The Relationship of Mortgaged Loans with Gated Communities

Abstract

The multidimensional nature of the house housing makes it different for each individual, group, and actor As Madden and Marcuse point out, the housing may be a speculative commodity for one actor but a home for another Housing also plays an essential role in the reproduction of social life In this context, for those who want to live with people with similar cultural and economic capital, housing becomes an identity construction, and gated communities contribute to forming this identity This new housing supply, which started in the United States in the 1980s, began to be seen in different world geographies in a short time Gated communities have quickly turned into a preferred housing supply, as can be seen in the global north countries as well as in the global south countries Although these residences were produced for the upper and middle-upper classes when they first emerged in Turkey, they started to serve the middle classes as well, within the framework of the construction-oriented growth approach determined by Turkey after 2002 In this context, the mortgage law enacted in Turkey in 2007 was influential in accelerating access to these residences Thus, a period was entered in which white-collar workers took long-term loans and started to own houses in communities formed by people like themselves Kayapınar Municipality, established within the borders of Diyarbakır Metropolitan Municipality in 2008, increased its population by 211.6 % from 2008 to 2021 as a particular example of this background This district accounted for over half of the mortgage loans used in Diyarbakır Even though Kayapınar has emerged as a natural new development area due to the macro form of the city, it has grown faster than the target This growth in Kayapınar has been a process in which large landowners who want to benefit from urban rent with the new housing demand of the middle class and effective use of mortgage loans come to the fore Over the years, many gated communities have been built in the settlement This study examines the relationship between mortgage loans, one of the tools that have an essential role in the financialization of urban space, and gated communities serving the middle class In this context, using different data sets together, this study also sheds light on the people who buy housing with mortgage loans in this area

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Murat Özyavuz (ed.)
Sustainability, Conservation and
Ecology in Spatial Planning
and Design
New approaches, solutions, applications
Murat Özyavuz (ed.)
Sustainability, Conservation and
Ecology in Spatial Planning
and Design
New approaches, solutions, applications

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Ahmet Suvar ASLAN
e Relationship of Mortgaged Loans
with Gated Communities
Abstract: e multidimensional nature of the house housing makes it dierent for
each individual, group, and actor. As Madden and Marcuse point out, the housing may
be a speculative commodity for one actor but a home for another. Housing also plays
an essential role in the reproduction of social life. In this context, for those who want
to live with people with similar cultural and economic capital, housing becomes an
identity construction, and gated communities contribute to forming this identity. is
new housing supply, which started in the United States in the 1980s, began to be seen
in dierent world geographies in a short time. Gated communities have quickly turned
into a preferred housing supply, as can be seen in the global north countries as well as in
the global south countries. Although these residences were produced for the upper and
middle- upper classes when they rst emerged in Turkey, they started to serve the middle
classes as well, within the framework of the construction- oriented growth approach
determined by Turkey aer 2002. In this context, the mortgage law enacted in Turkey
in 2007 was inuential in accelerating access to these residences. us, a period was
entered in which white- collar workers took long- term loans and started to own houses
in communities formed by people like themselves. Kayapınar Municipality, established
within the borders of Diyarbakır Metropolitan Municipality in 2008, increased its pop-
ulation by 211.6 % from 2008 to 2021 as a particular example of this background. is
district accounted for over half of the mortgage loans used in Diyarbakır. Even though
Kayapınar has emerged as a natural new development area due to the macro form of the
city, it has grown faster than the target. is growth in Kayapınar has been a process
in which large landowners who want to benet from urban rent with the new housing
demand of the middle class and eective use of mortgage loans come to the fore. Over the
years, many gated communities have been built in the selement. is study examines
the relationship between mortgage loans, one of the tools that have an essential role in
the nancialization of urban space, and gated communities serving the middle class. In
this context, using dierent data sets together, this study also sheds light on the people
who buy housing with mortgage loans in this area.
Keywords: gated communities, nancialization, housing policies, Diyarbakır

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Ahmet Suvar Aslan472
1. Introduction
Mortgage loans are one of the tools used by the government to solve the housing
problem in terms of facilitating access to housing. In addition, access to mortgages
is not possible for all social strata, and this situation also plays a role in increasing
inequalities between social strata. Housing demands of those who can access
mortgages do not show homogeneity either. But, the demands of similar social
strata oer closeness to each other. Mortgage usage intensity has changed the
production speed, property, quality and quantity of the housing. e eects of this
process, which also changed the perception of housing, were permanent on the
urban space.
e meaning of housing varies for social strata. Madden and Marcuse group this
dierentiation as follows:
Housing means many things to dierent groups. It is home for its residents and the
site of social reproduction. It is the largest economic burden for many, and for others
a source of wealth, status, prot, or control. It means work for those who construct,
manage, and maintain it; speculative prot for those buying and selling it; and income
for those nancing it. It is a source of tax revenue and a subject of tax expenditures for
the state, and a key component of the structure and functioning of cities [1] .
e size of the capital needed for housing production forces it to be in contact
with the nance eld. e nance eld sells loans to the players in the housing
eld by contacting both the contractors who produce housing and the individuals
who buy the products aer production. Housing loans are at the forefront of the
service oered by the nance eld for individuals to purchase housing, and this
constitutes one of the critical parts of the points that connect the housing and
nance eld. e increasing eciency of nancial markets and companies in the
housing sector is vital to the nancialization of housing. With the nancialization
of housing, more and more households have begun to see their housing not only
as a house, a place to live but also as an investment [2] . “e roots of the nancial-
ization of housing go back to neoliberalism, deregulation of the housing market, and
structural adjustment programs implemented by institutions and agreed to by States.
e nancialization of housing is the result of signicant changes in the way housing
is loaned, particularly in the emergence of “mortgage- backed securities”” [3]. e
mortgage market is not only nancial capital but also an economic space struc-
tured by power relations between dierent actors maintained through a combina-
tion of social, cultural, and symbolic capital [4]. e emergence and widespread
use of mortgage- backed securities have changed the denition of space by liqui-
dating housing and urban space. As a result, space is no longer a xed asset to the
land and has become a liquid asset.
According to Kurtuluş [5] , starting in America, a new structuring regime,
dened as gated communities, began to be seen in many metropolises around the
world in the 1980s. Turkey, on the other hand, joined this wave of change in the
early 1990s. Houses in gated communities are tried to be sold with advertising

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e Relationship of Mortgaged Loans with Gated Communities 473
slogans appealing to the rising classes. e basis of these advertisements is that the
house to be purchased from the gated communities is to buy a new lifestyle and
identity [6]. Kurtuluş [5] states that these selements are examined in three ways.
First of all, it is the economic, social, global, and local factors that led to the forma-
tion of these selements; secondly, the transformations that the phenomenon will
cause in today’s cities; and nally, it is the public space that is in danger of extinc-
tion due to the urban land privatized with the disintegration of the social life in
the city as a result of spatial segregation. ose living in gated communities prefer
these areas because they protect them from being side by side with lower- status
classes and prioritize their privacy [7]. Gated communities, one of the types of
housing oered, mainly focus on Istanbul, Izmir, and Ankara in Turkey. However,
the weight in the literature is on Istanbul due to population and economic den-
sity. On the other hand, Genç [8], Bekleyen and Ay [9] and Bekleyen and Baylan
[10] have studied on gated communities in Diyarbakır. Among these studies, only
Genç’s study mentions gated communities in Kayapınar. While Genç [8] focuses
on the political- economic background of urban developments in Diyarbakır, he
does not focus on the gated communities in his study; however, gated commu-
nities are at the center of the other two studies. With the use of mortgages in
Turkey, the demand for gated communities has also started to increase. As Aydın
[11] emphasized, gated communities no longer target only the highest income
groups; however, they have expanded towards the middle class, such as white-
collar workers and middle- level professionals in lower- income groups. us, while
social strata that were not in the customer portfolio before began to be included in
the marketing process, mortgages also played a role in the diversication of gated
communities.
By examining the urban development process in the new development area of a
medium- sized city, this study contributes to the literature by illuminating the rela-
tions between the nancialization process of housing through mortgages and the
gated communities developed for the middle class. rough the Kayapınar District
of Diyarbakır, the study will evaluate the process of mortgage loans becoming
one of the ways of acquiring housing, which socioeconomic strata are included
in the system, and which ones are excluded. ere is increasing literature on the
mortgage market in developing countries and the nancialization of space over
it, but the studies are generally progressing on a macro- scale. When it comes to
the micro- scale, processes in big metropolises are processed, as in the example
of Istanbul in Turkey. erefore, it is necessary to investigate how the mortgage
system aects the new development areas of these cities, whose urban economy
is more minor.
e sources of data used in the study are the Turkish Statistical Institute
(TURKSTAT), Central Bank of the Turkish Republic (CBRT), Banking Regulation
and Supervision Agency (BRSA), and the ve banks that have the largest share
in the mortgage market in Turkey as of January 2015. Aer using the publicly
available data of these ve banks, I requested detailed data. One of these banks
responded positively to this request, while the others responded negatively. At

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Ahmet Suvar Aslan474
this point, I requested data again to keep the data obtained from the bank up- to-
date, but this time no bank shared any data. erefore, the up- to- dateness of the
data, such as income, education, age, and gender of mortgage users in Diyarbakir,
Kayapınar District, is one of the limitations of the study. On the other hand, the
2229 mortgage data used for the date mentioned above constitutes a large data set
that can provide an understanding of the social structure in the region.
Aer the introduction, there is a short literature review on gated communi-
ties in the second part. In the third part, the Kayapınar selement is explained,
and then an analysis is made of the data set of mortgage users in this selement.
Finally, the text is concluded with a general discussion in the conclusion part.
2. Gated Communities
e concept of this phenomenon is generally referred to as gated communities in
the academic literature in Turkey.
According to Kurtuluş [5] , starting from the 1980s, gated communities are
observed as a new selement phenomenon in metropolitan areas despite the
dierences in development levels between countries. e beginning of this
new construction order in Turkey dates back to the early 1990s. In general, the
integration process of cities into transnational markets has been inuential in the
emergence of these selements.
ese new selements are mainly discussed in three dimensions.
e rst is the economic, social, global, and local- contingent factors that reveal this
type of selement; the second is the transformations of the phenomenon in modern
cities and metropolitan areas and its possible consequences; the third is the problem
of public space, which risks the fragmentation of urban social life through spatial
segregation and the risk of extinction with privatized urban lands. ese dimensions,
which require approaching the emergence and results of the phenomenon from the
point of view of economics, planning, and sociology, are tried to be resolved in theo-
retical and empirical studies on the subject [5] (162).
Gated communities provide essential data on the transformation that today’s
cities have begun to undergo with an apparent acceleration with the expanding
global networks. e prominent features of gated communities are that they gen-
erally have a similar income group, have security guards, perform urban services
primarily through their organization, and are protected by natural or articial
thresholds with specic surroundings. In addition, the fact that these spaces are
spatially isolated due to being located on urban lands that are autonomous from the
local government, based on certain common ownership and having their own social
contract, indicates an important transformation in terms of class belonging. Such
selements generally require major interventions on an urban scale. ey appear in
the peripheries due to reasons such as making such extensive interventions in the
city center; that is, it is dicult to homogenize the property through a rm, seing
a border between the other and the other due to the low active green space in the

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e Relationship of Mortgaged Loans with Gated Communities 475
urban space and the demand for class homogenization, constructing a new identity
or revising an existing identity as an indicator of economic and cultural capital.
anks to neoliberal economies and global ows, the houses in gated communi-
ties built with the same brand building materials and similar architectural designs
in dierent countries are marketed with slogans suitable for the rising classes as
their potential customers. e main emphasis in these slogans is that buying a
house in gated communities also means being a member of an elite community
and purchasing a lifestyle [6] .
Gated communities, a product of neoliberal urbanization, are big projects where
social facilities are also made. Limiting these selements with walls means they
draw a border between them and the rest of the city. us, it leads to the formation
of a “fragmented urban texture” [12].
Gated communities oer the promise of coexistence with those who are similar
to each other in terms of economic and social capital. In terms of economic cap-
ital, gated communities mostly appeal to upper- and upper- middle- income groups.
However, today there are also gated communities that appeal to the middle- income
groups. In this context, the Diyarbakir Kayapınar selement, examined in this
study, sets an example for the gated communities that appeal to the middle classes.
e claim that gated communities create homogeneous living spaces stems from
the fact that they are selements that the upper and upper- middle- income groups
demand or can demand in terms of their economic capital. In this sense, the spatial
boundaries of gated communities have been evaluated as a threshold that divides
the society into two on the axis of “existence” and “absence.” ese borders, which
include the wealthy and exclude the poor, have been dened as “islets of wealth”
of gated communities [12].
e wealthy society segments of the postmodern period residing on the islets
have a very dierent structure from the wealthy society segments of the previous
periods in terms of both the asset source and the way and speed of obtaining the
asset [6] .
is new gated community form creates a new sub- urbanization that
dierentiates it from the middle- class suburbs of the modern capitalist city. At rst
glance, the dierence between these selements from the traditional middle- class
suburbs was emphasized as “seclusion to the public” and the “deepening need for
security” seen as the reason for this [13]. Approaches based on a new “need for
security” problem have compared gated communities to ancient cities surrounded
by high walls or to the walled cities of the Middle Ages rather than the classical
middle- class suburbs of the modern city [13].
3. Study Area
Kayapınar District was established under the purview of the District Establish-
ment inside the bounds of the Metropolitan Municipality by Law No. 5747, which
was published in the Repetitive Ocial Gazee on March 22, 2008, with the
number 26824.

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Ahmet Suvar Aslan476
e increasing population of Diyarbakır and the macro form of the city have
been inuential in determining the direction of the new construction. As a nat-
ural threshold, the Tigris river is decisive in the macro form, and large- scale land-
use decisions such as the airport, military facilities, and university provided the
development of the city towards the Kayapınar region. In 1991, the village of
Peyas, which had a population of about 3 thousand, was turned into a town. e
second signicant selement of the town was Huzurevleri [14]. e rst sele-
ment area of this county is Peyas Village. In 2013, Peyas was recorded as the most
crowded neighborhood in Turkey, with a population of 142,228 [15] With the Local
Administrations Law established in 2004, Kayapnar became the rst- tier munic-
ipality of Diyarbakır Metropolitan Municipality, with the connection of several
villages. In 2004, the district’s population increased from 68 thousand to 75,592 as
9 selements were connected to Kayapınar. e selement’s population increased
rapidly aer the approval of the Master Zoning Plan in 2008, rising to 229,577 in
2010, to 400,905 in 2020, and 411,865 by the end of 2021 [15].
When we look at the Diyarbakir province’s comparative population index and
accept the year 2008 as the year when Kayapınar became a district municipality
(Figure 2), we can see that the selement’s growth rate is substantially higher than
the city’s. In 2015, Kayapınar’s index value came to 158.8, while Diyarbakır’s value
was 110.8. By the end of 2021, Kayapınar’s population has more than doubled com-
pared to 2008. e general population of Diyarbakır has increased by 20 % aer
14 years. It was necessary to build houses to accommodate this increasing popu-
lation. is construction process in Kayapınar has continued as a major activity
until today.
Figure 1. e Location of Kayapınar in the City

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e Relationship of Mortgaged Loans with Gated Communities 477
Figure 2. Population Change Index (Source: Turkstat) [15]
Figure 3. e ratio of the number of housing permits in Kayapınar to the number of
housing permits in Diyarbakır (Source: Turkstat) [16]

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Ahmet Suvar Aslan478
Figure 3 shows the ratio of the number of housing permits in Kayapınar to the
number of housing permits in Diyarbakır. e data for 2021 covers the rst nine
months of the year. 56.8 % of the housing licenses obtained in the city in 2011
belong to the buildings in the Kayapınar district. is rate, which was 50 % in 2016,
started to decrease aer that date but increased again in 2021 to 54.1 %.
Diyarbakir Metropolitan Municipality accepted the 1/ 25.000 scale land use plan
in 2006, prepared by the team of Tarık Şengül from Middle East Technical Uni-
versity. A part of this team presented a paper on the process at the 6th Turkey
Urban Planning Congress and published the full text of the paper in the congress
book. According to this study, in the pre- master plan period, the discipline of pla-
nning in the city disappeared, and the process was no longer controllable with the
plans made at the parcel and island scale [17]. Kayapınar, which stands out as a
new development area due to the city’s macro form, was relatively free from the
fragmented planning approach.
2004 2009
2015 2022
Figure 4. Change of Urban Development in Kayapınar Over the Years
(Source: Google Earth) [20]

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e Relationship of Mortgaged Loans with Gated Communities 479
According to Genç [18], before the development of the Kayapınar selement,
there were extensive agricultural lands in the region, and a small number of fam-
ilies owned these lands. Yüksel [19] states that Peyas, the rst place Kayapınar
was founded, belongs to the Ekinci family. e fact that the property in the new
development area of Diyarbakir belongs to a few families has formed plans and
construction activities in this area with clientelist networks [18]. e large land
owners in the development axes of the city, such as Kayapınar, have been inu-
ential in the construction processes of the plans and have led to the emergence of
the high- density plan and plan changes for these areas [17]. e land- use plan of
Kayapınar District, which was ocially established in 2008, was also approved in
2008, and this plan has been amended many times since then.
According to Genç [8] , the housing development in Kayapınar indicates a
pro- growth coalition of local landowners, construction rms, and municipal
governments. He states that the existence of powerful landowners, who owned
extensive agricultural lands and formed clientelist networks with municipal
administrators and sta, especially in the late 90s, determined the form and re-
lations of this expansion in the real estate sector. e housing typology in the
determined development regime points to detached and multi- storey gated com-
munities. Genç [8] states that the construction in Kayapınar emerged in response
to the demands of the rising middle class and that the current housing character
denes the middle class. While the housing development administration of Turkey
(HDA), which produces housing in the district, produces for the lower group of
the middle class, private companies have turned the place into a status symbol
for those living there by appealing to the upper middle income such as doctors,
lawyers, business people, landowners, and municipal administrators [8, 18].
In Figure 4, it can be observed the intense construction in the Kayapınar district
over the years. Half of the housing licenses obtained in Diyarbakır, which has a
population of approximately 1.8 million as of 2021, come from this exceptional city
selement. is situation has been going on for years, leading to intense and rapid
construction.
Mortgages started to be an essential part of Turkey’s urbanization with Law
No. 5582 on the Amendment of Various Laws Regarding the Housing Finance
System, adopted by the Justice and Development Party on 21.02.2007. With this
legal arrangement, the access to money of the social segments which could not
have the cash needed to buy housing began to become more accessible, and this
also encouraged housing production in every region of the country. Figure 5 shows
the housing construction permits issued over the years. e crisis in which the
construction- oriented capital accumulation [21] model has entered is also under-
stood from the gure. On the other hand, it is not overlooked that there is a regular
increase for the 10 years aer the mortgage law. ese increases can be observed
most simply in Kayapınar, Diyarbakır. While a continuous construction activity
proceeds in the newly formed selement, gated communities have an important
place in the housing supply, as emphasized by Genç [8, 18]. Mortgages were used
to purchase a signicant portion of the houses in these gated communities.

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Ahmet Suvar Aslan480
Figure 5. Number of Housing Construction Licenses in Turkey by Years
(Source: Turkstat) [22]
Figure 6. Change in the Rate of Mortgage Number in Kayapınar in Diyarbakir
Province by Years (Source: Turkstat) [23]

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e Relationship of Mortgaged Loans with Gated Communities 481
Figure 6 shows the ratio of the number of mortgages used in Kayapınar to the
total mortgages used in Diyarbakır. As seen from the gure, Kayapınar is home to
6 of the 10 mortgages used in the city. is situation can be explained by the fact
that the residences in the area are suitable for the mortgage system, are newly
built, and are considered a desirable part of the city that denes a new identity.
Aer the mortgage system was put into practice in 2007, it emerged as a housing
method the whole country adopted quickly. Over the years, the ratio in the total
sold housing market has changed according to the increases and decreases in
mortgage interest rates. It is possible to read this uctuating situation in Figure 7,
starting from 2017. Figure 7 shows the shares of the mortgage in total house sales
in Turkey and Diyarbakir in particular. Unsurprisingly, the trend in Diyarbakir has
been consistent with Turkey in general. As highlighted in Figure 6, most mortgage
sales in the city occur in Kayapınar.
4. Who Uses Mortgage in Kayapınar?
At this stage of the study, data regarding the socio- economic structures of the
people who use mortgages in Kayapınar is included. When we analyze the data
for Kayapınar from one of the 5 largest banks in Turkey that provides mortgage
loans, we will be able to more accurately understand the proles of people who
use mortgages in Kayapınar, the majority of which consists of gated communities.
It should be emphasized again that these data cover the years 2010– 2014. Figure 8
Figure 7. Mortgage Rate in Total House Sales (Source: Turkstat) [23]

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Ahmet Suvar Aslan482
shows the education levels of the people who bought a house with a mortgage.
e rate of university graduates is 47 %, making up almost half of all loan users.
According to the data of Endeksa [24], only 11 % of the population in Diyarbakır
has a university or higher education level. is situation shows that people who
can use mortgages are a limited minority in the city.
Figure 9 shows the sectors in which people who buy a house with a mort-
gage work. Aslan [26] examined the sectors in which mortgage users work in Is-
tanbul. Accordingly, 58 % of mortgage users in Istanbul work in the private sector,
while only 8 % work in the public sector. Besides, 22 % of people in Istanbul are
entrepreneurs. ere is a signicant dierence between these data and the Diyar-
bakir data. In Kayapınar, Diyarbakır, 55 % of mortgage users work in the public
sector, 25 % in the private sector and 14 % are business owners.
In Figure 10, the age distribution of people who bought a house with a mortgage
can be seen. Accordingly, 74 % of the users of mortgage loans are between the ages
of 25 and 44. It can also be seen from this data that young professionals tend to
buy houses using mortgage loans. In Aslan’s [27] study with white- collar workers
in this age range, it was shown that these people need family support in mortgage
loan repayments. People in this age range are the most open to mortgage loan use,
they are more educated than others, and they are salaried employees.
Figure 8. Education Levels of People Who Bought a House with a Mortgage [25]

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e Relationship of Mortgaged Loans with Gated Communities 483
Figure 9. Sectors in Which Mortgage Buyers Work [25]
Figure 10. Age Distribution of People Using Mortgages [25]

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Ahmet Suvar Aslan484
In Figure 11, the average household income of people who buy a house with
a mortgage can be seen. Since the data set covers the years 2010– 2014, the gure
was created by nding the current value of the data according to ination. In
order to do this, using the CBRT’s ination calculator, the value of 100 was given
to January 2015, and the value of May 2022 was found. According to this, the
average household income is 12,333 liras. However, when we look at the distribu-
tion of this income by sector, the average household income of the public sector
employees, which is the group that uses the most mortgages, remains below the
average income and becomes 10,865 liras. ose with the highest income are addi-
tional income holders with 23,956 liras. At this point, although it is possible to
update the household income according to ination, it should be emphasized that
current housing values have increased more than ination. us, it should also
be emphasized that it is challenging for most of those who were able to purchase
housing from Kayapınar with a mortgage between 2010– 2014 to purchase a house
in Kayapınar with their current income today.
5. Conclusion
Among the ndings of this research, it has been observed that low- income people
are in the minority in the social stratum that can own a house by using the mortgage
system. It has been determined that gated communities have an important place in
the new urbanization model that has emerged in Kayapınar, and the demand of the
users to live in urban equipment, security, and more qualied residences has come
Figure 11. Average Monthly Household Income [25]

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e Relationship of Mortgaged Loans with Gated Communities 485
to the fore. It is also seen that the people who make this request are well above the
general education average of the city. Although those who can use mortgages in
Diyarbakır are primarily public sector employees, it has been observed that people
in this group can use a low number of mortgages in big cities such as Istanbul. is
situation is vital in showing the dierence between cities and is a guide for further
studies.
Turkey has chosen a construction- based growth method, and mortgage loans
are vital at this point. However, the number of housing construction permits may
vary according to the country’s economic cycles. In these cycles, mortgage loans
are always tried to be used as an important instrument.
Diyarbakir, Kayapınar district, has rapidly evolved from a selement of 3000
people to a city of over 400 thousand people. During this period, almost half of the
constructions in Diyarbakır were made in this district. As a result of this condi-
tion, mortgage loans were utilized at a rate of up to 70 % in this city district. e
demands of the rapidly increasing population from this new development area of
the city were primarily realized in the form of gated communities. Construction
companies have also responded to this need. All this rapid process was possible
with the intensive use of mortgage loans.
is study revealed that more empirical data should be produced on the
eects of the dependency of newly developing urban areas such as Kayapınar on
mortgages and therefore the nancial system on the urban space, and the quality
of the studies to be carried out in this area should increase.
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