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Başarılarım Gerçek mi?
Abstract
Impostor fenomeni ya da sahtekar fenomeni (impostor phenomenon), kişilerin somut kanıtlara ve olumlu değerlendirmelere rağmen başarılarını içselleştiremeyerek, kendilerinin entelektüel bir sahtekâr olduklarına inanmaları ve ifşa olmaktan korkmaları şeklinde ortaya çıkmaktadır. Akademik veya profesyonel anlamda yüksek başarılarına rağmen, sahtekar fenomenini deneyimleyen kadınlar, gerçekten zeki olmadıklarına ve bunun aksi şekilde düşünen herkesi kandırdıklarına inanmaktadırlar. İlk kez Clance ve Imes (1978) tarafından 150'den fazla başarılı kadınla yapılan gözlem ve çalışmalar sonucunda kavramsallaştırılmıştır. Bu deneyimi yaşayan bireylerde kaygı, endişe ve depresyon gibi psikolojik etkiler de görülmektedir. sahtekar fenomeninin kaynağının, bireylerin aile ve içinde bulundukları toplumun verdiği toplumsal cinsiyet rolleriyle ilgili mesajları içselleştirmeleri olabileceği düşünülmüştür. Yapılan çalışmalarla birlikte, bu fenomenin sebepleriyle ilgili tam bir görüş birliği sağlanamamıştır. Sahtekar fenomeni, bireylerin başarısızlık korkusu sebebiyle geri çekilmelerine ve potansiyellerini kullanamamalarına neden olabilir; dolayısıyla bireylerin kariyerlerini olumsuz yönde etkileyebilir. Araştırmalar, bu fenomeni deneyimleyen bireylerin tedavisinde, farklı kuram tekniklerinin kullanıldığı bireysel terapinin ve sahtekar fenomenini deneyimleyen bireylerden oluşan grup terapisinin oldukça etkin olduğunu göstermiştir.
Günümüzde örgütlerin önemi gün geçtikçe daha da artmaktadır. Ulus ve uluslararası örgütlerin çoklu fonksiyonları ve etkileri, örgüt kültürü ve örgütsel davranış alanında yapılacak olan yeni çalışmaları/araştırmaları zorunlu kılmaktadır. Kitabımızda hitap etmeyi amaçladığımız hedef kitleyi bu yeni kavramlarla tanıştırmak ve yapılacak yeni araştırmalara zemin hazırlamak öncelikli gayemiz olmuştur. Örgütsel davranış alanındaki kavram ve araştırmalara ilgi duyan araştırmacılara, akademisyenlere, karar vericilere, uygulayıcılara, öğrencilere bilgi ve ulusal yazına katkı sağlamayı amaçlayan kitabımız 28 yazarın katkı sunduğu 21 bölümden oluşmaktadır. Serimizin ilk kitabının konu dağılımından da anlaşılacağı üzere bu çalışmalar örgütsel davranış alanında çok önemli bir boşluğu dolduracağı gibi yeni çalışmalara da kaynaklık edeceği iddiasını taşımaktadır. Ülkemizde yaşanan asrın felaketi olarak adlandırılan Kahramanmaraş merkezli on bir ili etkileyen depremlerden dolayı oldukça zor, sıkıntılı ve stresli bir süreç içerisinde kitap çalışmamızı tamamlamış bulunmaktayız. Bu depremlerden doğrudan etkilenen bölüm yazarlarımızın zor şartlarda kitabımıza katkı sağlamış olmaları takdire şayandır. Bu nedenle öncelikle bu eserin ortaya çıkabilmesi için yoğun bir emek, özveri, sabır ile katkı ve destek sağlayan birbirinden değerli, alanında uzman tüm bölüm yazarlarımıza teşekkürlerimi ve şükranlarımı sunmayı bir borç bilirim. Ayrıca kitaba sunuş yazma inceliğini göstererek bizleri onurlandıran, sahip olduğu bilgi ve tecrübelerle her zaman yolumu aydınlatan ve bana rol model olan Değerli Hocam Prof. Dr. Mustafa TAŞLIYAN’a, kitabın yayına hazırlanmasında titizlikle çalışan Özgür Yayınevi ve çalışanlarına, kitap yazım sürecinde desteğini esirgemeyen ve bugünlere gelmemi sağlayan aileme, değerli hocalarıma, arkadaşlarıma ve siz değerli okuyuculara sonsuz teşekkürlerimi ve saygılarımı sunarım.
Günümüzde örgütlerin önemi gün geçtikçe daha da artmaktadır. Ulus ve uluslararası örgütlerin çoklu fonksiyonları ve etkileri, örgüt kültürü ve örgütsel davranış alanında yapılacak olan yeni çalışmaları/araştırmaları zorunlu kılmaktadır. Kitabımızda hitap etmeyi amaçladığımız hedef kitleyi bu yeni kavramlarla tanıştırmak ve yapılacak yeni araştırmalara zemin hazırlamak öncelikli gayemiz olmuştur. Örgütsel davranış alanındaki kavram ve araştırmalara ilgi duyan araştırmacılara, akademisyenlere, karar vericilere, uygulayıcılara, öğrencilere bilgi ve ulusal yazına katkı sağlamayı amaçlayan kitabımız 28 yazarın katkı sunduğu 21 bölümden oluşmaktadır. Serimizin ilk kitabının konu dağılımından da anlaşılacağı üzere bu çalışmalar örgütsel davranış alanında çok önemli bir boşluğu dolduracağı gibi yeni çalışmalara da kaynaklık edeceği iddiasını taşımaktadır. Ülkemizde yaşanan asrın felaketi olarak adlandırılan Kahramanmaraş merkezli on bir ili etkileyen depremlerden dolayı oldukça zor, sıkıntılı ve stresli bir süreç içerisinde kitap çalışmamızı tamamlamış bulunmaktayız. Bu depremlerden doğrudan etkilenen bölüm yazarlarımızın zor şartlarda kitabımıza katkı sağlamış olmaları takdire şayandır. Bu nedenle öncelikle bu eserin ortaya çıkabilmesi için yoğun bir emek, özveri, sabır ile katkı ve destek sağlayan birbirinden değerli, alanında uzman tüm bölüm yazarlarımıza teşekkürlerimi ve şükranlarımı sunmayı bir borç bilirim. Ayrıca kitaba sunuş yazma inceliğini göstererek bizleri onurlandıran, sahip olduğu bilgi ve tecrübelerle her zaman yolumu aydınlatan ve bana rol model olan Değerli Hocam Prof. Dr. Mustafa TAŞLIYAN’a, kitabın yayına hazırlanmasında titizlikle çalışan Özgür Yayınevi ve çalışanlarına, kitap yazım sürecinde desteğini esirgemeyen ve bugünlere gelmemi sağlayan aileme, değerli hocalarıma, arkadaşlarıma ve siz değerli okuyuculara sonsuz teşekkürlerimi ve saygılarımı sunarım.
The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) is a measure widely used to assess individuals' self-perceptions of intellectual and professional fraudulence. The study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of the Hebrew form for the CIPS (HCIPS) in female Hebrew-speaking students, in an attempt to further clarify its structure and strengthen its validity in international settings. The study comprised a sample of 248 female students (M age = 27.74, SD = 7.32), who completed an online version of the questionnaire. Our results generally demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties of the HCIPS total scale, with its internal consistency, reliability, and item-total-correlations meeting the standard criteria. The exploratory factor analysis yielded a stable four-factor solution for the 19-items, with its factors accounting for 54.81% of the model's variance. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the four-factor model as compatible, with its fit-indices meeting the minimal standards of goodness of fit. The study's findings are the first to identify a four-factor model, which improves the imbalanced factorial composition characterizing the common three-factor model. Subject to the study's limitations, this evidence suggests that the HCIPS is a sound instrument for assessing impostor feelings among female Hebrew-speaking students.
The Impostor Phenomenon can be described as the tendency to attribute professional success not to one’s own abilities but to excessive effort or fortunate external circumstances. Individuals strongly experiencing those tendencies fear that one day they will be exposed as “impostors” as soon as their alleged incompetence can no longer be concealed. Typical characteristics of the Impostor Phenomenon outlined by Clance (1985) show a remarkable conceptual similarity to the personality construct of perfectionism. Thus, the present study aimed at investigating how the Impostor Phenomenon is related to various facets of dispositional perfectionism with respect to predominant conceptualizations of perfectionism by Frost et al. (1990), Hewitt and Flett (1991), as well as their combination within the bifactor model of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns (Frost et al. 1993). A total of N = 274 individuals participated in an online survey including the Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; Clance 1988), the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost et al. 1990), and the Hewitt und Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS short form; Hewitt et al. 2008). Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to determine the differential contributions of perfectionism dimensions and factors in predicting the Impostor Phenomenon. The perfectionism dimensions Doubts about Actions, Concern over Mistakes and Socially prescribed Perfectionism appeared to be efficient predictors of the Impostor Phenomenon. Contrary to Perfectionistic Strivings, Perfectionistic Concerns as a maladaptive perfectionism factor strongly contributed to the prediction of the Impostor Phenomenon. Theoretical and practical implications of the associations between the Impostor Phenomenon and multidimensional perfectionism are discussed.
Purpose – The Impostor Phenomenon (IP) refers to the intense feelings of intellectual fraudulence, often experienced by high achieving individuals. The purpose of this study is threefold: (1) examine the trait-relatedness of the IP; (2) investigate the potential impact of impostor tendencies on relevant work attitudes (i.e., job satisfaction and organizational commitment) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB); and (3) explore whether workplace social support can buffer the potential harmful effects of impostor tendencies.
Design/methodology/approach – Belgian employees (N=201) from three different sectors participated in a cross-sectional survey study.
Findings – Hierarchical regressions revealed that Big Five personality traits, core self-evaluations, and maladaptive perfectionism explain large proportions of the variance in impostor tendencies (∆R²=.59). A relative weight analysis indicated self-efficacy as the most important predictor, followed by maladaptive perfectionism and Neuroticism. Further, results showed that employees with stronger impostor tendencies indicate lower levels of job satisfaction and OCB, and higher levels of continuance commitment. However, workplace social support buffered the negative effects of impostor tendencies on job satisfaction and OCB.
Implications – Employees hampered by impostor tendencies could benefit from coaching programs that focus on the enhancement of self-efficacy and the alleviation of maladaptive perfectionistic concerns. Impostor tendencies have an impact on career attitudes and organizational behavior. Extra attention could be devoted to the assessment of this specific trait constellation in selection or development contexts. Interventions designed to increase social support are particularly relevant in this regard.
Originality/value – Despite its relevance for contemporary work settings, the IP has barely been investigated in adult working samples.
This article examines the hypothesis that individuals who were parentified as children are more likely to report impostor feelings in adulthood. A sample of 213 graduate students were given the Parentification Questionnaire (Sessions & Jurkovic, 198636.
Sessions , M. W. 1986 . Influence of parentification on professional role choice and interpersonal style . Dissertation Abstracts International , 47 : 5066 View all references) and Clance's Impostor Phenomenon Scale (Clance, 198512.
Clance , P. R. 1985 . The impostor phenomenon: Overcoming the fear that haunts your success , Atlanta, GA : Peachtree Publishers . View all references). Results indicated that parentification and the impostor phenomenon are moderately correlated (r = .37). No significant gender differences were found for either construct. With regard to racial/ethnic differences, no significant differences were found in parentification scores; however, Caucasians endorsed significantly higher impostor phenomenon scores than African Americans. The results suggest that the impostor phenomenon can be explained, in part, as a significant long-term effect of childhood parentification.
The impostor phenomenon refers to a situation in which people who are competent believe that they are really incompetent. An impostor phenomenon scale was administered to 233 high school students (mean age 15.7 yrs) along with the revised Eysenck Personality Inventory and measures of general irrational thinking and manic-depressive tendencies. Correlations between scores on the impostor scale were associated with a history of prior suicidal ideation and attempts, psychoticism, neuroticism, irrational thinking, and manic and depressive tendencies. Results suggest that the feeling that one is less competent than others believe one to be and a general tendency to cover up one's true self are associated with indices of psychological disturbance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews research on the impostor phenomenon, an experience of feeling incompetent and of having deceived others about one's abilities. Impostor feelings are shown to be associated with such characteristics as introversion, trait anxiety, a need to look smart to others, a propensity to shame, and a conflictual and nonsupportive family background. The findings are discussed in terms of self psychological theory, with the impostor phenomenon seen as a result of seeking self-esteem by trying to live up to an idealized image to compensate for feelings of insecurity and self-doubt. Therapeutic approaches drawing on self psychology and cognitive therapy are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The term "impostor phenomenon" is used to designate an internal experience of intellectual phoniness that appears to be particularly prevalent and intense among a select sample of high achieving women. Certain early family dynamics and later introjection of societal sex-role stereotyping appear to contribute significantly to the development of the impostor phenomenon. Despite outstanding academic and professional accomplishments, women who experience the impostor phenomenon persist in believing that they are really not bright and have fooled anyone who thinks otherwise. Numerous achievements, which one might expect to provide ample objective evidence of superior intellectual functioning, do not appear to affect the impostor belief. Four factors that contribute to the maintenance of impostor feelings over time are explored. Therapeutic approaches found to be effective in helping women change the impostor self-concept are described. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In many walks of life-and business is no exception-there are high achievers who believe that they are complete fakes. To the outside observer, these individuals appear to be remarkably accomplished; often they are extremely successful leaders with staggering lists of achievements. These neurotic impostors--as psychologists call them--are not guilty of false humility. The sense of being a fraud is the flip side of giftedness and causes a great many talented, hardworking, and capable leaders to believe that they don't deserve their success. "Bluffing" their way through life (as they see it), they are haunted by the constant fear of exposure. With every success, they think, "I was lucky this time, fooling everyone, but will my luck hold? When will people discover that I'm not up to the job?" In his career as a management professor, consultant, leadership coach, and psychoanalyst, Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries has found neurotic impostors at all levels of organizations. In this article, he explores the subject of neurotic imposture and outlines its classic symptoms: fear of failure, fear of success, perfectionism, procrastination, and workaholism. He then describes how perfectionist overachievers can damage their careers, their colleagues' morale, and the bottom line by allowing anxiety to trigger self-handicapping behavior and cripple the very organizations they're trying so hard to please. Finally, Kets de Vries offers advice on how to limit the incidence of neurotic imposture and mitigate its damage through discreet vigilance, appropriate intervention, and constructive support.
The Impostor Phenomenon was identified from clinical observations during therapeutic sessions with high achieving women by Dr Pauline Clance. Despite objective evidence of success, these women had a pervasive psychological experience believing that they were intellectual frauds and feared being recognised as impostors. They suffered from anxiety, fear of failure and dissatisfaction with life. This article reviews definitions and characteristics of trait Impostorism, some antecedents, such as personality and family achievement environment and psychological distress as a consequence of Impostorism.
This article provides a methodology for mapping an individual's system of social relationships. Three examples of network maps which vary in complexity have been selected to represent the most common issues discussed by over 90 African American professional women during an eight year period. Excerpts from their explanations of these "maps" are used to identify issues pertinent to the social structure and adult development issues of this group. Implications for clinical practitioners working with African American women of professional status are discussed.
The second edition of this best-selling book has been thoroughly revised and expanded to reflect the significant changes and advances made in systematic reviewing. New features include discussion on the rationale, meta-analyses of prognostic and diagnostic studies and software, and the use of systematic reviews in practice.
The impostor phenomenon is an intense feeling of intellectual inauthenticity experienced by many high-achieving individuals (Clance, 1985). The present study investigated the relationships between the impostor phenomenon and (a) family achievement orientation and (b) achievement-related behaviors. Subjects were 127 undergraduates (75 female, 52 males). Subjects reported high school grade point average (GPA) and number of hours spent on academic endeavors. They then completed the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1986) and Clance′s IP Scale (1985). As predicted, greater family achievement orientation was associated with higher levels of the impostor phenomenon. Higher levels of the impostor phenomenon were associated with higher GPA and more time spent on academic endeavors for females, but not for males. Future research on family achievement orientation and possible gender differences associated with this phenomenon is indicated.
Impostors are outwardly successful individuals who experience secret intense feelings of fraudulence in achievement situations. Elements of perfectionism are evident in a tendency on the part of impostors to maintain high standards for personal evaluation while being critical of their inability to realise these standards. This study utilised a 2 (impostor status: high, low)×2 (task type: high vs. low frequency of mistakes) between-subjects factorial design to investigate the connection between impostor fears and perfectionistic concern over mistakes. Sixty undergraduate students completed either a high or low frequency of mistake Stroop Colour-Word task, following which they completed items assessing perceptions of their performance, concern over mistakes, perceptions of control and anxiety, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale and the Russell Causal Dimension Scale. Links with perfectionistic concern over mistakes and anxiety were strongly supported, with impostors reporting less control, greater anxiety, more negative affect and greater concern over mistakes than non-impostors irrespective of experimental condition. The roles of anxiety and perfectionist cognitions in the maintenance of impostor fears are discussed.
In this paper we discuss mixing methods at the level of reviews of research, combining the findings of multiple, already existing, studies that are labelled broadly as using either ‘qualitative’ or ‘quantitative’ methods. We define systematic reviews and outline the ‘mixed methods’ we have developed for combining diverse study types within them. Traditional systematic reviews usually answer a single question, use one type of study and, hence, only require one method of synthesis to combine the findings of studies. Our methods involve conducting three types of synthesis: (1) a statistical meta‐analysis to pool trials of interventions tackling a particular health, social or educational problem; (2) a synthesis of studies examining people’s perspectives or experiences of that problem using qualitative analysis; and (3) a mixed methods synthesis bringing the products of (1) and (2) together. We discuss the strengths of these mixed methods at the review level, reflect on their lessons for the concept of ‘triangulation’ and raise questions about the utility of the terms ‘qualitative’ and ‘quantitative’ and ‘mixed methods’ for classifying different types of research.
This study was conducted to examine whether Finnish parents would endorse the the classic gender-related attribution pattern and explain their son's mathematical performance in terms of talent and their daughter's in terms of effort. In addition, we examined whether the pattern of attributions would be the opposite in regard to parental explanations of their child's reading performance. A group of parents (N = 486), both mothers and fathers, were requested to assess the level of competence of their 1st grader in mathematics and reading. The parents were also asked to recall events from their child's 1st school year in which the child succeeded and failed in mathematics and reading; they were then asked to evaluate the importance of talent, effort, and task to the child's outcomes. The parents of boys assessed their child's mathematical competence to be higher than did the parents of girls. Furthermore, the parents of boys rated talent as a more important reason for their child's mathematical success than did the parents of girls. In contrast, the parents of girls rated effort as a more important reason for their child's mathematical success. Although the girls were perceived to surpass boys in reading, the girls' positive outcomes in reading were explained by effort more than the boys' outcomes, and at the highest level of assessed competence, the boys' verbal talent was rated as a more significant cause of success in reading than the girls' verbal talent. In sum, our results suggested that in both mathematics and reading, girls were not entitled to ability-based attribution to the same extent as were boys.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Temple University, 1981. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 85-95). Photocopy.
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Three studies tested theoretical assumptions regarding the impostor phenomenon. In Study 1, participants completed measures of impostorism, rated themselves, and indicated how they thought other people regarded them. Contrary to standard conceptualizations of impostorism, high impostors were characterized by a combination of low self-appraisals and low reflected appraisals. Study 2 was an experiment designed to determine whether the behaviors associated with the impostor phenomenon are interpersonal strategies. Participants were told that they were expected to perform either better or worse than they had previously predicted on an upcoming test, then expressed their reactions anonymously or publicly. High impostors expressed lower performance expectations than low impostors only when their responses were public. When expectations for performance were low, participants high in impostorism responded differently under public than private conditions. Study 3 examined the possibility that high scores on measures of impostorism may reflect two types of impostors--true impostors (who believe that others perceive them too positively) and strategic impostors (who only claim that they are not as good as other people think). The results did not support this distinction; however, evidence for the strategic nature of impostorism was again obtained. Although people may experience true feelings of impostorism, these studies suggest that the characteristics attributed to so-called impostors are partly interpersonal, self-presentational behaviors designed to minimize the implications of poor performance.
The purpose of this study was to relate the impostor phenomenon (IP) to the Five-factor model of personality. A sample of 190 college students (79 men, 111 women) completed the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (Clance, 1985), the Perceived Fradulence Scale (Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991), and the NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Results of correlational and regression analyses support the predicted relations of imposter measures with high Neuroticism and low Conscientiousness. Facet-level correlations showed that depression and anxiety were particularly important characteristics of those with imposter feelings as well as low self-discipline and perceived competence. Implications for treatment and future research on the IP are discussed.
Personality traits, self-perceptions, beliefs, and feelings that accompany the Imposter Phenomenon (IP) have been identified in adults but little research with adolescents has been reported. The present research describes data from a sample of 11th and 12th graders in order to examine predictors of IP among adolescents. The participants completed measures of the IP, global self-worth, social support and self-concept. Gender differences were found in correlations between IP and Parent Support, Classmate Support, and Teacher Support. Multiple regression analyses found significant predictors of IP scores for females to be Friend Support, Classmate Support and Dependability. Only Friend Support significantly predicted IP scores for males. The unique variance explained (UVE) by each of the variables was fairly modest, suggesting that the variables are explaining a considerable amount of the same portion of the variance, particularly for females.
The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; Clance, 1985) was compared to the newly developed Perceived Fraudulence Scale (Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991). The two scales were found to have high internal consistency and to correlate in a similar manner with other measures. Further, discriminant validity evidence for the Impostor Phenomenon (IP) was provided by comparing the CIPS to measures of depression, self-esteem, social anxiety, and self-monitoring. The IP was related to, but substantially discriminable from, these constructs. Finally, construct validity evidence for the CIPS was provided through principal components analysis that yielded three stable factors: Fake, Discount, and Luck.
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