“Inspiring” Policy Transfer: Analysis of Urban Renewal in Four First-Tier Chinese Cities

Abstract

Most Chinese cities have spent decades achieving urbanisation. So far, rural urbanisation has shifted to urban renewal. However, the distinction between a rapidly changing social environment and the establishment of an institution has led to the failure of urban renewal policies to sustainably achieve complete transformation through urban modernisation involving many stakeholders. Owing to the top-down political system in China, the formulation and implementation of urban renewal policies are carried out in a closed-loop process in which “decisions are issued by the central government to the local government which gives feedback to the centre”. This seems to affect urban renewal through a transfer of renewal policies in a local area. Therefore, it is essential to explore the differences between the urban renewal policies at different government levels and to analyse these policies in diverse urban contexts with multiple stakeholders. Based on the policy transfer theory, this paper selects 216 core policy texts at the state level and at the level of four first-tier cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen), and uses the methods of text mining and semantic analysis to form open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Furthermore, it discusses the policy transfer and impact mechanism of urban renewal policy at different levels with diverse characteristics of policy subsystems. We found that the transfer of urban renewal policy occurred in China through top-down coercive vertical transfer, bottom-up combination reverse transfer, and voluntary horizontal transfer among cities. Finally, we suggest that “inspiration”-type policy transfer is an effective method to promote urban renewal in China.

Full text

Citation: Huang, Y.; Wei, L.; Liu, G.;
Cui, W.; Xie, F.; Deng, X. “Inspiring”
Policy Transfer: Analysis of Urban
Renewal in Four First-Tier Chinese
Cities. Land 2023,12, 118. https://
doi.org/10.3390/land12010118
Academic Editor: Luca Salvati
Received: 8 December 2022
Revised: 26 December 2022
Accepted: 27 December 2022
Published: 30 December 2022
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
land
Article
“Inspiring” Policy Transfer: Analysis of Urban Renewal in Four
First-Tier Chinese Cities
Yuanyuan Huang 1, Lizhen Wei 2, Guiwen Liu 1, Wenjing Cui 3, Fangyun Xie 4and Xun Deng 1,*
1School of Management Science and Real Estate, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
2School of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
3School of Management Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
4Party School of the Chongqing Committee of C.P.C, Chongqing 400041, China
*Correspondence: dengxun@cqu.edu.cn
Abstract:
Most Chinese cities have spent decades achieving urbanisation. So far, rural urbanisation
has shifted to urban renewal. However, the distinction between a rapidly changing social envi-
ronment and the establishment of an institution has led to the failure of urban renewal policies to
sustainably achieve complete transformation through urban modernisation involving many stake-
holders. Owing to the top-down political system in China, the formulation and implementation of
urban renewal policies are carried out in a closed-loop process in which “decisions are issued by
the central government to the local government which gives feedback to the centre”. This seems to
affect urban renewal through a transfer of renewal policies in a local area. Therefore, it is essential
to explore the differences between the urban renewal policies at different government levels and
to analyse these policies in diverse urban contexts with multiple stakeholders. Based on the policy
transfer theory, this paper selects 216 core policy texts at the state level and at the level of four first-tier
cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen), and uses the methods of text mining and
semantic analysis to form open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Furthermore, it discusses
the policy transfer and impact mechanism of urban renewal policy at different levels with diverse
characteristics of policy subsystems. We found that the transfer of urban renewal policy occurred
in China through top-down coercive vertical transfer, bottom-up combination reverse transfer, and
voluntary horizontal transfer among cities. Finally, we suggest that “inspiration”-type policy transfer
is an effective method to promote urban renewal in China.
Keywords:
urban development; urban renewal policy; policy transfer; coercive vertical transfer;
combination reverse transfer; voluntary horizontal transfer
1. Introduction
Urbanisation that achieves rehabilitation of the physical environment and economic re-
juvenation of urban space has various purposes and contents, such as “urban renewal” [
1
],
“urban redevelopment” [
2
], “urban reuse” [
3
], “urban renaissance” [
4
,
5
], “urban regenera-
tion” [6], and “urban revitalization” [7].
After World War II, urban renewal began to proliferate worldwide. Unlike some de-
veloped countries, China has simultaneously experienced urban renewal and urbanisation.
To assist urban expansion, early urban renewal took the form of demolishing dilapidated
buildings, renovating architectural styles, constructing and maintaining public facilities,
and redeveloping industrial structure and spatial quality [
8
–
11
]. Thereafter, urban renewal
has started to address material problems that have stemmed from the speedy urbanisation
process, the relationship between people and land, and social fairness and justice [
12
–
15
].
Overall, the essence of urban renewal is the optimisation of urban functions and the en-
hancement of spatial quality for the endogenous improvement of the constructed land
without increasing the scale of urban land under the tight constraints on resources and the
environment, thereby promoting the sustainable development of cities [16].
Land 2023,12, 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12010118 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/land

Land 2023,12, 118 2 of 31
In 2019, the Central Economic Working Conference proposed the strengthening of
urban renewal and the upgrading of housing stock [
17
]. In 2020, the fifth Plenary Session
of the 19th CPC Central Committee emphasised urban renewal as the direction of urban
work for the “14th Five-year Plan” and the future [
18
]. This shows that a comprehensive
improvement of the quality of urban development has far-reaching significance, including
continuously meeting the ever-growing expectation of people for a better life and promoting
the sustainable and healthy development of the economy and society.
So far, several policies have been introduced for urban renewal at the state and city
levels, such as “the City Planning Law of the People’s Republic of China” [
19
], “Regula-
tion on the Dismantlement of Urban Houses” [
20
], “Provisions on the Economical and
Intensive Use of Land” [
21
], “Notice of Beijing Municipality on the Relevant Issues for the
Reconstruction of Urban Dilapidated and Aged Houses” [
22
], and “Several Opinions of
Shanghai Municipality on Accelerating the Renovation of Dangerous Sheds and Shabby
Houses of Central Parts of Shanghai” [
23
]. These policies have made ground-breaking
progress in management measures and renewal operations, and have vigorously promoted
urban renewal in China and improved its efficiency [
24
–
26
]. To promote China’s decentrali-
sation reform, the bottom-up model of policy formulation for urban renewal has gradually
prevailed over the original top-down model.
Faced with the constantly changing requirements of urban renewal in China, local
policies seem to be insufficient to solve difficulties, such as the imbalance of interest
patterns among urban population; the use of the changed land and coordination of property
rights; the functional conflict between public departments; and the appearance of “market
failure” [
27
–
32
]. These difficulties are characterised by various institutional dilemmas, such
as the insufficient importance given to the operability of policy content for urban renewal,
as well as an urban renewal policy system that lacks a systematic and flexible approach.
These inevitable challenges hinder the process of urban renewal.
Therefore, to set the prerequisite for sustainable implementation, a fundamental task
is to formulate and implement effective and diverse urban renewal policies to improve
institutional arrangement. This study evaluated the current situation and institutional
changes in the urban renewal system in China based on the policy transfer theory, with
the purpose of showing ways to achieve sustainability, a standardised and transparent
implementation process, and an in-depth public participation. This study also aimed to
explore the effective path for the transfer and development of China’s urban renewal policy
to realise the balance of multiple interests in urban renewal.
Besides, as the world’s second-largest economy, China’s successful experience in urban
renewal will offer a model of a viable urban development process and enlighten other
countries and regions in the world in this rapidly changing era.
2. Literature Review
Policy research on urban renewal has shown an increasing trend in recent times.
Existing literature on urban renewal can be classified into four groups.
The first group of studies focuses on a single policy, such as land use [
33
–
36
] and
housing policy [
37
–
41
]. The second type analyses the policies of specific cities, such as
Shenzhen [
42
], Guangzhou [
43
], Shanghai [
44
], and Beijing [
45
]. The third type compares
the policies of different cities [
46
–
51
]. The fourth type of studies evaluates policies from the
perspectives of different disciplines, such as economics [52–57] and management [58–64].
Though these studies are wide-ranging and offer helpful suggestions for solving
the institutional dilemma, we think that they have mainly studied individual renewal
policies, local urban policies, and different disciplinary perspectives. However, to promote
efficient governance, it is also necessary to analyse renewal policy from a multi-dimensional
perspective. This requires a study on the methodology that is involved in the analysis, as
well as policy tools.
In policy research, policy transfer is an essential tool [
65
,
66
]. Policy transfer means
that the government of a country or region uses or compares its ideas or models with

Land 2023,12, 118 3 of 31
those in other countries or regions, in order to solve a perceived real policy problem or
policy failure in its own context, and to promote new laws and policy initiatives [
67
]. In
general, governments have limited capacity to solve complex problems and lack sufficient
resources to develop new solutions from scratch. They must learn the lessons from other
governments that have attained a desirable outcome or have implemented a particular
policy instrument to meet a similar or related challenge [
68
]. More importantly, appropriate
policy transfer not only saves the time and cost of a government in a similar policy research
environment, but it is also helpful for the improvement of the efficiency of governance.
With the development of globalisation, policy transfer is gaining popularity [
69
]. When
studying the impact of European policies on national administrations, Knill [
70
] insisted on
the domestic systems and incorporated the European themes which had followed their own
institutional logics. Westney [
71
] showed how Japanese experts in the Meiji restoration were
sent out by their political overlords to various European countries to study policy-making
solutions in order to choose and bring useful experiences back home. From the democratic
revolution to the application of opening up and reform policies, the Chinese leaders, Sun Yat
sen, Mao Zedong, and Deng Xiaoping, had always hold on to a strong national foundation,
and adopted forms of republicanism, democracy, and market principles to learn from
foreign examples; this is because the only way to surpass the West is to learn from it,
just as the Japanese had begun to do so several decades ago [
72
]. After a comparison of
the regulatory change in the railways in Britain and Germany, Lodge [
73
] argued that
an institutional approach enhanced the understanding of the “learning” and “transfer”
processes, and suggested that it was the structure of the political–administrative nexus that
was centrally responsible for why particular policy options were selected whereas others
were neglected. Greener [
74
] analyzed the health policy in the U.K. during the formulation
of the “internal market” reforms of the late 1980s and early 1990s from the perspective of
policy transfer, and illuminated the actors, processes, and constraints involved in the health
policy reform. Padgett [
75
] evaluated the institutional capacity of the EU for policy transfer
based on research into the liberalisation and re-regulation of the European electricity sector.
It can be seen that the policy transfer literature has formerly focused on the processes
between countries or states [
76
], while recent studies have turned their attention to ac-
tive knowledge learning between cities. A notable example is the “Manhattan Transfer”,
wherein many cities in the Asian–Pacific region intended to learn from the spectacular
high-rise skyline urban design from New York City [
77
]. de Jong and Edelenbos [
78
] tried
to uncover policy lessons that are being transferred among seven European cities that
have joined the expert network on European sustainable urban development. Bunnell
and Das [
79
] tracked a case of urban policy transfer from Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) to
Hyderabad (India), and believed that the former became an inspiration and model for the
latter to build a high-tech city. de Jong [
80
] took ecocity development as an example to
introduce the phenomenon of the transfer of China’s policy system, and explained how
Chinese policymakers chose useful experience and ensured that it was suitable for the local
institutional context when importing policy advice from abroad. Miao [
81
] conducted a
study on the Sino-Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park (SIP), a government-to-government
collaboration in promoting industrial development, and revealed that two parallel policy
transfer networks were developed in the early stage of the SIP. Their relationship affected
the policy transfer outcomes for the SIP and revealed the important governance and tem-
poral dimensions in transnational policy transfers. Some scholars also studied the policy
transfer to accelerate smart city development by collecting useful cases of urban planning
and governance lessons [
82
,
83
]. In addition, in order to meet the sustainable challenges
in the field of urban transport, some scholars suggested that, in the specific context of a
city, the practice of policy transfer might be leveraged to facilitate both the policymaking
process and the application of knowledge [84–86].
To sum up, most of the existing research studies on urban renewal policies are from
the perspective of a single dimension, instead of studying from a multi-dimensional aspect
and including a systematic analysis on the changes of renewal policies. However, urban

Land 2023,12, 118 4 of 31
renewal is a complex engineering system. A single-dimensional perspective is not enough
to explain and solve the conflicts and contradictions in the deep development period of
urban renewal, and it cannot make a policy inclusive. Meanwhile, existing policy transfer
mainly focuses on institutional transfer at the national level. Although research on policy
transfer in urban areas (such as ecocity and smart city) is gaining attention, there is a lack of
application towards the transfer of urban renewal policies. Since there is a lack of systematic
research on urban renewal policy changes, and policy transfer is a useful policy research
tool, why do we not use policy transfer to systematically study urban renewal policies?
Therefore, the main contributions of this paper include the following:
(1) Adopting the policy transfer theory to systematically study urban renewal policies
in an all-round and multi-dimensional way, analyse the transfer of renewal policies, and
explore the policy transfer mechanism between the “state-city” and “city-city” levels.
(2) Clarifying the type, content, and degree of the urban renewal policy transfer in four
case cities, and briefly assessing the feedback to other policymakers and implementation
effect. We also provided suggestions for an effective transfer approach for urban renewal
in China.
The rest of the sections in this study are as follows: Section 2introduces the data
sources and research methods. Section 3describes the policy transfer theory. In Section 4,
co-word analysis and the Gephi software are used to analyse 216 urban renewal policy texts
sorted out at the state level and at the city level, including Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou,
and Shenzhen. Section 5evaluates transferred policies between “state-city” and “city-city”
based on the above classification of the four types. Finally, this study proposes an effective
approach for policy transfer for urban renewal in China.
3. Methods and Data
3.1. Data Sources
China has accumulated rich experience in urban renewal, which provides examples
for the world and has gained wide attention. Therefore, this paper studies the urban
renewal activities in China, and uses the urban renewal policies at the national level and
regional levels (including Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen) as the research
objects. As the world’s first-tier cities, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen all
rank in the forefront of the country in terms of total economic development and urban
built environment [
87
]. Additionally, the four cities are pioneers of urban renewal practice
in China. At present, they have shown systematic and comprehensive developmental
characteristics in urban renewal system construction. Specifically, they have set up special
departments and institutions to manage urban renewal affairs, such as the Urban Renewal
Bureau. In addition, policy documents on urban renewal have been issued, such as the
“Urban Renewal Regulations” and the “Urban Renewal Measures”. Meanwhile, as the
central cities of political, economic, and cultural development in China, the urbanisation
rate of these four cities has exceeded 80%. According to relevant experience, they have
entered the deep development stage of urban renewal, and their urban renewal path which
fits the characteristics of urban development is being accelerated.
This paper adopts the main line of argument of the Central Urban Work Conference to
assess China’s urban renewal policy in four stages. Then, from the law database of Peking
University, we collected 202 policy texts at the state level from 1949 to 2021, including laws,
administrative regulations, regulatory documents of the State Council, departmental rules,
intra-party regulations, departmental working documents, and local working documents.
Additionally, city-level policies were collected from the law database of Peking Univer-
sity and local government official websites, including local regulations and rules, working
documents, and administrative licenses. The number of renewal policies in Beijing, Shang-
hai, Guangdong, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen are 165, 272, 72, 122, and 194, respectively.
These policies were sorted into 216 policy texts after excluding those that are not
highly related to urban renewal—77 policies were obtained at the state level, 28 policies in
Beijing, 41 policies in Shanghai, 29 policies in Guangzhou, and 41 policies in Shenzhen.

Land 2023,12, 118 5 of 31
There needs a specific explanation about the reason for focusing on urban renewal
rather than on the renovation of “the three-old” policy in Guangdong Province. As shown
in Figure 1, the renovation of “the three-old” policy originated from the practice in Foshan.
It is a unique transformation mode in Guangdong Province of China, which refers to
the renovation of old towns, old factories, and old villages. The implementation of “the
three-old” renovation is to alleviate the contradiction between supply and demand of
land resources, to realise the redevelopment of urban stock of inefficient construction land,
and to implement the national strategy of economical and intensive use of land. With
the comprehensive opening of “the three-old” renovation, Shenzhen issued the “Urban
Renewal Measures of Shenzhen Municipality” in October 2009, which was the first time that
the concept of “urban renewal” was put forward by a local government. In 2014, the focus
of China’s urban work shifted to the renovation of shanty areas. In December 2015, the
People’s Government of Guangzhou Municipality issued the “Urban Renewal Measures of
Guangzhou Municipality”, which included land acquisition and dismantlement, renovation
of “the three-old”, renovation of shanty areas, renovation of dilapidated old houses, and
comprehensive improvement. It can be seen that “the three-old” renovation is a form
of urban renewal, which is a special exploration of urban renewal in a specific period
and region. Therefore, this paper adopts the “Urban Renewal Measures of Guangzhou
Municipality” as the policy research sample of Guangzhou.
Figure 1. Historical evolution of urban renewal policy in Guangdong Province.
3.2. Research Methods
The four steps and techniques of policy analysis are shown in Figure 2and are de-
scribed below.
In the first step, this study used co-word analysis and the Gephi software to analyse
word frequency statistics and extract theme keywords, and to complete the open coding
of policy texts to form a lexicon [
88
]. Since synonyms could be found among the initial
open-coding data, we merged and refined the extracted high-frequency keywords to ensure
their scientific and effective validity. We then performed data cleaning by eliminating the
high-frequency keywords that were not closely related. Thus, the final open coding of the
policy text at both the state and city levels were obtained.
In the second step, to gain insight into the transfer and correlation of China’s urban
renewal policies, this study performed a more profound axial coding and selective coding
for the theme keywords extracted from the open coding [
88
]. Axial coding reorganises
the themes of a text that has been divided into coherent wholes and explores the internal
connections between them. By analysing, comparing, classifying, and categorising the

Land 2023,12, 118 6 of 31
meaning of theme keywords, we derived the axis category, which formed the axial coding
of this paper.
Figure 2. A framework of urban renewal policy research in China.
In the third step, this study analysed the logical order and relationship among the
categories obtained by axial coding based on Howlett and Ramesh’s [
89
] policy subsystems
theory, since these categories were relatively independent and scattered. Then, we refined
relevant main categories to acquire selective coding.
In the fourth step, we discussed the mechanism of urban renewal policy transfer in
the vertical and horizontal dimensions, including the type, content, degree, and effect of
policy transfer.
4. Policy Transfer Theory
4.1. The Connection and Difference between Policy Transfer and Other Concepts
Globalisation has increased the frequency of communication between countries. The
universalisation of the phenomenon of policy dissemination in different places has at-
tracted the attention of many scholars. Furthermore, many boundary-overlapping concepts
have emerged, such as policy diffusion [
90
,
91
], policy convergence [
92
], policy learn-
ing [
93
], lesson drawing [
94
], institutional transplantation [
95
], policy emulation [
96
],
and policy transfer [
97
]. This confirms that scholars have provided extensive insights on
these concepts.
They are all used to explain the phenomenon of similar policy choices in different
countries or regions over a period of time, but there are still difference in term of these
concepts. Policy diffusion focuses on the conditions (influencing factors) that promote
policy diffusion [
98
–
102
] and the explanation of the diffusion process [
103
–
107
], but it lacks
attention to the content of the policy and how the policy changes [
108
]. Policy conver-
gence studies the degree of policy convergence and the similarity in the results of policy
changes [
109
–
114
], and is insensitive to the interactive feedback process that forms policy
content changes [
92
]. Policy learning has derived five learning modes: political learn-
ing [
115
], social learning [
116
], government learning [
117
], policy-oriented learning [
118
],
and lesson drawing [
94
]. However, the theoretical design of each learning mode is different,
and knowledge integration cannot be realised [
119
]. Moreover, although each learning
model involves the question of “who is learning” [
69
], the explanation is not clear, and a
clear definition of learning actors is crucial for the theoretical integration of policy learn-
ing [
108
]. Rose [
94
] regards policy learning as lesson drawing, which includes copying,
emulation, hybridisation, combination, and inspiration. However, the focus of lesson

Land 2023,12, 118 7 of 31
drawing is on the voluntary behaviour of policymakers, which leads to controversy [
120
].
Institutional transplantation not only emphasises the time–space transfer of policy thoughts
and institutions, but also pays attention to the effect of transplantation [
121
–
124
]. However,
whether the transplantation is successful largely depends on the support from the corre-
sponding informal systems (such as social values, cultural traditions, and ideologies). Only
when the informal systems are recognised by the majority of people that the transplanted
institution can really play its role [125,126].
4.2. Policy Transfer Theory
For the purpose of integrating many concepts, Dolowitz and Marsh [
108
] used the
new term “policy transfer” to cover various forms in which a new policy is disseminated,
including the diffusion, voluntary, and coercive forms. Furthermore, they also pointed
out that policy transfer is a process in which policies, administrative arrangements, or
institutions that exist at one time or place are used to develop knowledge about policies,
administrative arrangements, and institutions at another time or place.
Policy transfer is a dynamic process with many variables and complex structures.
Dolowitz and Marsh incorporated the focus of previous studies and proposed that, to
successfully carry out policy transfer, people must have a deep understanding of the
process based on the following questions: What is its structure? What are the transfer
types? What is the transfer object? Who are the key operators? How can it be transferred?
What is the degree and effect of the transfer? [127].
First, the structure of policy transfer is multi-dimensional. Evans and Davies [
128
]
believe that policy transfer covers multiple levels of global, international, transnational,
domestic, and internal organisations. By enumerating 30 types of policy transfer at the
governmental level, Dolowitz [
97
] presented a multi-dimensional structure. Wei [
129
]
pointed out that such a structure is only theoretical. The actual level of policy transfer is
relatively simple and mainly includes five types—the level of transfer between interna-
tional organisations and countries, between regional organisations and countries, between
countries and countries, among domestic governments, and across historical time and
space. The policy transfer between international organisations and countries and among
countries have always been the focus of research, while less attention has been paid to the
policy transfer among domestic governments.
Second, instead of a simplified definition of policy transfer as voluntary or coercive,
Dolowitz and Marsh [
76
] posited that policy transfer should be a continuum between
lesson drawing (which is based on perfect rationality where the transfer is voluntary
and triggered by a self-awareness of internal and external crises and opportunities) and
direct imposition (which is based on bounded rationality where the transfer is coercive).
A combination
nature as reflected in treaty obligations is in the middle of the continuum.
This important theory which includes voluntary transfer, coercive transfer, and combination
transfer is more inclusive, because policy transfer is not an extreme event (either voluntary
or coercive), and is consistent with the actual situation, helping us realise the complexity of
policy transfer research more systematically.
Third, Evans [
130
] described the process model of policy transfer as involving the
processes of “identifying problems–seeking solutions–introducing information by agents
or elites–evaluating information–making decisions–policy implementation and results”.
This model reveals that policy transfer is not an independent behaviour, but a process of
policymaking “embedded” in a new scenario. In addition, Dolowitz and Marsh [
76
] believe
that any policy transfer is a combination of process and content and propose eight kinds of
transfer—policy objectives, policy content, policy tools, institutions, ideology, policy plans,
attitudes and cultural values, and negative lessons.
Finally, policy transfer is not considered an all-or-nothing process, but as containing
four types ranging in the degree of transfer from low to high—“Copying”, “Emulation”,
“Combination”, and “Inspiration”. Dolowitz and Marsh [
76
] proposed that the success of
policy transfer should be measured by the degree to which a government achieves its goals

Land 2023,12, 118 8 of 31
when carrying out policy transfer. The degree to which a policy transfer is regarded as
a success is when major players participate in the policy field. On this basis, this paper
categorises four types of policy transfer:
(1) Copying-type policy transfer is when a policy is usually copied and pasted. The
policy participants do not make any change to the transferred policy or scientifically
demonstrate its localisation. If unrealistic policies are enforced, they will increase the
policy cost and the difficulty of their implementation. Moreover, the negative approach or
disdain of the executor towards a policy makes the policy a mere formality, preventing its
effective implementation. Finally, it is difficult to obtain expected results or even assess its
negative effects.
(2) Emulation-type policy transfer is one in which policies are modified and parts of
them are selectively transferred. This is a common form adopted by countries or regions.
Because of state conditions or regional differences, the policy participants cannot completely
copy the experience of others. Instead, they inspect supporting conditions for implementing
policies. To solve the actual problems of their own countries or regions and achieve policy
goals, policy participants aim for the localisation of transfer policy. Emulation-type policy
transfer is easier to implement and more successful than copying-type policy transfer.
(3) Combination-type policy transfer is the comprehensive absorption and application
of different policies. Owing to the continuous introduction of various policies, the policy
participants give full importance to their subjective initiatives. Through the comprehensive
utilisation of relevant policies and without excessive modification, the participants can
apply them to their own country or region. This type of policy transfer has a higher
optimisation degree, lower implementation difficulty, and better effect than the emulation-
type policy transfer.
(4) Inspiration-type policy transfer refers to the creative construction of a new policy
based on the implementation of policies in other regions. The policy participants give
importance to the initiative, study similar problems in different environments, think of
feasible schemes in their own countries or regions, complete the reproduction process
of policy knowledge, and realise the innovation of the transferred policy. Compared to
the other three types, this type is closely integrated with a country or region, easier to
implement, and more likely to bring about policy results. This is the common type of
transfer which policy participants pursue.
Thus, we can conclude that policy transfer originates from policy diffusion; policy
learning may also lead to policy transfer; lesson drawing is regarded as “voluntary” policy
transfer; and policy transfer may also lead to policy convergence, but there is no close
relationship between them. Benson and Jordan [
131
] pointed out that research on policy
dissemination is constantly changing, but Dolowitz and Marsh’s concept of policy transfer
is influential and is the most cited to date.
5. Result: Definition of Policy Period and Analysis of Policy Text
5.1. Definition and Classification of the Policy Period
Since China’s reform and opening up in 1978, urban renewal has become an important
aspect of its urban development. Having experienced 30 years of urban construction, the
state encountered many new problems that can be classified into two kinds. First, owing to
a planned economic system and a lack of effective policy guidance, most cities generally
faced the problem of dilapidated housing, insufficient public infrastructure, and massive
destruction of cultural relics. Second, the increasing shortage of land resources led to
the transformation of urban spatial form. In this context, urban renewal was mentioned
by the central government which rioritized adjusting its urban policy. This is marked
as a milestone in the development and evolution of China’s urban renewal policy in the
following decades. In the history of urban renewal in China over the past 70 years, with
the Central Urban Work Conference as the central point, the development of urban renewal
policy can be divided into four stages (Table 1).

Land 2023,12, 118 9 of 31
Table 1. Analytical framework of urban renewal policy paradigm in China.
Policy
Period
Time of
Urban Work
Conference
The Relationship
between Central
and Local
Governments
Policy Trends Policy Focus Difficulties in
Urban Renewal
The Source of
Policy Transfer
1949–1977 1962, 1963 Highly centralised Preliminary
proposal
Focused on the
transformation
of old cities
Confined to partial
and small-scale
renovation and the
reconstruction or
expansion of
dilapidated buildings
State
1978–1999 1978
Power tilting
towards the local
level
Gradually
increase
Solving the
housing
problem
Further deterioration
of the old city
environment
State, with local
governments
having more
autonomy
2000–2014
Parallel
centralisation and
decentralisation
Obvious
upward
Dominated by
real estate
development
Destroyed the urban
characteristics and
damaged the public
interests of the city
Both the state
and local cities
2015– 2015
Combining
centralisation and
decentralisation
Drive to
maturity
Both stock
upgrading and
incremental
structural
adjustment
Urban connotation
development and
quality improvement
More towards
local
governments
5.1.1. Early Exploration Stage (1949–1977)
At the beginning of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the focus of the
country’s work was shifted from the countryside to the city, and it had approved the
establishment of the first legislative body for urban construction, the General Adminis-
tration of Urban Construction, which was in charge of the legislative work, including the
formulation of regulations, systems, and standards for urban planning. During this period,
as various systems were still in the wandering and exploring stage, the country introduced
few policies related to urban renewal. With the basic completion of socialist transformation
and the establishment of a highly centralised planned economic system that imitated the
Soviet Union, China had formed a highly centralised situation. At this time, Chinese urban
construction adhered to the basic national policy of “transforming consumption cities into
production cities”, and urban renewal mainly focused on the transformation of old cities
and started all over the country. Beijing, as the capital of China, followed the general
urban construction principle of “serving the central government, production and working
people”, and implemented urban renewal focusing on the reconstruction and expansion
of old urban areas. Under the guidance of the urban construction guideline that aimed to
“gradually renovate the old urban areas, strictly control the suburban industrial areas, and
plan to develop satellite towns”, Shanghai carried out the renovation of old urban areas.
Based on the urban construction principle of “the urban area should be reconstruction
mainly, the suburbs should pay attention to supporting facilities, and the new construction
and relocation should be located in the outer “suburbs”, Guangzhou pursued the urban
transformation of production functions. Obviously, the local urban renewal at this stage
was to implement the basic national policy of the country, and the source of its policy
transfer was the state, with a strong coercive trend. Then, to strengthen urban management
and solve urban contradictions, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council held
the first and second National Urban Work Conferences in September 1962 and October
1963, respectively, to clarify the orientation of cities and emphasise the essential work
of urban industrial construction [
132
]. However, limited resources for the development
of urban industry and the construction of new industrial areas caused urban renewal to

Land 2023,12, 118 10 of 31
be confined to partial and small-scale renovation and the reconstruction or expansion of
dilapidated buildings.
5.1.2. Gradual Development Stage (1978–1999)
In 1978, China entered the initial stage of comprehensive reform and opening up. The
development of urban industry caused serious environmental pollution and a shortage
of housing for urban workers. Therefore, the focus of urban renewal during this period
was on solving the housing problem and on the upgradation and transformation of old
industrial and commercial areas. In March 1978, the State Council held the Third National
Urban Work Conference in Beijing and proposed measures to accelerate housing construc-
tion [
132
]. These actions guided urban renewal in this period. Beijing and Guangzhou
vigorously promoted the renovation of dilapidated and aged houses, while Shanghai fo-
cused on the tract dismantlement and renovation of dangerous sheds and shabby houses,
and the protection of historical features. As the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone had
just been established, urban construction started from scratch, mainly focusing on new
land development which was accompanied by small-scale demolition and construction to
improve office and residential conditions. However, the selection of a new urban area as the
construction land at that time led to the further deterioration of the old city environment.
During this period, driven by the reform of the economic system, the relationship between
the central and local governments in China gradually broke the pattern of highly centralised
power and showed the characteristics of power tilting towards the local level. With the
promulgation of China’s first “Urban Planning Regulations” [
133
] and “Urban Planning
Law” [
19
], China’s urban development stepped into the right track, and the policies of
the four cities in terms of land, planning, housing, and demolition gradually increased. It
could be seen that, at this time, the source of policy transfer was still the state, but local
governments had more autonomy to lead the urban renewal activities in their region.
5.1.3. Rapid Development Stage (2000–2014)
With the establishment of an assignment system for land-use right and a fiscal tax-
sharing system, land-use right was transformed from state ownership to private ownership
for a certain period, accelerating the development of the real estate sector. Accordingly,
China’s urban renewal entered a rapid development stage that was dominated by real
estate development. The promulgation of “the Urban Real Estate Administration Law of
the People’s Republic of China” provided a strong policy support for the implementation of
urban renewal during this period [
134
]. Guangzhou carried out a comprehensive improve-
ment of historic blocks and implemented the renovation of “the three-old” policy, which
mainly revitalised the stock land resources. Beijing applied the idea of “organic renewal”
into the practice of old city reconstruction and carried out the pilot work of the renovation
of historically and culturally protected areas to promote the improvement of style and
feature reserves. Shanghai entered a new round of old area renovation and industrial land
transformation. Shenzhen started urban renewal by focusing on the renovation of urban
village and the upgrading of old industrial areas. Such large-scale urban renewal promoted
the improvement of living conditions and infrastructure of old areas, as well as the in-
creasingly reasonable use of urban spatial structure. However, the urban renewal process
under the guidance of economic development also destroyed the urban characteristics and
damaged the public interests of local cities. At this stage, with the continuous advancement
of market-oriented reform, China’s central–local relations entered a new era of parallel
centralisation and decentralisation [
135
]. With the gradual attention of the state to urban
renewal, the release of relevant renewal policies showed an upward trend. At this time, the
source of policy transfer was both the state and local cities. The four cities issued a large
number of urban renewal policy documents, and the governments gradually changed from
urban renewal operators to guides. In particular, the introduction of “the Urban Renewal
Measures of Shenzhen Municipality” in 2009 marked the initial formation of the systematic
policy mechanism of urban renewal in Shenzhen.

Land 2023,12, 118 11 of 31
5.1.4. Steady Promotion Stage (2015–)
To eliminate problems arising from an overemphasis on economic development, the
CPC Central Committee and the State Council held the Fourth National Urban Work Confer-
ence in December 2015 [
132
]. The meeting suggested adherence to intensive development,
total quantity, limiting capacity, revitalising the stock, optimising increment, and improving
quality to make urban development more sustainable and livable. After 37 years, the
central government reopened the Urban Work Conference, which pointed out the direction
for urban development in the new era. The urban renewal in China has changed from
incremental construction in the past to both stock upgrading and incremental structural
adjustment. The 19th CPC National Congress set the focus of national work as “the meeting
of the ever-growing expectation of the people for a better life” [
136
]. Urban renewal based
on a people-oriented concept pays more attention to issues such as promoting industrial
transformation and upgrading, strengthening the intensive use of land, and emphasising
urban connotation development and quality improvement. Beijing focuses on shanty area
renovation and old community comprehensive improvement, and implements small-scale,
gradual, and sustainable urban renewal. Shanghai implements organic renewal under
the background of tight resource constraints. Guangzhou pursues micro transformation
under the social compound benefits. Shenzhen coordinates renewal and builds a structure
of pluralistic co-governance. Under the guidance of various national policies and the
dual-track operation mechanism combining centralisation and decentralisation, the four
cities have boldly explored the implementation mechanism and system construction of
local urban renewal, and have successively issued local urban renewal measures, rules, and
regulations to guide and standardise urban renewal activities within each administrative
region. At this time, the source of policy transfer is more towards the local governments.
5.2. Statistical Analysis of Urban Renewal Policies at Multiple Levels
First, we collected 1027 policy texts related to urban renewal from the law database of
Peking University and local government official websites, including 202 texts on renewal at
the state level, 165 on that in Beijing, 272 in Shanghai, 72 in Guangdong province,
122 in
Guangzhou, and 194 in Shenzhen. These texts cover topics including land, planning,
housing, dismantlement, infrastructure, realty, dilapidated and aged houses, shanty areas,
villages in the city, renovation of “the three-old” policy, and the protection of historical
buildings. The corresponding policy years and quantity distribution are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. The year and quantity distribution in the four periods of China’s urban renewal policy.
Second, after screening the texts, this study selected 216 closely related policy texts.
A text database of China’s urban renewal policies (Table 2), including data fields such as
date issued, issuing authority, and policy name, was constructed to provide support for the
next analysis.

Land 2023,12, 118 12 of 31
Table 2. A text database of urban renewal policy in China.
S/N Date Issued Issuing Authority Document Number Policy Name Level of Authority Status Area of Law
1 01-31-1958
State Construction
Commission (changed)
and Ministry of Urban
Construction (dissolved)
Notice of the State Construction Commission
and the Ministry of Urban Construction on
Several Control Indicators of Urban Planning
Departmental
Working Documents
Effective
Urban Planning,
Development, and
Construction
2 10-19-1978 State Council No. 222 [1978] of the
State Council
Report of the State Council on Approving and
Forwarding the National Construction
Commission on Accelerating the Construction
of Urban Housing
Regulatory
Documents of the
State Council
Effective
Urban Planning,
Development, and
Construction
···
11 12-26-1989
Standing Committee of the
National
People’s Congress
Order No. 23 of the
President of the People’s
Republic of China
City Planning Law of the People’s Republic
of China Laws Expired
Urban Planning,
Development, and
Construction
41 06-13-2001 State Council
Order No. 305 of the State
Council of the People’s
Republic of China
Regulation on the Dismantlement of
Urban Houses
Administrative
Regulations Expired
Relocation and
Demolition
Placement
45 06-08-2003 State Council
Order No. 379 of the State
Council of the People’s
Republic of China
Regulation on Realty Management Administrative
Regulations Revised Real Estate
Enterprises
65 10-22-2009 People’s Government of
Shenzhen Municipality
Decree No. 211 of Shenzhen
Municipal
People’s Government
Urban Renewal Measures of
Shenzhen Municipality
Local Government
Rules Revised
General Provisions
on Government
Affairs
90 06-03-2012 People’s Government of
Guangzhou Municipality No. 20 [2012] of Sui fu
Supplementary Opinions of the People’s
Government of Guangzhou Municipality on
Accelerating the Work of the
Three-Old Renovation
Local Working
Documents Expired General Provisions
on Construction
99 07-04-2013 State Council No. 25 [2013] of the State
Council
Opinions of the State Council on Accelerating
the Work of Shanty Area Renovation
Regulatory
Documents of the
State Council
Effective
Urban Planning,
Development, and
Construction
102
09-06-2013 State Council No. 36 [2013] of the
State Council
Opinions of the State Council to Strengthen the
City Infrastructure Construction
Regulatory
Documents of the
State Council
Effective
Urban Planning,
Development, and
Construction

Land 2023,12, 118 13 of 31
Table 2. Cont.
S/N Date Issued Issuing Authority Document Number Policy Name Level of Authority Status Area of Law
109
04-11-2014 People’s Government of
Shanghai Municipality No. 28 [2014] of Hu fu ban
Notice of the General Office of Shanghai
Municipality People’s Government on
Establishing the Leading Group of Shanghai
Municipality for the Work of
“Urban-Village” Renovation
Local Working
Documents
Effective
General Provisions
on Government
Affairs
110
05-22-2014 Ministry of Land &
Resources (dissolved)
Order No.61 of the Ministry
of Land and Resources
Provisions on the Economical and Intensive
Use of Land Departmental Rules Revised Land Use and
Management
···
212
01-20-2021 People’s Government of
Beijing Municipality No. 1 [2021] of Jing zheng fa
Notice of the People’s Government of Beijing
Municipality on Issuing the Implementation
Opinions on Deepening and Promoting the
Special Campaign of “Making Improvements
through Relocation and Rectification” during
the “Fourteenth Five-Year Plan” Period
Local Regulatory
Documents
Effective
General Provisions
on Government
Affairs
213
05-15-2021 People’s Government of
Beijing Municipality
No. 10 [2021] of Jing
zheng fa
Guiding Opinions of the People’s Government
of Beijing Municipality on the Implementation
of Urban Renewal Action
Local Regulatory
Documents
Effective
General Provisions
on Government
Affairs
216
08-25-2021
Shanghai Municipality
People’s Congress (incl.
Standing Committee)
Announcement No. 77 of the
15th Standing Committee of
Shanghai Municipal
People’s Congress
Regulations of Shanghai Municipality on
Urban Renewal
Provincial Local
Regulations
Effective
Urban Planning,
Development, and
Construction

Land 2023,12, 118 14 of 31
Third, after screening for high-frequency keywords, we finally selected 264 open codes
as the theme keywords of renewal policy texts at the state level. Meanwhile, 124, 146, 196,
and 188 open codes were selected for policy texts related to Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou,
and Shenzhen, respectively.
Finally, we extracted 11 axial codes on policy, including the goal, concepts, principles,
participants, objects, environments, resources, finance, processes, measures, and supervi-
sion of each policy. Three selective codes were also extracted—policy agent system, policy
support system, and policy feedback system—which constitute the framework of the policy
analysis (shown in Figure 4). The tables of the axial coding and selective coding at the state
level and city level are provided in Tables 3–7.
Figure 4. The framework of policy analysis.
Table 3. Axial coding and selective coding table (State-level).
Open Coding Axial Coding Selective Coding
Urban–rural construction, New-type urbanisation, Urban construction,
Public interest···
Policy goal Policy support system
Green, Energy-saving, Coordinate, All-round, Sustainable development,
Low-carbon, Environmental protection···
Policy concepts Policy support system
Economical and intensive, Adaptation to local condition, Overall plans,
Market allocation, Government-domination···
Policy principles Policy support system
People’s Government, State Council, Financial Sector, Enterprise,
Individual, Residents···
Policy participants Policy agent system
Shanty areas renovation, Urban planning, Land reserving, House
dismantlement, Fund management···
Policy objects
Policy feedback system
Overall planning, Economy, System, Environment, History, Culture,
Market, Policy···
Policy environments
Policy feedback system
Land, Architecture, House, Facility, Project, Resource, Population,
Contract, Technology···
Policy resources
Policy feedback system
Funds, Finance, Compensate, Earmarked, Tax deduction, Compensation mode,
Temporary resettlement fee···
Policy finance Policy support system
Planning, Construction, Renovation, Dismantlement, Utilize, Expropriation,
Exploit, Resettle, Transferring···
Policy processes Policy support system
Management, Protect, Implement, Proceed, Organise, Advance, Perfect,
Accelerate, Enhance, Formulating···
Policy measures Policy support system
Provision, Approval, Law, Responsibility, Supervise, Execute, Registration,
Violate, Responsible···
Policy supervision Policy support system

Land 2023,12, 118 15 of 31
Table 4. Axial coding and selective coding table (Beijing).
Open Coding Axial Coding Selective Coding
Functional positioning, Historical function, Urban–rural environment, City
appearance and environmental
Policy goal Policy support system
Develop, Coordinate Policy concepts Policy support system
Market operation, Government guidance, Orderly development Policy principles Policy support system
People’s Government, Office for Renovating Dilapidated and Aged Houses,
Leading Group for Shanty Areas and Environmental Improvement···
Policy participants Policy agent system
Shanty area renovation, Dilapidated and aged house renovation,
Environmental improvement, Organic renewal
Policy objects
Policy feedback system
Shanty areas, Environment, Policy, Mechanism, Cultural and creative
industries, Implementation measures···
Policy environments
Policy feedback system
Housing, Dilapidated and aged houses, Infrastructure, Economically
affordable housing, Resource···
Policy resources
Policy feedback system
Funds, Loan, Compensate, Investment, Financing, Unified loan, Taxation,
Social capital···
Policy finance Policy support system
Construction, Resettle, Planning, Improvement, Vacating,
Comprehensive renovation···
Policy processes Policy support system
Management, Service, Examine and approve, Registration, Formulating,
Simplify, Investigation, Publish···
Policy measures Policy support system
Execute, Identified, Approval, Supervise, Assessment, Census, For the filling Policy supervision Policy support system
Table 5. Axial coding and selective coding table (Shanghai).
Open Coding Axial Coding Selective Coding
Regional development, Innovative development, Connotative growth Policy goal Policy support system
Low-carbon, Energy-saving and environmental protection, Green, Intelligence
Policy concepts Policy support system
Public participation, Planning guidance, Co-construction and sharing,
People-oriented, Economical and intensive···
Policy principles Policy support system
People’s Government, Urban Renewal Leading Group, Stakeholders,
General public···
Policy participants Policy agent system
Urban renewal, Old area renovation, Organic renewal Policy objects
Policy feedback system
Policy, Detailed regulatory planning, Public space, Unit planning,
Implementation measures···
Policy environments
Policy feedback system
Land, Renewal projects, Public element, Realty, Contract, Property right,
Report, Plot ratio···
Policy resources
Policy feedback system
Land transfer, Stock premium, Funds, Land transfer price,
Compensate, Preferential···
Policy finance Policy support system
Implementation plan, Renewal evaluation, Renewal unit,
Life-cycle management···
Policy processes Policy support system
Implement, Management, Adjust, Organise, Conform to, Formulating,
Existing, Purpose, Need···
Policy measures Policy support system
Specification, Law, Duty, Demonstrate, Consultative, Procedure, Responsibility
Policy supervision Policy support system
Table 6. Axial coding and selective coding table (Guangzhou).
Open Coding Axial Coding Selective Coding
Living environment, Urban function, Public interest,
Urban–rural development···
Policy goal Policy support system
Develop, Coordinate, People-oriented, Benefit-sharing,
Sustainable, Low-carbon
Policy concepts Policy support system
Government-domination, Economical and intensive, Enterprise participation,
Market operation, Scientific planning
Policy principles Policy support system
Rural Collective, Urban Renewal Department, Enterprise, Urban Renewal
Leading Institution, People’s Government···
Policy participants Policy agent system
Urban renewal, Renovation of ‘the Three-Old’, Shanty area renovation,
Dilapidated old house renovation, Organic renewal
Policy objects
Policy feedback system

Land 2023,12, 118 16 of 31
Table 6. Cont.
Open Coding Axial Coding Selective Coding
Policy, Detailed regulatory planning, Science and technology, Headquarters
economy, Implementation measures···
Policy environments
Policy feedback system
Project, Land plot, Construction land, Basic data, Database, Plotting database
··· Policy resources
Policy feedback system
Compensate, Funds, Financing, Cost, Reconstruction and resettlement funds,
Policy funds···
Policy finance Policy support system
Micro transformation, Renovation scope, Comprehensive transformation,
Stockpile, Demolition and reconstruction···
Policy processes Policy support system
Organise, Perfect, Formulating, Advance, Open, Management, Adjust, Present
situation, Vote···
Policy measures Policy support system
Investigation, Law, Reply, Publicity, Expert demonstration, Exit mechanism··· Policy supervision Policy support system
Table 7. Axial coding and selective coding table (Shenzhen).
Open Coding Axial Coding Selective Coding
Living environment, Urban function, City construction,
Characteristic features···
Policy goal Policy support system
Develop, Coordinate, Sustainable Policy concepts Policy support system
Coordinated planning, Economical and intensive, Public participation, Market
operation, Government guidance···
Policy principles Policy support system
People’s Government, Urban Renewal Department, Urban Renewal Functional
Departments, Public···
Policy participants Policy agent system
Urban renewal, Demolition and reconstruction, Comprehensive improvement,
Functional change···
Policy objects
Policy feedback system
Unit planning, Economy, Regulations, Villages in the city, Culture, Policy,
Overall planning···
Policy environments
Policy feedback system
Project, Land, Buildings, Public service facilities, Industrial buildings,
Indemnificatory housing···
Policy resources
Policy feedback system
Compensate, Land price, Funds, Calculation and collection, Standard land
price, Land leasing fee···
Policy finance Policy support system
Planning, Renewal unit, Unit plan, Resettle, Ownership, Annual planning,
Development construction···
Policy processes Policy support system
Implement, Organise, Formulate, Management, Registration, Handle,
Procedure, Delimitation···
Policy measures Policy support system
Approval, Law, Publicity, Announcement, Plan management, Validity
period management···
Policy supervision Policy support system
5.3. Text Analysis of Urban Renewal Policies at Multiple Levels
Through a comparative analysis of the axial coding and selective coding tables
(Tables 3–7), we arrived at the following conclusions:
5.3.1. Policy Goal
The state took the strengthening of “urban-rural construction” and the comprehensive
promotion of “new-type urbanisation” as its core goals and set the realisation of “public
interest” as an important policy goal. Accordingly, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and
Shenzhen determined the overall goals of “urban-rural environment, regional development,
urban-rural development, and city construction”. However, these cities added specific
goals according to their respective urban characteristics, such as “functional positioning
and historical function” in Beijing; “innovative development and connotation growth” in
Shanghai; and “living environment and urban function” in Guangzhou and Shenzhen.
Moreover, Guangzhou responded to the state call and paid attention to “public interest”.
In addition, Shenzhen also emphasised “characteristic features”.

Land 2023,12, 118 17 of 31
5.3.2. Policy Concepts
The concept of the state is consistent with that of the four cities. The state took “green,
energy-saving and environmental protection” as the guiding ideology to realise the “all-
round, coordinated and sustainable development” of the economy and society. Shanghai
advocated “low-carbon, energy-saving, environmental protection and green”. Beijing,
Guangzhou, and Shenzhen emphasised “development, coordination and sustainability”.
5.3.3. Policy Principles
The state and the four cities followed the principle of “economy and intensification”.
Starting from the overall situation, the state considered “adaptation to local conditions,
overall planning, market allocation, and government-domination” as the main implemen-
tation principles. In combination with specific renewal activities, the implementation
principles of the four cities were different. Beijing emphasised “market operation and
government guidance”; Shanghai emphasised “public participation, planning guidance,
and co-construction and sharing”; Guangzhou emphasised “government-domination and
market operation”; and Shenzhen emphasised “coordinated planning, public participation,
market operation, and government guidance”.
5.3.4. Policy Participants
The state-level policy took the “People’s Government” as its core participant and
involved multiple policy participants, such as “government departments, enterprises,
residents, and individuals”. The four cities also established specific participants for spe-
cific policy objects. For example, Beijing set up the “Office for Renovating Dilapidated
and Aged Houses” and the “Leading Group for Shanty Areas and Environmental Im-
provement”; Shanghai set up the “Urban Renewal Leading Group”; Guangzhou estab-
lished the “Urban Renewal Leading Institution” and the “Urban Renewal Department”;
and Shenzhen established the “Urban Renewal Department” and the “Urban Renewal
Functional Departments”.
5.3.5. Policy Objects
The state successively carried out “urban-rural planning; urban planning; land reserv-
ing; house dismantlement; fund management; renovation of dilapidated and aged houses,
urban-village, and shanty areas; energy-saving renovation of buildings, administration of
city purple lines, and comprehensive environmental renovation”, which covered planning,
land acquisition, housing, funds, environment, and other aspects. Beijing focused on
the “renovation of dilapidated and aged houses and shanty areas, and environmental im-
provement” to achieve “organic renewal”. Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen proposed
“urban renewal”. Among them, Shanghai focused on “old area renovation”; Guangzhou
fully implemented the “renovation of ‘the three-old’”; and Shenzhen divided the renewal
into three categories including “comprehensive improvement, functional change, and
demolition and reconstruction”.
5.3.6. Policy Environments
The state-level policy was affected by political, economic, natural, international, so-
cial, scientific, and technological aspects, such as “economy, system, environment, history,
culture, market, policy, regulations, network, and employment”. Similar impacts are seen
on city-level policies which follow specific policy environments. The cities formulated
“renewal measures, implementation measures, solutions, detailed rules for the imple-
mentation, unit planning, overall planning, detailed planning, district planning, detailed
regulatory planning, and detailed site planning”.
5.3.7. Policy Resources
Both the policies of the state and the cities covered “land, architecture, houses, facili-
ties, projects, resources, population, contract.” Among them, Beijing formulated a sound

Land 2023,12, 118 18 of 31
indemnificatory housing policy, including “economically affordable housing, low-rent
housing, directional resettlement housing and directly managed public housing” to solve
the housing difficulties of its people. Shanghai clarified the important issue of urban space
management and control, such as “renewal projects, public elements and lists, and plot ratio
incentives”. Guangzhou established a normal “basic data” investigation system, regularly
updated the basic data in a “database” for urban renewal (that is, a plotting database), and
established a data sharing and exchange mechanism among various administrative depart-
ments and urban renewal departments. Shenzhen vigorously implemented the policy of
“indemnificatory housing, innovative industrial housing, and public service facilities” to
protect the public interests of the city.
5.3.8. Policy Finance
The state and the four cities made corresponding regulations on renewal funds, re-
settlement compensation, financial support, and other aspects. However, Guangzhou had
more perfect financial policies than Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenzhen.
The state made clear provisions for “raising, applying, calculating, allocating and
using” urban renewal “funds”. The resettlement compensation policy was continuously
improved and specific provisions were made for the “compensation standard, compen-
sation amount, compensation fee, compensation mode, payment period, relocation fee,
and temporary resettlement fee” of various “subsidy funds”. It emphasised “earmarking
special account storage”, implemented the policy of “financial and tax support and tax
deduction”, and strengthened the support of “financial, credit, and loan”.
Beijing demanded that “funds” be guaranteed following regulations; the “investment”
system be improved; the “financing” mechanism be innovated; the municipal “unified loan”
platform be used to raise funds; the integrated use of financial funds and bank “loans” be
strengthened; “insurance” funds and “credit and loan” funds be made available; and “social
capital” be encouraged to participate in urban renewal. Beijing also demanded the active
implementation of relevant “tax” preferential policies and formulation of “compensation”
measures following the relevant provisions of the state and the municipality corresponding
to the actual situation.
Shanghai and Shenzhen made relevant provisions on the “source, arrangement and
use” of renewal “funds”; established “compensation” management measures for resettle-
ment and relocation; and launched relevant “preferential” policies. Shanghai, in particular,
formulated a detailed “land transfer” and “revenue” management system of “land transfer
price,” and “stock premium”. Shenzhen drafted specific policies for “the calculation of
land price and the collection of land leasing fee”.
Compared with the above three cities, Guangzhou’s financial policies were more
detailed. It made provisions for “raising and using” specific “funds”; formulated “com-
pensation measures” for the dismantlement, resettlement, and establishment of relevant
“reduction” policies; issued relevant supporting documents, such as the “Measures for the
Administration of Reconstruction and Resettlement Funds, Accounting Measures for Reno-
vation Cost of Old Villages, Financing Measures for Urban Renewal”; increased financial
support; and encouraged the use of the state “policy funds” for renovation.
5.3.9. Policy Processes and Policy Measures
Urban renewal policies were formulated by the central government in specific sectors,
such as “urban construction; urban planning; land administration; house dismantlement;
administration of purple lines; renovation of shanty areas, dilapidated and aged houses, and
urban-village.” After studying and implementing state policies, the four cities comprehen-
sively formulated management measures and implementation procedures corresponding
to actual local conditions.
The renewal mode adopted by Beijing included “improvement, repair, and compre-
hensive renovation”. The city stipulated relevant “procedures” in the renewal process and
pointed out that the “planning and construction scheme” should be “formulated” based

Land 2023,12, 118 19 of 31
on “the investigation, registration, and determined evaluations”. The relevant scheme
should be “published” and the opinions of residents should be listened to. However, the
city instructed the relevant departments to perform a good job in “designing, building,
completing, accepting” and other processes related to “management and service”. It also
made provisions for the “expropriation and allocation” of land; for the “dismantlement”
of houses; for the “moving out, vacating and resettling” of units and residents; for the
“simplification of approval formalities” of relevant government departments; and for “the
protection of historical and cultural relics”.
Shanghai proposed a management system combining “regional assessment”, “imple-
mentation plan” and “life-cycle management” for urban renewal. The city required the
main agent to perform the “evaluation of renewal” during its implementation; delineate
“renewal unit” based on “existing” renewal “needs”; clarify the contents in the public
elementary list; “organise” and “formulate” intentional “construction scheme” according
to relevant technical “standards”; and “comprehensively” consider “planning”, “imple-
mentation” and “public will”. Regarding land management, relevant regulations were
created on the “use and transfer of land, transfer period, land use boundary, building area,
and building height”. Corresponding provisions were implemented for the “protection of
historical features”.
Guangzhou clarified the specific “renovation scope”. The “Renewal mode” of the city
included “comprehensive transformation” based on “demolition and reconstruction”, “mi-
cro transformation” focusing on “renovation repair,” and “historical and cultural protection”
on the unchanged premise of maintaining the “present situation” and “construction” pat-
tern. The city instructed the relevant departments to “organise” and “formulate” medium-
and long-term “planning” for urban renewal, “delimit urban renewal areas”, and set out
“scheme” programs for areas included in the “implementation plan” of urban renewal areas
following relevant technical “standards”. Regarding land disposal, detailed regulations
were created on the “expropriation”, “acquisition”, “stockpile”, “integration”, “develop-
ment”, “utilisation”, “application”, “transfer”, and “allocation” of land, while emphasising
the “improvement of historical land-use procedures” and the execution of “historical land
disposal”. The city also proposed specific measures for urban renewal projects involving
housing “dismantlement” and “resettlement”.
Shenzhen defined the “scope” of urban renewal and implemented a management
system of “unit planning and annual plan”. Its “procedure” covered “formulation of a
unit plan; confirmation of implementation participants; ownership registration; land-use
right transfer; development and construction; moving-back and resettlement; protection,
activation and utilisation of cultural relics, historical areas and buildings”.
5.3.10. Policy Supervision
The state and the cities envisaged implementing the whole-process and dynamic
“supervision” of urban renewal. The state granted “rewards” to units and individuals who
had made achievements; conducted “supervision, inspection, handling and notification”
for violations of laws and regulations; and “investigated” whether personnel in charge of
relevant regulations discharged their “responsibilities”. Beijing emphasised the “supervi-
sion, assessment and filing” of participants and individuals; Shanghai focused on “law,
demonstration and consultation” in the process of renovation; Guangzhou established
a “regular assessment notification system, expert demonstration system and exit mecha-
nism” for renewal projects; and the urban renewal unit in Shenzhen implemented “plan
management (validity period management)”.
6. Discussion on the Mechanism of Policy Transfer in Vertical and Horizontal Dimensions
Through the interpretation and analysis of policy texts, this paper discusses the transfer
of China’s urban renewal policies in light of the theory of policy transfer.

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6.1. Types of Urban Renewal Policy Transfer in China
Since China’s reform and opening up, the acceleration of marketisation, and the de-
centralisation of economic, financial, and decision-making powers, local governments have
gradually assumed an important role in original policy development that had previously
been strictly controlled by the central government.
Under the political and economic system of socialism with Chinese characteristics,
there are two trends in the spatial dimension of policy practice (Figure 5). The first trend is
that of hierarchical transfer along the vertical dimension, mainly in the form of top-down
central-to-local policy implementation, while including mildly bottom-up reverse transfer.
The second trend is that of policy transfer with modification along the horizontal dimension
in cities, which is congruent with the specific environment of the place to where the policy
is transferred. Based on this, this paper explores the transfer of China’s urban renewal
policies between “state-city” and “city-city” in the vertical and horizontal dimensions.
Figure 5. The spatial dimension of urban renewal policy transfer in China.
In the vertical dimension, although the power of local governments is constantly
expanding, the power structure of this unitary system has not changed, and the state has
absolute control over local governments. Through the formulation of laws, administrative
regulations, departmental rules, and working documents related to urban renewal, the
state promotes the transfer and implementation of central policies from the State Council
and relevant departments to provinces, cities, districts, and counties.
With the performance appraisal system, local governments actively study the “spirit
of central documents” and “leadership speeches”; analyse the central policy intentions;
quickly find the policy-fit point between the central and local governments in agreement
with their urban renewal status; and determine the content and focus of the policy transfer,
which seems mandatory. The state also allows some local cities to carry out policy pilots.
These local governments hope to gain recognition from the central government through
the moderate adjustment and independent innovation of policy practices related to urban
development. Moreover, once a local government obtains the success of policy innovation
practice, significant and potentially popular policies will affect the central government to a
certain extent, thus forming a bottom-up combination of reverse policy transfer.
In the horizontal dimension, with the rapid development of informatisation and
regional integration, competition among local governments becomes increasingly fierce.
These governments have gradually realised that, for the transformation of development,
they have to solve urban problems and contradictions, enhance urban competitiveness,
and maintain steady economic growth, besides implementing state policies. They have to

Land 2023,12, 118 21 of 31
create a competitive and attractive local policy environment and build a policy system in
line with the actual requirement in the locality.
To achieve this goal, policy transfer provides a quick way for local urban governments
to actively learn the policy experiences from other governments with similar economic, so-
cial, cultural, and development priorities and situations; to draw lessons from the advanced
demonstration of policies; and to introduce policies that have been verified by practice and
have achieved a good social response. Thus, a voluntary renewal policy transfer among
horizontal local governments has gradually prevailed.
6.2. The Degree and Content of Urban Renewal Policy Transfer in China
Policy transfer enables local governments to seek similar policy experiences to solve
problems by borrowing the wisdom of others, regardless of whether state or regional
policies are being transferred, unless the policy plans are time-consuming and involve
laborious redesign. The state and local governments adjust policy contents and policy
measures to local realities in a timely manner instead of completely copying them.
As for the transferred content, sometimes the whole policy is transferred, but mostly,
policy goals and tools are transferred with policy content. From the vertical dimension
perspective (Tables 3–7), local governments always select parts of the transferred policy
from the state, covering “the goal, concept, principle, participant, object, environment,
resource, finance, process, measure, and supervision of the policy”. From the horizontal
dimension perspective (Tables 3–7), when renewal policies are transferred among local
governments, they select parts of the policies involving “its participant, principle, finance,
process, measure, and supervision”.
First, according to the degree of transfer analysis from the vertical dimension, the
coding table at the state level (Table 3) shows that the state takes the “People’s Government”
as the core “policy participant” when coordinating urban renewal works. Its “policy objects”
cover all aspects of urban construction, such as “urban planning; house dismantlement;
renovation of dilapidated buildings, shanty areas, and urban-village; fund management,
real estate management; construction of supporting infrastructure; administration of purple
lines; energy-saving renovation of existing buildings; economical and intensive use of land;
comprehensive environmental improvement”. Based on the “green, energy-saving, all-
round, coordinated and sustainable” “policy concepts” and “economical and intensive, and
government-domination” “policy principles”, as well as “market allocation and overall
planning”, an “urban-rural construction” will be carried out and an attempt will be made
to achieve the “policy goal” of “new-type urbanisation”.
According to the analysis of existing data on Beijing (Table 4), Shanghai (Table 5),
Guangzhou (Table 6), and Shenzhen (Table 7), it is concluded that the degree to which
the cities have transferred the state renewal policies shows a spiralling upward trend
after experiencing a pattern of combination–emulation–inspiration (Figure 6). The reasons
include the following:
Figure 6. The degree of urban renewal policy transfer in China.

Land 2023,12, 118 22 of 31
(1) The urban renewal policies issued by the state are formulated in specific sectors,
including “urban construction and planning; land administration; house dismantlement;
administration of purple lines; renovation of shanty areas, dilapidated and aged houses,
and urban-village”.
(2) Through a comprehensive absorption and integrated application of different poli-
cies in the planning of urban spaces, land acquisition, housing, shanty areas, and villages in
the city, and by following the essence of their policies, the four urban governments learnt
and drew lessons from the same “policy goals” and “policy concepts.” These included
state policies on improving the “urban-rural environment and urban functions” and re-
alising “the coordination and development” of cities. The governments adopted similar
“principles”, “environments”, and “resources” of policies, such as being “government-
domination, economical and intensive.” They utilised “the land, architectures, houses,
facilities, projects” and other policy resources for urban renewal under existing “economy,
system, environment, history, culture, market” and other policy environmental factors.
(3) When the four cities did not completely copy others’ policies, they tried to conform
to the actual situation in local cities or meet the central government’s requirements in many
aspects. For example, in terms of “policy object”, the state made specific provisions for
planning, land acquisition, housing, allocating funds, and protecting the environment.
Beijing mainly focused on the renovation of “dilapidated and aged houses and shanty
areas, and environmental improvement”; Shanghai emphasised “the renovation of old
area”; Guangzhou fully implemented the “renovation of ‘the three-old’”; and Shenzhen
classified urban renewal into “comprehensive improvement, functional change, demo-
lition and reconstruction”. In terms of “policy participants”, the four cities established
special institutions for urban renewal. Beijing set up the “Office for Renovating Dilapi-
dated and Aged Houses” and the “Leading Group for Shanty Areas and Environmental
Improvement”, while Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen established the “Urban Re-
newal Department”. In addition, many detailed changes were also made in the aspects
of “finance, process, measure and supervision of policies”, such as fund management,
compensation provisions, support policies, renewal procedures, and regulatory control to
achieve policy localisation.
(4) Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen creatively issued local implementation mea-
sures for urban renewal, detailed rules, and supporting policies through the reference and
application of a single state policy. Although Beijing did not issue urban renewal measures
and implementation rules, the city issued a series of new policies for the renovation of
shanty areas and dilapidated and aged houses in the light of its specific conditions.
Then, from the perspective of the horizontal dimension, the analysis of the coding
table (Tables 4–7) leads to the conclusion that the degree of transfer among the four cities is
mainly based on emulation and inspiration (Figure 6). Among the cities, Shenzhen was the
first to introduce urban renewal measures and implementation rules. Through learning
policies, drawing lessons, and emulation, Shanghai formulated urban renewal measures,
implementation rules, and supporting documents in 2015 and Guangzhou in 2016. Owing
to changes in the actual situation, Shenzhen revised its urban renewal measures in 2016.
Under specific local conditions, Beijing issued relevant policies for the renovation of shanty
areas and dilapidated and aged houses.
The four cities established specific “policy participants” for specific “policy object”.
Although the “policy participant” of the cities took “People’s Government” as the core,
which is determined by China’s political system, there were differences in “policy principle”.
Beijing focused on “government guidance and market operation”; Shanghai focused on
“planning guidance, public participation, and co-construction and sharing”; Guangzhou
focused on “government-domination and market operation”; and Shenzhen focused on
“coordinated planning, public participation, market operation, and government guidance”.
The four cities made detailed changes in the content of their renewal policy, such as in
the aspects of “finance, process, and measures”, according to local conditions. It involved
“fund guarantee; the mode and period of land transfer; collection and management of

Land 2023,12, 118 23 of 31
transfer fee; measures for resettlement, relocation, and compensation; preferential tax
policies; scope, mode, process, and system of renewal; the protection of cultural relic”.
Furthermore, in terms of “policy supervision”, Beijing emphasised the “supervision,
assessment and filing” of participants and individuals; Shanghai focused on “law, demon-
stration and consultation” in the process of renovation; Guangzhou established a “regular
assessment notification system, expert demonstration system, and exit mechanism” for
renewal projects; and Shenzhen stipulated “violations of law and discipline” and imple-
mented “plan management (that is, validity period management)” for urban
renewal units.
6.3. Evaluation of Urban Renewal Policy Transfer in China
The analysis in the preceding section leads to the conclusion that the four cities
achieved policy innovations with different degrees of policy transfer. The system for
the renovation of shanty areas and environmental improvement in Beijing was complete.
Shanghai’s clear list of public elements and plot ratio incentives were important measures
for urban space management and control. Shenzhen’s policies for indemnificatory hous-
ing, innovative industrial housing, and public service facilities realised the optimisation
of urban spatial layout and the development of innovative industries, and ensured the
public interests of the city. Guangzhou allocated land resources for stock renewal through
data survey (that is, plotting database) and ensured that urban renewal activities agreed
with the comprehensive transformation and micro transformation through a system of
demonstration, consultation, and deliberation.
In addition, as shown in Table 8, Shenzhen issued two policy documents that became
the top-level design of the city’s urban renewal. Shenzhen made supporting provisions
for renewal with added importance in the system such that the city’s renewal work was at
the forefront in China. Subsequently, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Beijing directly issued
important policies. The top-level designs accelerated the renovation of the four cities and
ensured the realisation of their renewal goals as scheduled.
Table 8. Important urban renewal policy of the four cities.
City Policy
Shenzhen “Urban Renewal Measures of Shenzhen Municipality”;
“Detailed Rules for Implementation of Urban Renewal Measures of Shenzhen Municipality”
Shanghai “Urban Renewal Implementation Measures of Shanghai Municipality”;
“Detailed Rules for Implementation of Urban Renewal Planning Land of Shanghai Municipality”
Guangzhou “Urban Renewal Measures of Guangzhou Municipality”;
“Supporting Documents for Urban Renewal Measures of Guangzhou Municipality”;
“Detailed Rules for Implementation on Deeply Advancing Urban Renewal Work of Guangzhou Municipality”
Beijing “Implementation Measures of Beijing Municipality on Accelerating the Reconstruction of Urban Dilapidated and
Aged Houses (for Trial Implementation)”;
“Implementation Opinions of the People’s Government of Beijing Municipality on Accelerating the Reconstruction
of Shanty Areas and Environmental Improvement”;
“Guiding Opinions of the People’s Government of Beijing Municipality on the Implementation of Urban
Renewal Action”
It shows that policy innovation at the city level stems from differences in urban
background and urban renewal practices. This policy transfer of “adjusting measures to
local conditions” is an essential reason for the four cities to successfully promote urban
renewal work and improve efficiency. Moreover, the advanced policies of the four cities
had a reverse impact on the state, prompting the Central Economic Working Conference in
2019 to emphasise the concept of “urban renewal” for the first time and elevate it to a state
strategy, facilitating the state-level policy to usher in more systematic development and
playing a positive role in guiding the renewal policies of other cities.

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6.4. The Effective Path of Urban Renewal Policy Transfer in China: Inspiration-Type Policy Transfer
Effective policy transfer can solve state-level and regional problems and improve
people’s well-being. However, owing to the different degrees of awareness, understanding,
and choice of policy participants, as well as differences in the local applicability of the
transferred policies, the effects of policy transfer vary.
Based on the division of the degree of policy transfer by Dolowitz and Marsh, we
further propose the framework of the “‘Degree–Effect’ analysis of policy transfer”, as
shown in Table 9. The degree of policy transfer is found to be inversely proportional to the
difficulty of policy transfer and directly proportional to the effect of policy implementation.
Table 9. “Degree–Effect” analysis of policy transfer.
Transfer Degree Transfer Grade Transfer Form Transfer Difficulty Implementation Effect
Copying I (low) Copy-and-paste IV (high) Poor
Emulation II Selectively transfer and modify parts of
the policy
III Medium
Combination III Comprehensive utilisation of relevant
policies and without
excessive modification
II Good
Inspiration IV (high)
Completing the reproduction process of
policy knowledge and realising
the innovation
I
(low)
Excellent
Our findings showed that both “state-city” and “city-city” urban renewal measures
refused to adopt the copying-type policy transfer in favour of the emulation-type policy.
Through comparing the specific contents of the axial coding (Tables 3–7), it can be concluded
that the state and the cities have combined the actual situation of their own regions when
implementing the renewal policy transfer, rather than copying. Despite the similarities
in some policy contents and even the phenomenon of policy convergence, this is caused
by the universality of policy transfer. While some local policies are copied, this is not the
overall situation.
In the “state-city” policy transfer, the renewal policies at the state level were formulated
in specific sectors, such as “planning, land acquisition, and housing”. The cities first
adopted the combination-type policy transfer to comprehensively absorb relevant single
policies. Then, considering their actual situations, the cities adopted the way of emulation to
selectively transfer and modify some policies. Finally, considering feasible schemes and for
stimulating fresh ideas, implementation measures of local urban renewal were innovatively
introduced to realise the inspiration-type policy transfer. We take the “Urban Renewal
Measures of Shenzhen Municipality” as an example (Table 10), which is a successful
experience of implementing inspiration-type policy transfer in Shenzhen. On the basis of
better absorbing and transforming the state policies, Shenzhen has realized the transfer
and innovation of renewal policies in line with local conditions. At the same time, the
“Shenzhen model” of urban renewal as a result of reform has also been summarised and
promoted by the state.
In the process of “city-city” urban renewal policy transfer, the four cities found new
policy factors by emulating the good policy contents of other cities and combining trans-
ferred policies with the local reality, which promoted the innovation of urban renewal
policy and the implementation of renewal activities. The promulgation of the “Urban
Renewal Measures of Shenzhen Municipality” not only ushered in an era of “acceleration”
in Shenzhen’s urban renewal work, but was also emulated by the other three cities. They
set up the “urban renewal department”. According to the actual problems in urban re-
newal, as determined by the policy object in each period, Guangzhou formulated detailed
and practical management policies for renewal funds; Shanghai implemented “life-cycle
management”; and Beijing deepened and promoted a special campaign of “making im-
provements through relocation and rectification” to disperse non-capital functions and

Land 2023,12, 118 25 of 31
effectively control the “big city disease”. Finally, the three cities formulated their own
urban renewal measures and renewal guidelines. Shenzhen also revised its urban renewal
measures in 2016 on the basis of the experience of other cities. It can be seen that the transfer
among the four cities is mostly voluntary by local governments and based on successful
demonstration and information dissemination. Although there are local differences, most
of the transfer degree is emulation, and the transfer effect is not consistent; the cities have
optimised their urban renewal system and accomplished great achievements in urban
renewal activities. Obviously, it would be silly to reinvent the wheel with much effort
and through painful trial and error if learning the experience from others is both more
cost-effective and practical.
Table 10. The transfer correspondence between the State policy and Shenzhen policy.
Policy Goal Policy
Concepts
Policy
Principles Policy Objects Policy
Participants Policy Contents
State
Realise a
new-type
urbanisation
High-quality
development
guided by
green ecology
Overall
planning and
adaptation to
local condition
Specific to land,
housing,
planning,
funds, etc.
Land
administrative
department,
urban–rural
planning
department,
house
dismantlement
management
department, etc
.
Aiming at specific
policy objects, it has
formulated
corresponding fund
management
methods,
implementation
process procedures,
supervision and
punishment
mechanisms, and
other policy contents
Shenzhen
Improve urban
functions,
optimise
industrial
structure, and
improve living
environment
Sustainable
development
Government
guidance and
market
operation
Divided urban
renewal into
three categories:
“demolition and
reconstruction,
comprehensive
improvement,
and functional
change”
Set up the
urban renewal
department and
the urban
renewal
functional
departments
In combination with
the historical
situation of
Shenzhen, it created
detailed regulations
on renewal funds,
procedures,
measures, and
supervision that
conform to the urban
development
To sum up, it can be concluded that the inspiration-type policy transfer has the highest
degree, the lowest transfer difficulty, and the best implementation effect. Therefore, in
the formulation and implementation of urban renewal policy, policy participants should
gain awareness of the inspiration-type policy transfer. At the original level of copying
or emulation, and without thinking of policy optimisation and innovation, the effect of
renewal is greatly reduced.
We also found that the ability of participants to transfer policy has to be improved.
Generally, the stronger their ability, the easier it is for them to obtain policy innovation.
In addition, participants with a strong transfer ability attach importance to the collection,
identification, storage, and processing of transferred policy information to deeply and
accurately understand it. This helps them capture the spiritual essence of the policy; they
become aware of its operability in the original country or region. Additionally, participants
with a strong transfer ability can expand their perspective to think more broadly; they
are good at using their keen vision to grasp key factors for their use in the process of
policy transfer.
We have concluded that the localisation of policy transfer has to be promoted. Policy
participants should follow the general law of policy transfer and determine the content of
the policy transfer while considering the actual situation of their own country or region. The

Land 2023,12, 118 26 of 31
process of policy transfer is determined by investigating the operational environment after
transferring and analysing its transfer cost, the acceptance of policy objects, the difficulty of
policy implementation, and the expected effect. After localisation, the transferred policies
can adapt to the new policy environment and form different degrees of policy innovation
according to local conditions to meet the renewal needs.
7. Conclusions
This study found that the policy transfer between the state and the four cities was
dominated by a top-down coercive vertical transfer. However, a combination reverse
transfer from the bottom to the top often occurred. The policy transfer among the four cities
was mainly a voluntary horizontal transfer. In the process of policy transfer, the state or
local government did not completely copy but selectively modified the goals, tools, content,
and other factors of the transferred policies. The degree of transferring state policies in
the four cities was in a spiral upward state after experiencing a combination–emulation–
inspiration process; the degree of transfer among the four cities was mainly based on
imitation and inspiration.
After experiencing different degrees of policy transfer, the four cities achieved certain
policy innovations. This showed that the state’s urban renewal policy was well imple-
mented in the four cities; the key concepts and core contents of the policy were well
inherited and developed. Moreover, owing to the different degrees of policy transfer in
the four cities, their policy innovation was also different, which better highlighted the
characteristics of local policies. Furthermore, the advanced policies of the four cities had
a reverse impact on the state, making the urban renewal policies at the state level more
perfect and systematic.
By analysing policy transfer in terms of the degrees of copying, emulation, combina-
tion, and inspiration, we can conclude that the copying-type policy transfer is not feasible.
The political system, economic environment, and social culture of any country or city
cannot be identical, nor can the development stage be completely synchronised. Therefore,
policy transfer should always be carried out in accordance with the actual conditions
of the country or the region. In the process of transfer, when using the emulation-type
or combination-type policy transfer, some policies are changed or multiple policies are
comprehensively utilised to a certain extent to be consistent with the actual situation of
the area where the policy is transferred, so as to solve some problems related to the urban
renewal of the region. These two types are easier to implement and achieve certain results
when compared to the copying-type policy transfer. In the process of inspiration-type
policy transfer, policy subjects give full play to their subjective initiative; conduct in-depth
research on the transferred policies; discover new policy factors; create and change the
transferred policies to a certain extent, which can better meet the actual needs of the local
region, achieve better implementation effect, and promote policy innovation.
According to the experience of the four first-tier cities, we propose that the inspiration-
type policy transfer is an effective path for urban renewal policy development in China,
which not only provides a new perspective for the study of urban renewal policy but also
provides a new idea in the policy context. Although the experience of advanced cities can
lead other cities, in the specific implementation process, we need to take into account the
institutional structure, organizational form, and execution capacity. Thus, in the future,
we aim to conduct discussions on the combination of policy quantification and policy
transfer to better promote empirical research on policy transfer and involve more cases of a
nationwide policy of cities.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, Y.H. and X.D.; methodology, Y.H.; formal analysis, Y.H.,
W.C. and F.X.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.H.; all authors participated in writing—review
and editing; visualization, Y.H. and L.W.; funding acquisition, G.L. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.

Land 2023,12, 118 27 of 31
Funding:
This research was funded by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities,
grant numbers 2019CDJSK03PY07, 2021CDJSKPT03, and 2020CDJSK03PT2.
Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available from the corresponding
author upon request.
Acknowledgments:
The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to the Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities (2019CDJSK03PY07, 2021CDJSKPT03, and 2020CDJSK03PT2) for
funding this research project. Appreciation is also due to all members of the research team for their
invaluable contributions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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