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Potential sites for the use of ocean energy in the Mexican Caribbean
Abstract
Increasing demand for electricity and the need for sustainable energy sources, make ocean energy a viable alternative for its generation in coastal regions. In this study, wave, marine currents and thermal gradient resources were evaluated to identify potential sites for energy harvesting in the Mexican Caribbean. From a techno-economic review of the literature, a marine current turbine from Nova Innovation 100 kW, an OWC (350 kW), and an OTEC (1 MW) plant were considered, examining theoretical energy potentials and the LCOE of each. A potential environmental impact assessment was also carried out, including a study of the regulatory framework and the socio-economic conditions in the region. The results show that energy harvesting from the sources analyzed is viable, especially in the north of the area, where most of the sites that fit the proposed criteria were found, e.g. Cancun for wave energy (power availability of 45.6 MWh/m/yr) and current energy (power availability of 4.4 MWh/m²yr), and the east coast of Cozumel for OTEC deployment (power availability of 1.69 GWh/km²/yr). Of the three harvesting technologies studied, the best LCOE obtained was for OTEC (862.2 US$/MWh) with a capacity factor of 0.965%. This was expected, given that the technologies analyzed for current and wave energy are not efficient for the resource conditions in the Mexican Caribbean.
... These studies aimed to explore local people's acceptance or opposition to the new technologies by pondering the potential benefits to society and the direct and indirect changes in their cultural and environmental conditions. These studies used direct interactions with the inhabitants and took place in only three locations, where it was determined previously that it was possible to harvest MRE [17,33]. The studies took place in El Cuyo (Yucatán), Cozumel (Quintana Roo), and La Paz (Baja California Sur) ( Table 1). ...
... Finally, the population's education level in La Paz is like Cozumel, so we again applied a Likert scale questionnaire to the city's adult residents. The results of the social perception studies in El Cuyo and Cozumel have been previously reported [17,33]. In the case of La Paz, this is the first time these results have been published. ...
... However, they analyzed the environmental concerns using only one legal instrument: Mexico's Natural Protected Areas. Similar simplifications for environmental evaluation exist in a study [17] at a regional scale, which focused on the wave, marine currents, and thermal gradient resources in the Mexican Caribbean, and by [2], who studied potential OTEC sites in Mexico. Other studies [33] explored the environmental concerns regarding MRE and determined potential species and ecosystems that MRE devices could impact. ...
Citation: Martínez, M.L.; Chávez, V.; Silva, R.; Heckel, G.; Garduño-Ruiz, E.P.; Wojtarowski, A.; Vázquez, G.; Pérez-Maqueo, O.; Maximiliano-Cordova, C.; Salgado, K.; et al. Assessing the Potential of Marine Renewable Energy in Mexico: Socioeconomic Needs, Energy Potential, Environmental Concerns, and Social Perception. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7059. https://doi. Abstract: Although the literature on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is vast worldwide, studies in Mexico focusing on Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) and SDGs are only beginning to emerge. Despite this academic gap, Mexico has signed up for the United Nations SDGs, which include producing clean and affordable energy and reducing CO 2 emissions to slow global warming. The country is, therefore, committed to implementing measures to help achieve these goals. This study is the first multidisciplinary analysis performed at a national level in Mexico, aimed at identifying sites for efficient Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) production while considering socioeconomic needs, environmental risks, and societal acceptance of the new technologies. We first calculated the energy potential from nearshore winds, waves, marine currents, and offshore thermal gradients. The results show that electricity needs are greater in the 11 states where levels of marginalization are highest. The production of MRE is feasible in three of these regions. However, because Mexico is home to significant natural coastal ecosystems and protected species, care is necessary to produce electricity while protecting Mexico's megadiversity. Social perception of the use of MRE is variable: the inhabitants of some locations are willing to accept the new technologies, whereas those in others are not. MRE production in Mexico is feasible but will face environmental and social issues that must be addressed before deploying new devices in the oceans.
... Specific studies on the availability of the temperature difference between surface water and water at greater depths have been carried out in the Caribbean Sea [9,10], in Cuba [3], Puerto Rico [11], and the Virgin Islands [12]; Atlantic Ocean, in the Gulf Stream [13,14], Florida [15,16], Gulf of Mexico [17], Brazil [18], and the Ivory Coast [19]; in the Pacific 2 of 21 Ocean [20,21], in Dampier Land [22], Japan [2,23], Hawaii [24,25], Guam [26], Manila [23,27], Kiribati [28], and Malaysia [29], and in the Indian Ocean, in Sri Lanka [30], Mombasa [31], Jakarta [32], and around Mexico [33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40]. In addition, to test the feasibility of this technology, small OTEC plants have been constructed at Nauru, Tokunoshima, and Imari [23,24,41]. ...
... Suboptimal conditions (18 ≤ VTD < 20 • C) were found in these areas at 440-750 m (Figure 3c). These findings generally agree with those of previous studies in Mexican waters [10,[33][34][35][36][37][38]47,50]. ...
... The results of our study are similar to the data found by Garduño Ruiz et al. [36], Garcia Huante [34], Garcia Huante et al. [35], Garduño Ruiz et al. [37], Chávez et al. [10], Alatorre et al. [33], Hernández Fontes et al. [38], and Acosta Pech et al. [50]. The slight differences may be a result of the seasons and timeframes used, and because the authors focused on specific points along the coast. ...
A large amount of thermal energy is stored in the oceans between the tropics, available for conversion into electrical energy using OTEC technology. The aim of this study was to determine the annual and seasonal variability of the oceanic thermal resource in Mexico. Using the WOA18 database, we mapped surface temperature at a 10 m depth, deep cold water (<5 °C), vertical temperature difference (18 and 20 °C), and temperature anomalies. From the results, four areas were analyzed as being suitable for the installation of OTEC technology: Pacific (A), Los Cabos (B), Caribbean (C), and Gulf of Mexico (G). The optimal thermal resource (≥20 °C) was found between a 400 and 1000 m depth in all seasons in A and C, in spring, summer, and autumn in G, and only in summer and autumn in B. The suboptimal thermal resource (between 18 and 20 °C) was present between 400 and 800 m in all seasons in A, C, and G, and in summer and autumn in B. These results provide new information of utmost importance for future location and design considerations of OTEC plants on Mexican coasts, and the methodology can be used in other areas where there is a lack of field data and the development of OTEC technology is being considered.
... The lowest energy, excluding arctic Alaska, occurs in waters in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Caribbean waters of Puerto Rico (average power densities below 10 kW/m and 50 MWh/m) (Robertson et al. 2016, Ahn et al. 2019, 2020. Nonetheless, some studies show that energy harvesting in the Mexican Caribbean is still feasible, especially in the northern coastal area of Cancun, where the power availability averages 45.6 MWh/m/yr (Chávez et al. 2023). ...
This paper provides an overview of the global characterization of wave energy resources for exploration. The most popular metrics and estimators for wave energy resource assessment have been compiled and classified by levels of energy exploitation. A review of existing prospective wave energy resource assessments worldwide is also given, and those studies have been collated and classified by continent. Finally, information about forty existing open sea wave energy test sites worldwide and their characteristics is depicted and displayed on a newly created global map. It has been found that wave power density is still the most consensual metric used for wave energy resource assessment purposes among researchers. Nonetheless, to accomplish a comprehensive wave resource assessment for exploitation, the computation of other metrics at the practicable, technical, and socioeconomic levels has also been performed at both spatial and temporal domains. Overall, regions in latitudes between 40º and 60º of both hemispheres are those where the highest wave power density is concentrated. Some areas where the most significant wave power density occurs are in offshore regions of southern Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Chile, the British Isles, Iceland, and Greenland. However, Europe has been the continent where most research efforts have been done targeting wave energy characterisation for exploitation. This is a preprint version. The final publication is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s11804-024-00545-9
... The lowest energy, excluding arctic Alaska, occurs in waters in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Caribbean waters of Puerto Rico (average power densities below 10 kW/m and 50 MWh/m) (Robertson et al. 2016, Ahn et al. 2019, 2020. Nonetheless, some studies show that energy harvesting in the Mexican Caribbean is still feasible, especially in the northern coastal area of Cancun, where the power availability averages 45.6 MWh/m/yr (Chávez et al. 2023). ...
Currently, potential sites for energy use by ocean
currents have been identified on the island of
Cozumel and in front of Cancun, and there is
interest in studying other sites such as Isla
Mujeres and Puerto Morelos, as well as
developing technology to take advantage of it. On
Isla Mujeres there are two sites known by sea
captains due to the danger of their currents, both
for bathers and boats, sites known as La Cadenita
in Punta Norte and La Licuadora in Punta Sur, with
La Licuadora being the site of greatest interest by
its current intensity.
The electrical grid of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico, operates separately from the National Interconnected System, with Baja California connected to the Western Electricity Coordinating Council of the USA; and Baja California Sur having an isolated, independent network. Based on the need for alternative renewable sources of electricity generation in the region, this work evaluates the wave energy power at specific locations on the Pacific coast of the peninsula, and identifies wave generation sites (WEGS). The WEGS were defined as rocky shore sites associated with a wave energy potential of over 10 kW/m (where the installation of oscillating water columns (OWC) is feasible) and the presence of coastal settlements that are less than 10 km from the shoreline. It was found that 370 km of the Pacific coast of the peninsula have characteristics suitable for the installation of OWC, and up to 1.4 million inhabitants could be benefited by this wave energy harvesting.
This paper presents a techno-economic assessment of hydrokinetic energy of Cozumel Island, where ocean currents have been detected, but tourist activities are paramount. The main objective of this research is to identify devices that have been used to harvest hydrokinetic power elsewhere and perform an economic analysis as to their implementation in the Mexican Caribbean. First, the energy potential of the area was evaluated using simulated data available through the HYCOM consortium. Then, for four pre-commercial and commercial turbines, technical and economic analyses of their deployments were performed. Socio-environmental constraints were reviewed and discussed. Three optimal sites were identified, with an average annual hydrokinetic energy density of 3–6 MWh/m2-year. These sites meet the socio-environmental requirements for marine kinetic energy harvesting. Of the turbines considered in the analysis, the best energy price/cost ratio is that of SeaGen device, with a maximum theoretical energy extraction of 1319 MWh/year with a Capacity Factor of 12.5% and a Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE) of 1148 USD/MWh. Using this device, but assuming a site-specific design that achieves at least 25% of Capacity Factor, 20-year useful life, and a discount rate of 0.125, the LCOE would be 685.6 USD/MWh. The approach presented here can be applied for techno-economic analyses of marine turbines in other regions.
Renewable ocean energy is an alternative that will help reduce carbon emissions into the atmosphere. However, there is uncertainty about potential environmental impacts of the technologies involved, because these are new and untested, and methods for the evaluation and monitoring of environmental impacts are scarce. We performed a systematic literature review (well-structured and organized, always looking for the same terms), followed by a systemic analysis in which we considered the interactions between environmental stressors, effects, receptors, and their responses. We found that most studies are theoretical revisions and modelling exercises, although field and laboratory experiments and observations are beginning to accumulate. Environmental stressors are features in the environment (energy-harvesting devices) that modify the natural dynamics of the system. The effects are the changes in the environment induced by the stressors; the most frequently acknowledged and measured are noise, collision, habitat change, hydro-sedimentary dynamics and wave modifications. The receptors of these changes are marine fauna, such as mammals, fish, sea birds, and benthic communities, as well as the shoreline. Their corresponding responses include behaviour, injuries/death, biodiversity loss, alterations in food webs and shoreline change. Once the different components of the environmental impacts are identified, it is important to develop monitoring and mitigation strategies to prevent, or minimize, environmental damage. Ocean energy is a promising option to reduce CO 2 emissions into the atmosphere , but the implementation of adequate monitoring and mitigation technologies requires multidisciplinary efforts to obtain effectively clean, renewable energy and to maintain healthy and functional ecosystems.
Since late 2014, the Mexican Caribbean coast has periodically received massive, atypical influxes of pelagic Sargassum spp. (sargasso). Negative impacts associated with these influxes include mortality of nearshore benthic flora and fauna, beach erosion, pollution, decreasing tourism and high management costs. To understand the dynamics of the sargasso influx, we used Landsat 8 imagery (from 2016 to mid-2020) to record the coverage of sargasso in the sea off the Mexican Caribbean coastline, with a maximum reported in September 2018. Satellite image analysis also showed local differences in the quantity of beached sargasso along the coastline. Over the years, good practice for collection on the beach and for offshore collection of sargasso have been established through trial and error, and the Mexican Government and hotel industry have spent millions of dollars on removal and offshore detention of sargasso. Notwithstanding, sargasso also has various properties that could be harnessed in local industries. The stimulation of local industrial growth would offer alternatives to the dependence on tourism, as a circular economy, based on sargasso, is developed.
Marine hydrokinetic turbines of MW-level capacity for harvesting oceanic currents are here reviewed. The best design is 3-blades, open rotor, axial flow turbines, of similar design philosophy to wind turbines, which are anchored to the ocean floor. The best locations are those with the oceanic current resource of higher intensity and stability, non-excessive depth of the ocean floor, proximity to shore, and favorable topography. In these locations, marine hydrokinetic turbines may become competitive with other renewable energy alternatives. It is expected that such turbines will be installed and will start producing electricity, within the next decade, working with power coefficients, the ratio of electric power from the turbine to wind power, around 0.45, similarly to wind turbines. This will pave the road for further progress and significant uptake of technology so far of no impact on the global energy mix.
Resumen: Se presentan los resultados de una investigación realizada en la isla de Cozumel, México, sobre actitudes de la pobla-ción con respecto a las energías renovables, especialmente marítimas. La metodología consistió en la aplicación de una escala de Likert, configurada a partir de los componentes de la actitud: conativo, cognitivo y afectivo. Los resultados muestran interés y aceptación por las energías alternativas, contradicciones entre las expresiones teóricas y las accio-nes prácticas de ahorro de energía, así como falta de información sobre energía marítima renovable. Palabras clave: Energías renovables, percepción social, actitudes socio ambientales, desarrollo sustentable, Cozumel. Abstract: The results of an investigation carried out on the island of Cozumel, Mexico, are presented on the population's attitudes towards renewable energies, especially maritime. The methodology consisted of the application of a Likert scale, configured from the components of the attitude: conative, cognitive and affective. The results show interest and acceptance for alternative energies, contradictions between theoretical expressions and practical actions to save energy, as well as a lack of information on renewable marine energy.
Existing installations of tidal-stream turbines are undertaken in energetic sites with flow speeds greater than 2 m/s. Sites with lower velocities will produce far less power and may not be as economically viable when using “conventional” tidal turbine designs. However, designing turbines for these less energetic conditions may improve the global viability of tidal technology. Lower hydrodynamic loads are expected, allowing for cost reduction through downsizing and using cheaper materials. This work presents a design methodology for low-solidity high tip-speed ratio turbines aimed to operate at less energetic flows with velocities less than 1.5 m/s. Turbines operating under representative real-site conditions in Mexico and the Philippines are evaluated using a quasi-unsteady blade element momentum method. Blade geometry alterations are undertaken using a scaling factor applied to chord and twist distributions. A parametric filtering and multi-objective decision model is used to select the optimum design among the generated blade variations. It was found that the low-solidity high tip-speed ratio blades lead to a slight power drop of less than 8.5% when compared to the “conventional” blade geometries. Nonetheless, an increase in rotational speed, reaching a tip-speed ratio (TSR) of 7.75, combined with huge reduction in the torque requirement of as much as 30% paves the way for reduced costs from generator downsizing and simplified power take-off mechanisms.
The Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Mexico offer a variety of marine energy sources for exploitation. Although the Mexican government has made important efforts to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels, national participation in clean energies is still limited in terms of electricity production. This paper presents a practical theoretical assessment of marine energy sources around Mexico, with the aim of identifying potential zones for subsequent, more detailed, technical evaluations and project implementations. The energy sources considered are ocean currents, waves, salinity, and thermal gradients. Using global databases, the percentages of energy availability for the defined thresholds were computed to establish the prospective regions with the most persistent power availability. This approach proved to offer more meaningful information than simple averaged values. Moreover, some environmental and socioeconomic factors to be considered for future ocean energy resource assessments in Mexico were also discussed. The results show that the wave energy potential is highest in the northwest of Mexico (~2-10 kW/m for more than 50% of the time), and that there is a constant source of ocean current energy off Quintana Roo state (~32-215 W/m 2 for more than 50% of the time). The thermal gradient power is more persistent in the southwest and southeast of the country, where ~100-200 MW can be found 70% of the time. The salinity gradient energy is strongest in the southeast of Mexico. The practical approach presented here can be extended to perform preliminary resources assessments in regions where information is scarce.
Marine renewables represent a promising and innovative alternative source for satisfying the energy demands of growing populations while reducing the consumption of fossil fuels. Most technological advancements and energy yield assessments have focused on promoting the use of kinetic energy from tidal streams with flow velocities higher than 2.0 m s −1. However, slower-moving flows from ocean currents are recently explored due to their nearly continuous and unidirectional seasonal flows. In this study, the potential of the Yucatan Current was analysed at nearshore sites over the insular shelf of Cozumel Island in the Mexican Caribbean. Field measurements were undertaken using a vessel-mounted Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) to analyse the spatial distribution of flow velocities, along with Conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) profiles as well as data gathering of bathymetry and water elevations. Northward directed flow velocities were identified, with increasing velocities just before the end of the strait of the Cozumel Channel, where average velocities in the region of 0.88-1.04 m s −1 were recorded. An estimation of power delivery using horizontal axis turbines was undertaken with Blade Element Momentum theory. It was estimated that nearly 3.2 MW could be supplied to Cozumel Island, amounting to about 10% of its electricity consumption.
En 2016 el 86% de la electricidad producida en México se generó a partir de combustibles fósiles y energía nuclear (sener, 2017). Los combustibles fósiles están actualmente bajo presión por diversos motivos, desde la mayor inaccesibilidad para reservas decrecientes de crudo, hasta la menor aceptación social de su uso por los altos impactos ambientales y de salud asociados. Esto genera una alta volatilidad en los costos y aumenta la inseguridad energética del país. Por otra parte, la energía nuclear puede generar grandes cantidades de energía pudiendo reemplazar a los combustibles fósiles; sin embargo, no es una fuente de energía limpia, sus residuos son altamente tóxicos
y es una de las fuentes de energía que más controversias generan. Por tales
motivos es de particular relevancia investigar y desarrollar otras opciones de
generación de energía, que satisfagan la demanda eléctrica nacional, actual y
proyectada, disminuyendo los impactos sociales y ambientales.
El agua de los océanos representa el 97% del total de agua que posee el planeta. En la actualidad aproximadamente el 10% de la población vive en zonas costeras a menos de 10 metros sobre el nivel del mar (lecz por sus siglas en inglés, Low Elevation Coastal Zones), que representan el 1.8% de la superficie terrestre total. De 2010 a 2100 se espera que las personas que habitan en lecz pasará de 704 millones a más de 1 000 millones (Silva et al., 2014).
Este documento es una revisión de fuentes de información, que abarcael periodo de 1959 al 2011, en el cual se dieron los mayores avances tecnológicos modernos y contemporáneos de dispositivos pre comerciales o comerciales,que tienen como producto final potencia eléctrica obtenida del océano, así, como de los inventarios globales de los recursos energéticos renovables por categorías: mareas, corrientes de mareas, olas, gradiente térmico y gradiente salino. Este estudió responde a una necesidad de información pertinente y veraz para la región del Caribe mexicano, en materia del conocimiento y cuantificación de sus recursos energéticos, transformables a energía eléctrica. Se hace primeramenteun marco de referencia global sobre el área de estudio, para ser contrastada con la situación actual nacional y regional, en dos apartados importantes: La evaluación de los recursos energéticos renovables del Océano y los avances de las diversas tecnologías de aprovechamiento-conversión eléctrica, seleccionando solo aquellas que tengan dispositivos demostrativos en operación en el mar. Actualmente, existe una participación global naciente de producción comercial de energía eléctrica con sistemas que aprovechan la energía del océano en países principalmente europeos. También el tiempo que requiere en general el proceso de investigación y desarrollo de una nueva tecnología de conversión de energía del océano, desde la conceptualización hasta una planta comercial es de 8 a 12 años de investigación y desarrollo.
The ocean waves are an important renewable energy resource that, if extensively exploited, may contribute significantly to the electrical energy supply of countries with coasts facing the sea. A wide variety of technologies has been proposed, studied, and in some cases tested at full size in real ocean conditions. Oscillating-water-column (OWC) devices, of fixed structure or floating, are an important class of wave energy devices. A large part of wave energy converter prototypes deployed so far into the sea are of OWC type. In an OWC, there is a fixed or floating hollow structure, open to the sea below the water surface, that traps air above the inner free-surface. Wave action alternately compresses and decompresses the trapped air which is forced to flow through a turbine coupled to a generator. The paper presents a comprehensive review of OWC technologies and air turbines. This is followed by a survey of theoretical, numerical and experimental modelling techniques of OWC converters. Reactive phase control and phase control by latching are important issues that are addressed, together with turbine rotational speed control.
In this study we estimate the prospective tidal current energy resources off the south and west coasts of Korea and explore the influence of modeling tidal current energies based on 15-day versus month-long data records for regimes with pronounced perigean/apogean influences. The tidal current energy resources off southern and western Korea were calculated using 29-day in situ observation data from 264 stations. The resultant annual energy densities found at each station were categorized into six groups, with a greater percentage of sites falling into the lower-energy groups: 1.1% for >10 MWh·m −2
La investigación cualitativa examina de forma profunda un reducido número de casos para explorar de forma detallada procesos o contextos especificos, para comprender en profundidad un fenómeno social concreto, o para entender cómo las personas conciben, perciben o narran sus situaciones cotidianas. Es decir, se ocupa de los aspectos que son subjetivamente aprehensibles por medio de un adentramiento en aquellos procesos que no son susceptibles de ser medidos en términos de frecuencia.
Este libro, titulado Manual de investigación cualitativa, está dirigido a estudiantes de licenciatura, maestría y doctorado en el ámbito de las ciencias sociales, humanidades y ciencias de la salud. Esta obra, además de abordar los aspectos que envuelven las principales técnicas cualitativas de recogida de datos, se adentra en la exploración de las etapas del proceso de investigación, aborda la estrategia de análisis de los datos, explicita los procedimientos que deben seguirse para transformar los datos brutos en un producto terminado, y reflexiona tanto sobre las estrategias a seguir para asegurar el rigor de la investigación cualitativa, como sobre el aspecto de la generalización de resultados. La particularidad de esta obra, y lo que la distingue de otros manuales de investigación cualitativa, es que proporciona no únicamente una guía sobre el manejo de técnicas cualitativas de obtención de datos y una exposición de los fundamentos epistemológicos y ontológicos de la investigación cualitativa; sino que también ofrece una explicación de los avatares del proceso de investigación, una descripción de procedimientos específicos a seguir, para asegurar el rigor de la actividad investigadora, y una exposición de los pasos conducentes a lograr una saturación de las diferencias discursivas recabadas en el proceso investigador.
Worldwide power resources that could be extracted from Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) plants are estimated with a simple one-dimensional time-domain model of the thermal structure of the ocean. Recently published steady-state results are extended by partitioning the potential OTEC production region in one-degree-by-one-degree "squares" and by allowing the operational adjustment of OTEC operations. This raises the estimated maximum steady-state OTEC electrical power from about 3 TW (10(9) kW) to 5 TW. The time-domain code allows a more realistic assessment of scenarios that could reflect the gradual implementation of large-scale OTEC operations. Results confirm that OTEC could supply power of the order of a few terawatts. They also reveal the scale of the perturbation that could be caused by massive OTEC seawater flow rates: a small transient cooling of the tropical mixed layer would temporarily allow heat flow into the oceanic water column. This would generate a long-term steady-state warming of deep tropical waters, and the corresponding degradation of OTEC resources at deep cold seawater flow rates per unit area of the order of the average abyssal upwelling. More importantly, such profound effects point to the need for a fully three-dimensional modeling evaluation to better understand potential modifications of the oceanic thermohaline circulation.
The purpose of this study is to find a combination of optimal numerical algorithms for time-stepping and mode-splitting suitable for a high-resolution, free-surface, terrain-following coordinate oceanic model. Due to mathematical feedback between the baroclinic momentum and tracer equations and, similarly, between the barotropic momentum and continuity equations, it is advantageous to treat both modes so that, after a time step for the momentum equation, the computed velocities participate immediately in the computation of tracers and continuity, and vice versa, rather than advancing all equations for one time step simultaneously. This leads to a new family of time-stepping algorithms that combine forward–backward feedback with the best known synchronous algorithms, allowing an increased time step due to the enhanced internal stability without sacrificing its accuracy. Based on these algorithms we design a split-explicit hydrodynamic kernel for a realistic oceanic model, which addresses multiple numerical issues associated with mode splitting. This kernel utilizes consistent temporal averaging of the barotropic mode via a specially designed filter function to guarantee both exact conservation and constancy preservation properties for tracers and yields more accurate (up to second-order), resolved barotropic processes, while preventing aliasing of unresolved barotropic signals into the slow baroclinic motions. It has a more accurate mode-splitting due to redefined barotropic pressure-gradient terms to account for the local variations in density field, while maintaining the computational efficiency of a split model. It is naturally compatible with a variety of centered and upstream-biased high-order advection algorithms, and helps to mitigate computational cost of expensive physical parameterization of mixing processes and submodels.
Scientists and engineers around the world are striving to develop new sources of energy. One source, ocean thermal energy conversion, has virtually unlimited potential. It is based on techniques that exploit heat produced by solar energy that may, in turn, be used to produce fuel and electricity. This book reviews the status and background of this promising technology. William H. Avery is the leading expert in this field, and his co-author Chih Wu is an authority on heat engine performance. Together they describe the workings of an OTEC power plant and how such a system might be implemented as part of a futuristic national energy strategy. The book is the only detailed presentation of basic OTEC technology, its testing and improvement. It is based on extensive development initiatives undertaken internationally during the period from 1974 through 1985. The book offers a thorough assessment of the economics of OTEC in comparison with other energy production methods. It will be of interest to a wide range of professionals in energy research, power and mechanical engineering, and to upper-level undergraduate students taking courses in these fields.
In many parts of the world, renewable energy is being considered as an alternative to supply electricity to communities in developing regions. However, even though various technologies are becoming available, there are several socio-environmental constraints that impinge on the viability of ocean energy conversion projects in isolated communities. By assessing environmental restrictions and socioeconomic attributes where electric power may be produced from the ocean can be useful in prioritizing the locations (especially those isolated) where this alternative is more viable. This paper examines socio-economic and environmental factors that may affect the introduction of ocean energy harvesting in areas currently without electricity. Our findings reveal that: a) in the coastal area of the state of Michoacán, southwest Mexico (at < 20 km from the coast and <100 m.a.s.l.), 153 human settlements with over 4,000 inhabitants lack electric power; 16 of these settlements are indigenous; b) economic activities are mostly fisheries and ecotourism; yet, marginalizaion is very high in the area; c) there are four protected areas with nesting sites for several marine turtle species (greater black, hawksbill, leatherback, and green); the “Deep Pacific Sea” natural protected area harbors great biodiversity; and d) electric power may be produced from ocean energy, especially waves, currents and thermal gradients. The infrastructure for grid connection and technical and logistical support is limited, and the topography near the coast is complex. However, our results indicate that the coastal region of Michoacan, has promising sources of ocean energy, especially for isolated settlements with limited, or no, electricity supply. The results show that waves and thermal gradients are viable options for energy generation in the area studied. Considering socioeconomic conditions and environmental restrictions, our observations suggest that, in particular, ocean energy projects might be successfully implemented in two locations on the coast of Michoacan, Future on-site studies into the environmental impact, the percepction and acceptance of society towards the new technologies and economic costs are necessary before implementing these new technologies.
The kinetic energy in ocean currents, or marine hydrokinetic (MHK) energy, is a renewable energy resource that can help meet global energy requirements. An ocean circulation model-based census shows that subtropical surface western boundary currents (WBCs) are the only nearshore, large-scale currents swift enough to drive large electricity-generating ocean turbines envisioned for future use. We review several WBCs in the context of kinetic energy extraction. The power density in the Gulf Stream off North Carolina at times reaches several thousand watts per square meter at 75 m below the surface, and the annual average power is approximately 500-1,000 W m(-2). Significant fluctuations occur with periods of 3-20 days (Gulf Stream meanders) and weeks to months (Gulf Stream path shifts). Interannual variations in annual average power occur because of year-to-year changes in these WBC motions. No large-scale turbines presently exist, and the road to establishing MHK facilities in WBCs will encounter challenges that are similar in many aspects to those associated with the development of offshore wind power. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Marine Science Volume 9 is January 03, 2017. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
Data Analysis Methods in Physical Oceanography is a practical referenceguide to established and modern data analysis techniques in earth and oceansciences. This second and revised edition is even more comprehensive with numerous updates, and an additional appendix on 'Convolution and Fourier transforms'. Intended for both students and established scientists, the fivemajor chapters of the book cover data acquisition and recording, dataprocessing and presentation, statistical methods and error handling,analysis of spatial data fields, and time series analysis methods. Chapter 5on time series analysis is a book in itself, spanning a wide diversity oftopics from stochastic processes and stationarity, coherence functions,Fourier analysis, tidal harmonic analysis, spectral and cross-spectralanalysis, wavelet and other related methods for processing nonstationarydata series, digital filters, and fractals. The seven appendices includeunit conversions, approximation methods and nondimensional numbers used ingeophysical fluid dynamics, presentations on convolution, statisticalterminology, and distribution functions, and a number of importantstatistical tables. Twenty pages are devoted to references.
A comparison based on eight months of simultaneous observations of the flow variability in the Yucatan and Cozumel channels shows that the portion of the Yucatan Current that crosses through Cozumel Channel is best correlated with the flow near the center of the Yucatan Channel within the core of the Yucatan Current (defined here as velocities in excess of 0.6 m s-1). The core has a mean transport of 9 Sv, which is about 40% of that measured for the entire Yucatan Channel cross section. The position of maximum current velocity oscillates within the mean core position in the Yucatan Channel, shifting eastward when the current intensifies in Cozumel Channel and westward when it weakens, indicative of a current behavior dominated by inertia instead of topographic control. Mesoscale features, possibly eddies passing through the region, seem to couple the variability in both channels, giving a plausible explanation for the observed current patterns.
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