Native avian predators for the world’s Black-browed Albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys) breeding colony in inner waters of Tierra del Fuego, Chile

Abstract

The breeding season is the most vulnerable period in the early stages of the life cycle of seabirds, due to the exposure of their eggs and chicks to the impact by predators. Most of the studies on predator–prey relationships between the Black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys) and other predators like raptors, were carried out in breeding colonies located in oceanic and highly isolated areas, such as Antarctic islands. However, breeding colonies located in the Sub-Antarctic fjords have not been studied. The geographical position of the study colony makes it susceptible to a wider spectrum of predators than the oceanic islands. Therefore, it is unknown how predation dynamics affect the reproductive success of this species. Here, we show for the first time the identity and activity of avian native predators on the colony in the inner waters of southern Tierra del Fuego, Chile. This study covered seventeen field visits between 2017 and 2020 to monitor the reproductive activity of this colony. In this study, we identified the interaction between predators, the breeding activity and success of albatrosses using direct census and camera traps. Across the study, the number of breeding pairs ranged from 64 (2017) to three (2019) breeding pairs of the Black-browed albatross. Terrestrial birds with occurrence on the colony were the Andean condor, Southern caracara, Chimango caracara and the Turkey vulture. Our results showed that the main avian predator species affecting the breeding success of the Black-browed albatross, were both the Andean condor and the Southern caracara. The Black-browed albatross is a conservation target in this area since of the colony of Islote Albatros is currently part of the Seno Almirantazgo Marine protected area. Therefore, baseline informations on species interactions are fundamental for its management particularly when native predators like the Andean condor are also threatened species globally.

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Vol.:(0123456789)
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Polar Biology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-022-03107-3
ORIGINAL PAPER
Native avian predators fortheworld’s Black‑browed Albatross
(Thalassarche melanophrys) breeding colony ininner waters ofTierra
del Fuego, Chile
DanielaDroguett1,2,3 · CristóbalArredondo1 · CatherineDougnac1 · AlejandroKusch1,4 ·
AméricoMontiel5 · AlejandroVila1
Received: 22 July 2022 / Accepted: 13 December 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022
Abstract
The breeding season is the most vulnerable period in the early stages of the life cycle of seabirds, due to the exposure of their
eggs and chicks to the impact by predators. Most of the studies on predator–prey relationships between the Black-browed
albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys) and other predators like raptors, were carried out in breeding colonies located in
oceanic and highly isolated areas, such as Antarctic islands. However, breeding colonies located in the Sub-Antarctic ords
have not been studied. The geographical position of the study colony makes it susceptible to a wider spectrum of predators
than the oceanic islands. Therefore, it is unknown how predation dynamics affect the reproductive success of this species.
Here, we show for the first time the identity and activity of avian native predators on the colony in the inner waters of south-
ern Tierra del Fuego, Chile. This study covered seventeen field visits between 2017 and 2020 to monitor the reproductive
activity of this colony. In this study, we identified the interaction between predators, the breeding activity and success of
albatrosses using direct census and camera traps. Across the study, the number of breeding pairs ranged from 64 (2017) to
three (2019) breeding pairs of the Black-browed albatross. Terrestrial birds with occurrence on the colony were the Andean
condor, Southern caracara, Chimango caracara and the Turkey vulture. Our results showed that the main avian predator spe-
cies affecting the breeding success of the Black-browed albatross, were both the Andean condor and the Southern caracara.
The Black-browed albatross is a conservation target in this area since of the colony of Islote Albatros is currently part of the
Seno Almirantazgo Marine protected area. Therefore, baseline informations on species interactions are fundamental for its
management particularly when native predators like the Andean condor are also threatened species globally.
Keywords Andean Condor· Breeding season· Albatross· Sub-Antarctic islet· Marine protected area
* Daniela Droguett
ddroguett@gmail.com
Cristóbal Arredondo
carredondo@wcs.org
Catherine Dougnac
cdougnac@wcs.org
Alejandro Kusch
alekusch@yahoo.com
Américo Montiel
americo.montiel@umag.cl
Alejandro Vila
avila@wcs.org
1 Wildlife Conservation Society Chile, Balmaceda 586,
PuntaArenas, Chile
2 Programa de Magister en Ciencias, Mención en Manejo
y Conservación de Recursos Naturales en Ambientes
Subantárticos, Universidad de Magallanes, PuntaArenas,
Chile
3 Present Address: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Av. Bulnes,
01040PuntaArenas, Chile
4 Present Address: Far South Expeditions, PuntaArenas, Chile
5 Laboratorio de Ecología Funcional, Instituto de la Patagonia,
Universidad de Magallanes, casilla 113-D, PuntaArenas,
Chile

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Introduction
Predators are critical to the success of a seabird breeding
colony since predation is the main cause of egg or chick loss
in seabird colonies (Neuman etal. 2004; Sabine etal. 2006;
Liljesthrom etal. 2014; Phillips etal. 2016).
The impact of predators is strongly evidenced in the case
of islands and with invasive predators. In the case of birds
of island habits, where more than 90% of the species are
already extinct (Atkinson 1985; Steadman 1995; Wanless
etal. 2007). Studies on relationship between predators and
the breeding success of long-lived seabirds like albatrosses
has been concentrated in breeding colonies located on oce-
anic islands, which are extremely isolated. However, the
effects of some exotic invasive species on albatross colonies
reported changes in the rate of mortality. In fact, House mice
(Mus musculus) and Stoats (Mustela erminea) are known
to prey on the nests of the Tristan albatross (Diomedea
dabbenena) and Royal albatross (Diomedea eponophora),
respectively (Davies etal. 2015; Ratz etal. 1999), respec-
tively. Actually, 13 of the 22 extant albatross species is
affected by terrestrial predators, mainly by invasive alien
species (Dias etal. 2019).
In the Black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melano-
phrys, BBA) its eggs, chicks, and fledglings are predated by
avian predators, such as Giant petrels (Macronectes spp.),
Brown skuas (Catharacta antartica lonnbergi), and Stri-
ated caracara (Phalcoboneus australis) (Forster and Phil-
lips 2009; Catry etal. 2008, 2010; Cursach etal. 2012; Dil-
ley etal. 2013). Consequently, the study of predator–prey
interactions and their consequences on the reproductive
dynamics of colonies is necessary to inform management
and conservation plans that impact on the sustainability of
seabird populations over time.
Our work was conducted in the only known BBA col-
ony in the world inserted in inland waters, within the Seno
Almirantazgo Marine protected area (SA-MPA) (Arata etal.
2014). Since 2009, the monitoring of the BBA has revealed
a decrease in active nests. During the 2009 and 2016 sea-
sons, the nestling survival rate at 65days was reported to be
zero (Droguett etal. 2021). However, both biotic and abiotic
factors that could have caused these reproductive failures
are still unknown. In particular, the presence and activity
of predatory bird species in this colony have not been stud-
ied. The only information available are field observations on
the presence of an Andean condor and Catharacta chilensis
overflying the BBA colony (Aguayo etal. 2003). Here docu-
ment the identity and activity of native avian predators and
their interaction with the breeding activity and success of
the BBA colony of Islote Albatros and discuss its incidence
in the management of MPAs when predators are also threat-
ened native bird species.
Materials andmethods
Study area
We conducted our study in the Islote Albatros which is in
the Seno Almirantazgo a long and narrow sound of 80km
in southern Tierra del Fuego (54°27ʹ20iʹS 69°01ʹ12ʹʹW;
Fig.1a). The BBA breeding colony is located on a cliff with
a slope > 45° on the northern coast of the islet has cover-
ing an area of 11.8ha with maximum elevation 500m.a.s.l
(Fig.1b). The nearest distance of this colony to the main
island of Tierra del Fuego is 3km. The climate is cold and
wet, with a mean annual temperature of 8.7°C, and monthly
mean precipitation of 207.8mm, with snow falling in winter.
Northwest winds are predominant and constant during the
spring and summer, with gusts between 20 and 30 knots.
The timing of the breeding season for the BBA in this
colony is like the reported schedule for other breeding colo-
nies in oceanic islands. Adults arrive by September to form
breeding pairs (Tickell and Pinder 1975; Catry etal. 2010).
The laying and incubation period start in October, while the
hatch occurs between the end of November and December.
The guard period of parental care on nest is until January in
the austral summer. Finally, fledgling period occurs between
February and April. However, due to the observed breeding
failure of the colony of Islote Albatros colony during previ-
ous seasons (between 2009 and 2016), the fledgling period
has not been reported for this colony (Droguett etal. 2021).
Monitoring presence andactivity ofpredators
To monitor the daily occurrence and activity by aerial
predators, we deployed camera traps during seasons 2017
and 2018. Thus, five camera traps with IR-Flash range and
PIR sensitivity sensor were installed (model Trophy Cam
HD Aggressor, Bushnell®, Kansas, USA.). In the 2019
season, the number of camera traps was increased to seven.
These cameras were installed inside the colony (Fig.1b)
covering active nests at the start of the incubation (here,
height from the ground and distance from nests) (Fig.1c).
The cameras were kept active throughout the incubation
period with a five-minute shooting interval for 24h, allow-
ing longer battery life due to weather and accessibility
conditions. They were set in burst mode to take a series
of three high-definition photographs (1920 × 1080 resolu-
tion). However, in the presence of movement, the cameras
photographed any stimulus within the frame. Our surveys
were conducted over 410days during three breeding sea-
sons. The survey effort yielded a total of 680, 640, and
1022 camera days during the 2017, 2018, and 2019 sea-
sons, respectively. The obtained photographs were ana-
lyzed as follow: (1) Presence of potential predators (only

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occurrence close to an active nest with egg or chick); (2)
Identification of active predators (predator feeding on egg
or chick). All the photographs were checked by the first
author and by direct observation.
Monitoring ofactive nests
Nests were monitored and counted during the same period
that the camera traps were active. A total of 17 visits were
carried out to evaluate nesting activity in the study area.
Through direct census of the colony, counts were done for
nests built with both adults present, and for active nests with
eggs or chicks present (Hernández 2019). All these nests
were marked with plastic stakes and numbered metal tags.
In 2017, three visits were carried out, with six visits in 2018,
and eight in 2019, covering the different period of the colony
(Table1).
Data analysis
Due to the sampling heterogeneity that exists between the
nest census data and the counts of total predators, both
data sets were transformed into moving averages, mak-
ing them compatible over time with further analysis. We
used a polynomial regression to evaluate the relationship
between active nests and total predation. We only used
the data from the guard of the chick (i.e., December to
early February) and fledgling period (end of February to
April) due to their susceptibility to predation. A principal
component analysis (PCA) was used to determine the rela-
tionship of each predatory species with the active nests.
Both analyses were performed using the software PAST
4.07 (Hammer etal. 2001).
Fig. 1 a The study area in Seno Almirantazgo, Tierra del Fuego
Island, Chile. The hatched area shows the limits of the Sub-Ant-
arctic Marine protected area; b View of the black-browed albatross
colony located on the northeastern cliff of the Islote Albatros. The
red and yellow dots indicate the positions where the camera traps
were installed in season 2017, while red dots are showing the sam-
pling area covered in 2019; c Camera trap fixed on a post and pointed
towards an active nest

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Results
Presence/absence ofpredators
Using the data from camera traps we recorded the presence
of four raptor species: Andean condor, Southern caracara,
Chimango caracara and Turkey vulture, during a total of
410 surveyed days. The presence/absence percentage for the
overall seasons were Andean condor (70.14% = 101 records)
and Southern caracara (20.14% = 29 records), while the least
frequent were the Chimango caracara (9.03% = 13 records)
and Turkey vulture (0.63% = 1 record). The presence of Tur-
key vulture was only recorded on one day during this season,
while the frequency of Southern caracara and Chimango
cararaca presence days increased from 2% in the 2017 sea-
son to 16% in 2019, and from 2% in the 2017 season to 7%
in 2019, respectively.
Active nests
The highest number of active nests with eggs of the three
seasons was recorded in October of the 2017 season (64).
However, in January of this same season, only one active
nest with an egg was observed as well as 18 active nests with
chicks. During the 2018 season, October was the month with
the highest number (22) of active nests with eggs. However,
this number was lower than the figures observed in the same
month during the previous season (Table1). In December
of 2018, the number of active nests with eggs declined to
fourteen. In the same month, for a second census, the num-
ber of active nests was maintained, registering 4 unhatched
eggs, but the presence of chicks increased to 10 (Table1).
In January 2019, the number of active nests with chicks was
only two, while in February we did not observe any active
nests (Table1).
Although we observed an increase in the number of active
nests during the season 2019 (46 nests in November), the
total number declined to 37 in December, as shown in the
figure (Online Resource 1). The situation became more criti-
cal in January 2020, since only one egg and two chicks were
found in the colony. Late in the season (February 2020), the
number of active nests was zero (Table1).
Interaction betweenpredators andactive nests
The data analysis showed a close relationship between the
presence of predators and the number of active nests by
month; in which, the increases and declines are synchro-
nized in both variables (R2 = 0.9615; p = 0. 00,035. Aditional
data are given in Online Resource 2). Considering the three
studied seasons, the highest number of days with predators
was observed by cameras in December and January, in the
middle of the guard period (Table2). Accordingly with this
pattern, we recorded a decline in the number of nestling
chicks during these months (Fig.2). The principal compo-
nents analysis (PCA) with data correlation showed that two
of the four components were identified as having higher
values: Southern caracara and Andean condor. PCA 1 (S.
caracara was 53.88% and PCA 2 (A. condor) was 26.20% of
the total variance (80.08% cumulatively). PCA 1 eigenvalue
was 0.58 and PCA 2 eigenvalue was 0.75 (Fig.3).
These results confirm the findings by the camera traps
where the record of direct predation on albatross chicks
is obtained. During the 2017 season it was recorded once,
twice in 2018, and ten times during the 2019 season (Online
Resource 3). The photographs show the sequence of stalking
and subsequent predation of the chick, and abandonment by
the parents (Fig.4).
Discussion
This is the first report of Andean condor and Southern cara-
cara preying upon BBA. Usually, BBA colonies are larger
and located on oceanic islands where native terrestrial mam-
mals’ predators are absent (Schreiber and Burger 2001;
Brooke 2005; Navarro etal. 2013; Trallero etal. 2017).
However, in the case of BBA breeding on oceanic islands,
several predatory bird species have been previously reported
preying on chicks, such as Giant petrels (Dilley etal. 2013),
Brown skua (Forster and Phillips 2009), and Striated cara-
cara (Catry etal. 2008, 2010; Cursach etal. 2012). All these
species are characterized by being generalist predators and
Table 1 Number of eggs and chicks recorded during each season in
nests of black-browed albatross of the Albatross Islet colony
The cameras installation date is signaled by an asterisk (*) and the
cameras collection date is signaled by two asterisks (**)
Year Seasons Expedition date N° egg N° chicks
2017 10 Oct 2017 *
09 Jan 2018
2 Mar 2018 **
64
1
0
0
18
0
2018 24 Oct 2018 *
1 Dec 2018
15 Dec 2018
9 Jan 2019
5 Feb 2019
28 Mar 2019 **
22
14
4
0
0
0
0
0
10
2
0
0
2019 7 Oct 2019 *
9 Nov2019
28 Nov 2019
7 Dec 2019
21 Dec2019
9 Jan 2020 **
1 Feb 2020
25 Feb 2020
23
46
28
22
8
1
0
0
0
0
0
3
29
2
0
0

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scavengers that affect the reproductive success in seabird
colonies (Nevoux etal. 2010).
Both Andean condor and Southern caracara have also
been described as opportunistic predators or scavengers,
inhabiting the Chilean coast (Travaini etal. 2000; Hipfner
etal. 2011). Vultures have always been defined as a scaven-
ger by the scientific community (Lambertucci etal. 2018).
However, some members of this group can be also defined as
facultative predators. For example, studies on Andean con-
dor, have identified it as a predator of old or wounded cattle,
llamas, lamb or newborn animals (Rodríguez etal. 2006;
Manzano-Garcia etal. 2017). In addition, Andean condor
can be observed in sea lion colonies feeding on the placentas
of these animals, and on the carcasses of dead elephant seals
in a molting area that is located five kilometers from the
colony of Islote Albatros (Authors’A.K &C. A pers. obs.).
Similarly, Andean condor is known to be an active predator
on eggs and young of the guano birds along the Peruvian
and perhaps the Chilean coast as well (Murphy 1925). This
shows the wide trophic plasticity of the Andean condor.
As we predicted in this study, the presence of one or more
birds of prey in the Islote Albatros colony is affecting the
reproductive success of the BBA. Furthermore, our study
showed that BBA guarding period was selected by predators
Table 2 Number of days with
presence of predators by species
and percentage of presence
according to season
Season Month Vultur gryphus Caracara
plancus Milvago
chimango chi-
mango
Cathartes
aura jota Number of days
2017 October
November
December
January
February
0
1
17
18
0
2
1
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
16
30
31
31
28
Total 36 3 3 0 136
Percent 85.71 7.14 7.14 0
2018 October
November
December
January
February
6
9
10
8
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
30
31
31
28
Total 33 2 0 0 128
Percent 89.19 5.14 0 0
2019 October
November
December
January
February
4
5
11
11
1
3
4
9
6
2
1
2
2
4
1
0
0
1
0
0
25
30
31
31
29
Total 32 24 10 1 146
Percent 47.76 35.82 14.93 1.49
Total for the
three seasons
101 29 13 1
Percent 70.14 20.14 9.03 0.69
Fig. 2 Active nests number per
month and the total number of
predators recorded by camera
traps in the Islote Albatros. In
blue the number of active nests
and in orange the total number
of days with presence of preda-
tors

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to prey upon their chicks. The reproductive success of BBA
is highly variable between years and populations (Nevoux
etal. 2010) and is described for several locations. In addition
to the Islote Albatros, other colonies show clear declines,
such as the Kerguelen Islands that had a 62.7% decline
since 1997 and the South Georgia Islands with a decline of
90.9% (Rolland etal. 2008; ACAP 2010). The number of
active nests in Islote Albatros showed a clear declining trend
throughout the breeding season.
Despite the observed peak of reproductive activity
recorded between October and November, we did not find
active nests in February, when BBA fledglings should have
been observed (Forster and Phillips 2009). Furthermore,
Catry etal. (2006) reported a peak of chick losses during
December in an oceanic BBA colony at the Falkland/Malvi-
nas Islands. The predatory activity is the main responsible
for the null nesting activity. However, other factors cannot
be dismissed, such as strong storm and terrestrial erosion
can also increase nest failure.
The Islote Albatros colony is located at the east end of the
SA-MPA, and close to the coast of the large island of Tierra
del Fuego.Considering this unique geographical position,
our results offer the first data available on predatory-prey
relationships between raptors and BBA in a colony located
at Sub-Antarctic channel waters. This colony is also smaller
than those located at oceanic islands and the available area
in the islet for the colony to grow is limited. In this con-
text, the vulnerability of this colony is higher and predatory
pressure could eventually increase the risk of extirpation of
this unique BBA colony. The continued presence of Andean
condor was evident from the capture frequencies obtained by
the camera traps, including images of individuals overflying,
lurking, or preying upon the nests across the studied breed-
ing seasons. This is probably due to the islet location near
endorheic basins, closer to land areas where the predators
live. The origin of the individuals preying on the colony is
unknown. Although there exist a few non-published records
of small roosting and nesting sites of Andean condor in
Tierra del Fuego Island (authors’C.A. per. obs.).
In the adjacent coasts of the study area, Southern caracara
is more common than Andean condor and its permanent
presence in the islet was also confirmed by camera traps.
Additionally, the occurrence of Milvago chimango and
Turkey vulture, confirms that a predatory assemblage could
eventually increase. Consequently, the risk of extirpation of
this small BBA colony increases.
Because of the presence of the BBA colony in the SA-
MPA was one of the reasons for the creation of the existing
marine protected area our results could be helpful to decision
making based in evidence in the management of this area. In
terms of conservation, Andean condor is a charismatic spe-
cies that plays a key ecologic role in Patagonian ecosystems
and classified as a vulnerable species globally (Lambertucci
etal. 2018; Birdlife International 2020). Thus, this situation
represents a conservation dilemma regarding this relational
overlap in the SA-MPA, which should be considered in the
future management plan of this area. Furthermore, it is nec-
essary to evaluate management options that allow us to meet
the conservation requirements for both species.
This study on predator–prey relationships and their con-
sequences on the breeding activity and success of BBA
is a key starting point not only for an albatross species as
Fig. 3 Principal Components
Analysis (PCA) of the moving
data of days with presence of
predators and active nests dur-
ing the three studied seasons in
the Islote Albatros. The ellipse
shows a confidence interval of
95%

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conservation target of this MPA but also a baseline to under-
stand and expand its conservation management through the
interaction with other key native species.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen-
tary material available at https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s00300- 022- 03107-3.
Acknowledgements We thank the institutions and companies that have
supported this research, which includes: Seremi de Bienes Nacionales,
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, for their logistical assistance in the
field, and park rangers of the Parque Karukinka for their assistance in
field data collection. We also thank Dr. Dieter Piepenburg, reviewer#1
and reviewer #2 from Polar Biology who provided suggestions and
corrections to improve this manuscript. Finally, we thank the Writing
Center of the Universidad de Magallanes for language review and edit-
ing of our draft into English.
Author contributions DD, AV and CD conceived and designed this
study. DD, AV, AK,CD,CA conducted the fieldwork. DD, AM, CD
and AV analyzed the obtained data. DD, AV and AM wrote and edited
the manuscript. CA and AK conducted the fieldwork. DD,CA and AM
prepared the figures.
Funding The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial inter-
ests to disclose.
Data availability The datasets from this study are available from the
corresponding author on request and agreement with authors.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors have no competing interests to declare
that are relevant to the content of this article.
Fig. 4 Predation sequence of Vultur gryphus on a Black-browed alba-
tross chick. a In the red circle you can see the nest with a live chick,
without parental. b In the following minutes you can see the preda-
tion of the chick by V. gryphus. c V. gryphus continues eating and
Caracara plancus joins the event (yellow circle). d V. gryphus is still
perched on the nest, and C. plancus is flying carrying in its beak part
of one of the nestling's limbs (yellow circle)

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