that during trips, those who use information technology change their intended behaviours, while those who use ‘traditional’ information sources actualize their intended behaviours. In line with cognitive dissonance theory, information technology is viewed as dissonance-increasing information, while traditional information sources used during trips are considered consonance-increasing information.
Purpose
This study aims to propose that there may be a marketable segment of guests who are willing to pay a premium for guestrooms that are cleaned using enhanced disinfection techniques beyond the normal room cleaning procedures. Room cleanliness is important to hotel guests. Some hotel brands currently offer allergy-free rooms, charging a premium for this service. However, no hotel brands currently serve the market that is willing to pay more for enhanced disinfection. This exploratory study investigates whether there is such a segment and, if so, what price premium these customers are willing to pay for enhanced disinfection.
Design/methodology/approach
Survey methods were used to determine the consumer’s perceptions of hotel guestroom cleanliness; the effectiveness of traditional and enhanced cleaning methods; and willingness to pay for enhanced guestroom disinfection.
Findings
Younger travelers and female travelers of all ages may be willing to pay a significant price premium for enhanced disinfection of a hotel guestroom.
Research limitations/implications
The survey instrument was administered via the Internet, limiting the sample. The study participants were not asked about hotel brand; thus, the results could not be analyzed by brand or service level.
Originality/value
Past research focuses only on traditional cleaning methods. This article provides a template for the hotel industry to explore the feasibility of offering enhanced cleanliness as a revenue-generating amenity.
This article reports the first meta-analysis of the literature on protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1975, 1983; Rogers & Prentice-Dunn, 1997), a model of disease prevention and health promotion that has generated research for over two decades. The literature review included 65 relevant studies (N= approximately 30,000) that represented over 20 health issues. The mean overall effect size (d+= 0.52) was of moderate magnitude. In general, increases in threat severity, threat vulnerability, response efficacy, and self-efficacy facilitated adaptive intentions or behaviors. Conversely, decreases in maladaptive response rewards and adaptive response costs increased adaptive intentions or behaviors. This held true whether the measures were based on intentions or behaviors, and suggests that PMT components may be useful for individual and community interventions.
Although the Internet offers numerous benefits, some consumers are still reluctant to purchase travel products online due to perceived risk. Travel products are associated with higher risk not only because of their tangibility, but also because they typically involve higher cost and complex choices. Additionally, the perceived risk of purchasing travel products online is magnified by privacy and risk involved. This study investigates perceived risk associated with online travel purchasing by Taiwanese consumers with a special focus on their reaction to risk-relievers provided on travel websites. Data were collected through participant observation of the searching/ purchasing process of online travel products by the Taiwanese consumers. The results show some risk-relievers are considered to be more effective in reducing perceived risk related to online travel purchase. Based on this finding, it is suggested that travel websites should try and develop risk-relievers aimed at supporting consumers in the prepurchase phase in order to reduce perceived risk, which may lead to positive online travel purchasing intentions.
A counterweight is offered to models of consumer choice which assume products as homogeneous and regard choice as the outcome of cognitive processes of information search. Having shown that the purchase of experiential products is inherently risky, findings from a study of the holiday travel choices of 328 Gulf Arab consumers are adduced to show that consumption behaviour, rather than information search and deliberation, may be the principal means adopted to reduce risk. Behaviour is explained by the concept of “cautious incremental consumption”, which refers to the way in which the risks and benefits of novel and familiar experiential products are traded off incrementally over time through consumption behaviours. The concept is used to develop a more general model of consumer choice with respect to experiential products, and the predictions, implications and possible applications of this model are discussed.
The primary objective of this paper is twofold: (i) to investigate the impact of perceived risk on the tendency to travel internationally; and (ii) to explore if there is any difference in the perception of risky places among three clusters segmented based on the Hofstede's uncertainty avoidance index. The sample population of the study consists of 1180 international travellers visiting Hong Kong in the fall of 2003. The research findings show that the majority of travellers are more likely to change their travel plans to a destination that has elevated risk while the minority reports they are more unlikely. These findings suggest that international travellers appear to be sensitive towards the occurrence of any type of risk in their evoked destinations. Differences were also observed from one continent to another in terms of the influence of perceived risks. The final note is that travellers from different national cultures may have varying degrees of the perceived risk. Implications both for theory and practitioners are also discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Adventure tourism safety has received relatively little research attention despite the level of risk inherent in many adventure activities. In New Zealand, an absence of surveillance or monitoring of injury in the adventure sector has had important implications for the management of tourist safety. A series of studies conducted by the authors between 1996 and 2006 have sought to address this knowledge gap, with the aim of identifying the extent and nature of adventure tourism injury using a range of primary and secondary data sources. The paper reports on findings from a summary risk analysis of these studies, including evidence for the scale of the adventure tourism injury problem, and ranking of degree of risk for a range of factors for safety in adventure tourism participation. A conceptual model to assist risk management in the adventure sector is presented, and implications of findings for management and the adventure sector are discussed.
In October 2005, a media frenzy began to develop globally with the spread of Avian Influenza (hereafter Avian Flu) from South East Asia to Northern Europe. The media interest was largely a result of the impact on chickens as a food source and also the potential of Avian Flu to mutate and trigger a global flu pandemic. Interestingly throughout virtually all of the media frenzy, the most obvious impact on tourism has been overlooked or only mentioned in passing. At the same time, Visit Scotland, the Scottish National Tourism Organisation has undertaken a scenario planning exercise to plan for such an eventuality. This paper draws upon some of the research undertaken as part of that scenario planning exercise to illustrate how it represents a case study of best practice, both in planning for a flu pandemic and also in terms of sharing this knowledge with NTOs and tourism organisations globally via the World Tourism Organisation and other communication channels. Two important messages emerge from this study: that the tourism industry does not need to panic and that media messages need to be scrutinised carefully, and appropriate response strategies prepared so that the destination's prepare for any outbreak without adversely damaging their image as a place to visit.
Az innováció szerepe az innovatív termékfejlesztésben
- A. -Jászberényi M. -Michalkó Irimiás
Irimiás A. -Jászberényi M. -Michalkó G. (2018) Az innováció szerepe az innovatív termékfejlesztésben. In Irimiás A. -Jászberényi M. -Michalkó G. (szerk.) A turisztikai termékek innovatív fejlesztése. Budapest: Akadémiai. 1-204.
Új perspektívák a kulturális turizmusban: az innovatív vonzerőfejlesztés lehetőségei
- M Jászberényi
Jászberényi M. (2022) Új perspektívák a kulturális turizmusban: az innovatív vonzerőfejlesztés lehetőségei. In Jászberényi M. -Boros
K. -Miskolczi M. (szerk.) Vonzerőfejlesztés a kulturális és aktív turizmusban. Budapest: Akadémiai.
Fogyasztói kockázatészlelés vizsgálata a turisztikai célú utazásvásárlás során a COVID-19 pandémia árnyékában
- L Kökény
Kökény L. (2022) Fogyasztói kockázatészlelés vizsgálata a turisztikai célú utazásvásárlás során a COVID-19 pandémia árnyékában. PhD
disszertáció, Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem. Elérhető: http://phd.lib.uni-corvinus.hu/1241/ [Letöltve: 2022-12-01].
Tourism Eclipsed by Crime: The Vulnerability of Foreign Tourists in Hungary
- G Michalkó
Michalkó G. (2004) Tourism Eclipsed by Crime: The Vulnerability of Foreign Tourists in Hungary. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing,
15(2-3), 159-172. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v15n02_09
A biztonság szerepe a turizmus rendszerében
- G Michalkó
Michalkó G. (2020) A biztonság szerepe a turizmus rendszerében. In Michalkó G. -Németh J. -Ritecz Gy. (szerk.) Turizmusbiztonság.
Budapest: Dialóg Campus.
Turizmus és egészségügyi biztonság
- P. -Ritecz Tokodi
- Gy
Tokodi P. -Ritecz Gy. (2020) Turizmus és egészségügyi biztonság. In Michalkó G. -Németh J. -Ritecz Gy. (szerk.) Turizmusbiztonság.
Budapest: Dialóg Campus.
Digital tools to revitalise tourism
- Unwto
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UNWTO.org (2021) Digital tools to revitalise tourism. Elérhető: https://www.unwto.org/news/digital-tools-to-revitalize-tourism
[Letöltve: 2021-10-22].
Az új koronavírus (COVID-19) megjelenésének hatása a magyar lakosság turisztikai fogyasztói szokásaira -egy online felmérés elsődleges eredményei
- Végi Sz. -Csapó
- J -Törőcsik
Végi Sz. -Csapó J. -Törőcsik M. (2020) Az új koronavírus (COVID-19) megjelenésének hatása a magyar lakosság turisztikai fogyasztói
szokásaira -egy online felmérés elsődleges eredményei. In Ercsey I. (szerk.) Marketing a digitalizáció korában. Győr: Széchenyi István Egyetem.