The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence in the North-Eastern Peninsular Area. (II-I BCE): the Examples of Puig Castellar of Biosca and Can Tacó (Catalonia, Spain)

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to provide data for the knowledge of the strategies followed by Rome to take effective control of the Citerior Province of Hispania during the 2nd century BC. We will analyse two settlements of the north-eastern region, namely Puig Castellar de Biosca (Province of Lleida) and Can Tacó (Province of Barcelona), that will serve to gauge the degree of Roman territorial implementation and under what forms this power will be consolidated. The period that interests us ranges from the end of the second Punic-Roman conflict to the first decades of the 1st century BC. It was a slow process in which Rome did not have a pre-established plan of action but was adapting its strategy to the different circumstances and stages of the conquest. The end of all this was the final control and pacification of the country. While all the researchers have a common understanding that during the first phase of control of the Hispanic territories the army played the most important role, the main discrepancies are related to the nature and characteristics of this occupation. The main focus in this discussion has its centre in the need to define how the Roman Army embodied his presence in Hispania during the first century of conquest and to characterise the different settlements in order to identify and determine with precision their military character or their connection with the process of conquest without a strictly military function. Funding: This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (De la consolidación del poder militar romana a la fundación de ciudades (mediados del siglo II a.C.-principios del siglo I d.C). en la Cuenca del rio Segre: Iesso y Iulia Libica DGYCIT PID2019-104120GB-I00-2023-2021), and the Department of Culture of the Catalan Autonomous Government (La conquesta romana a la Catalunya interior: l’exemple de Puig Castellar (Biosca), CLT009/18/00014).

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COLLECTANEA PHILOLOGICA XXV, 2022: 149–169
Esther RODRIGO REQUENA
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4771-1216
Núria ROMANÍ SALA
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5942-6992
THE ROMAN CONQUEST OF HISPANIA CITERIOR.
STRATEGIES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
IN THE NORTH-EASTERN PENINSULAR AREA.
(II-I BCE): THE EXAMPLES OF PUIG CASTELLAR
OF BIOSCA AND CAN TACÓ (CATALONIA, SPAIN)
The aim of this paper is to provide data for the knowledge of the strategies followed by Rome
to take eective control of the Citerior Province of Hispania during the 2nd century BC. We will
analyse two settlements of the north-eastern region, namely Puig Castellar de Biosca (Province of
Lleida) and Can Tacó (Province of Barcelona), that will serve to gauge the degree of Roman territo-
rial implementation and under what forms this power will be consolidated.
The period that interests us ranges from the end of the second Punic-Roman conict to the rst
decades of the 1st century BC. It was a slow process in which Rome did not have a pre-established
plan of action but was adapting its strategy to the dierent circumstances and stages of the conquest.
The end of all this was the nal control and pacication of the country.
While all the researchers have a common understanding that during the rst phase of control of
the Hispanic territories the army played the most important role, the main discrepancies are related to
the nature and characteristics of this occupation. The main focus in this discussion has its centre in the
need to dene how the Roman Army embodied his presence in Hispania during the rst century of con-
quest and to characterise the dierent settlements in order to identify and determine with precision their
military character or their connection with the process of conquest without a strictly military function.
Keywords: Roman Republican Army, conquest, Hispania Citerior, second century BC
Słowa kluczowe: armia republiki rzymskiej, podbój, Hiszpania Bliższa, II wiek p.n.e.
https://doi.org/10.18778/1733-0319.25.11

150 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
EL PROCESO DE CONQUISTA DE ROMA EN LA HISPANIA CITERIOR.
LAS ESTRATEGIAS Y SUS EVIDENCIAS ARQUEOLÓGICAS EN EL ÁREA
NORORIENTAL PENINSULAR (SIGLOS II-I A.C.): LOS EJEMPLOS DE PUIG
CASTELLAR DE BIOSCA Y CAN TACÓ (CATALUÑA, ESPAÑA)
El objetivo de este trabajo es aportar datos sobre las estrategias seguidas por Roma para hac-
erse con el control efectivo de la Provincia Citerior de Hispania durante el siglo II a.C. Analizaremos
dos asentamientos de la zona nororiental de la Península Ibérica, Puig Castellar de Biosca (Provincia
de Lleida) y Can Tacó (Provincia de Barcelona), que servirán para calibrar el grado de implantación
territorial romana y bajo qué formas se consolidó este poder.
El período que nos interesa abarca desde el nal la Segunda Guerra Púnica hasta las primeras
décadas del siglo I a.C. Fue un proceso lento en el que Roma no tenía un plan de acción preestable-
cido, sino que fue adaptando su estrategia a las distintas circunstancias y etapas de la conquista. El
nal de todo este proceso fue el control y pacicación de la provincia hispana.
Si bien todos los investigadores están de acuerdo que durante la primera fase de control de los
territorios hispanos el ejército desempeó un papel destacado, las principales discrepancias están
relacionadas con la naturaleza y características de esta ocupación. El eje principal de esta discusión
tiene su centro en la necesidad de denir cómo el ejército romano encarnó su presencia en Hispania
durante el primer siglo de la conquista y caracterizar los distintos asentamientos para identicar
y determinar con precisión su carácter militar o su vinculación con el proceso de conquista sin una
función estrictamente militar.
Palabras clave: Ejército Republicano Romano, conquista, Hispania Citerior, castellum
Introduction
The 2nd century BC marks the beginning of the permanent Roman presence
in the Iberian Peninsula; we know well the end of the process that resulted in the
founding of the rst Roman towns, but we are largely unaware of the previous
trajectory of a period that has come to be known generically as “the rst phase of
the Roman conquest of Hispania”. It is on this premise that we decided to focus
our research on some settlements that seem to us to be essential to address this
general issue.
Until a few decades ago there was a lack of archaeological information
on the existence of a stable military occupation for the period between the end of
the Second Punic War and the end of the Celtiberian Wars. Only the camps
of the siege of Numancia and the existence of stable military bases in Empúries
and Tarraco were known, while for the rest of the territory of the northeast of
the Iberian Peninsula there were no data that would modify this vision. It has
often been stated that there are no stable military camps outside the conict
zones in these territories until the nal decades of the 2nd century BC and the
beginning of the 1st century BC, when greater instability began to take place
in these territories as a result of the Cimbrian wars and the Sertorius revolt
(Noguera et al. 2014).

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The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
In recent years, the development of new research projects has provided new
data that allow us to propose the existence of stable military enclaves in the con-
quered territories from very early chronologies, together with settlements of an
administrative nature related to the army.
Being a very extensive geographical area that has a wide typological reper-
toire of settlements, we will focus our article on the two sites that we have worked
in the last decade and that could be representative of the northeast of the Citerior
area, Can Tacó (Montmeló, Barcelona) and Puig Castellar (Biosca, Province of
Lleida); two singular settlements of which we have sucient archaeological doc-
umentation to try to dene their typology (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Map of the situation of the two archaeological settlements (Pau de Soto).
Puig Castellar of Biosca (Catalonia, Spain). A Republican Fortress
Puig Castellar is located in the municipality of Biosca (county of La Segarra,
province of Lleida), on a low hill situated at the conuence of three uvial cours-
es, currently very seasonal: the Riera de Biosca to the north; the Llobregós River,
a tributary of the Segre, the major auent of the Ebro River, and the Riera de
Massoteres, to the south. The research project began in 2012 and has continued to
date with dierent archaeological campaigns that took place in summer months
(Pera et al. 2018, 2019: 22–23).

152 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
From the top of this hill there is a wide area of visual control, mainly of the
Llobregós River valley; this privileged location gives to the settlement an excep-
tional strategic position to control the natural paths in a broad area in the central
Catalonia.
The excavation of the upper part of the hill of Puig Castellar, which forms
a small plain, has made it possible to identify the remains of the main building
that presided over the settlement, and the defensive wall that encloses it (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Map with the location of Puig Castellar fortress (Institut Cartogràc i Geogràc
de Catalunya-ICGC).
The main building
The excavations have uncovered a large building of considerable dimensions
(around 900 m2) with a square oor plan of 30.2 x 29.7 m, so that we can dene
a modulation pattern that follows the Roman foot (approximately 100 x 100 Ro-
man feet). The building is organized with thirteen rooms, ranging from 12 to
104 m2, articulated around a 97 m2 beaten-earth central courtyard and framed in
two of its sides (west and north wings) by a corridor, possibly arcaded (Fig. 3 and
Fig. 4). The rooms in the south wing are located at a level lower than the rest; this
obeys to an architectural solution that allows a better adaptation to the previously
mentioned slope of the hill.
During the excavations of the courtyard a cistern was identied. It is a large
rectangular structure dug directly into the natural rock which, unless the usual
practice at the time, did not have any type of hydraulic coating for waterproong
because the geological chalks naturally retained the water. Only on its eastern
boundary it is closed by a solid wall built with large ashlars (Fig. 4).
Inside the cistern, two lling phases were identied: the upper one, corre-
sponding to the moment of abandonment, is formed by clay from the adobe ele-
vations of the walls of the immediate rooms, preserving even some portions with
the adobes in an articulated arrangement, all associated with a large amount of

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The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
parietal wall building material (mouldings, painted stuccos) and some fragments
of roof and pavements. The arrangement of these remains indicate clearly how
they were demolished towards the interior of the cistern in an intentional way,
contributing to its lling.
Fig. 3. Aerial view of the main building during the archaeological campaign of 2014
(Puig Castellar Team).
Fig. 4. Aerial zenital view of the main building after the 2014 excavation (Puig Castellar Team).

154 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
Regarding the construction techniques used on the main building, the remains re-
covered seem to indicate that the walls were raised with mud brick or adobe, arranged
on a base of carved stones. We have been able to verify that at least one row of ashlars
would rise on the stone foundations. The type of sandstone used in foundations and
baseboards is of the same nature as that used for the construction of the defensive wall
and were brought from outside, maybe from a nearby quarry unidentied.
The main building shows a diversity of pavements in opus signinum and coc-
ciopesto in the dierent rooms. The artisans who built the pavements knew perfectly
the constructive technique and made a careful choice of the materials to be used.
As for the parietal coatings, there is no doubt that, inside the noble rooms,
the walls would be covered with stucco or painted plaster, mostly white and red
(Romaní et al. 2020). The archaeometric analysis of some painted plasters also in-
dicates a very elaborate execution technique. We have recovered numerous sam-
ples of them in the layers of demolition that lled the cistern and also in many
of the surface layers of the site. Some of the fragments show bevelled reliefs and
mouldings on its surface, probably related to the Pompeian First Style decoration.
According to the estimated chronology, we can present the settlement of Puig
Castellar de Biosca as one of the rst known sites in the use of these building
techniques in Hispania.
The roofs were made with tegulae, despite the scanty sample documented
until now in the settlement (6 fragments). The archaeometric analysis of two of
the recovered fragments of tegulae has allowed us to determine its italic origin
(Campania and Lazio) (Romaní et al 2020: 400–401).
The defensive wall
The excavation works in the area of the perimeter wall that surrounds the
Puig Castellar hill (sector C) conrm that the settlement was enclosed by a defen-
sive wall with four squared towers and two bastions.
The structure of the wall has a base of blocks of stone that are arranged direct-
ly on the natural rock cut, without clear indications of another type of foundation.
It has a width in the base that ranges between 1 and 1.20 m and a conserved height
of 80 cm (Fig. 6).
The best-preserved section is documented by the south side, and it is known
in an extension of more than 250 meters. Its layout is not totally rectilinear: it
adopts a slight inection of a few degrees in its orientation in order to adapt to the
natural topography of the hill (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6).
We have also documented the existence of some rooms that are arranged in
battery and attached directly to the inner face of the southern wall. Even though
currently it is not possible to determine the functions and uses of them because the
archaeological work is yet in process, probably these rooms could be the barracks
where the troops were quartered.

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The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
Fig. 5. General Plan of the archaeological site of Puig Castellar
(Institut Català d’Arqueologia Clàssica).
Fig. 6. View of the defensive wall at south side (Puig Castellar Team).

156 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
The archaeological materials
The excavations have provided an important ceramic set that marks a chron-
ological horizon typical of the second and third quarter of the second century BC
(Pera et al. in press); these materials are very representative of the interaction be-
tween the Roman and the indigenous worlds. In the studied stratigraphic contexts
amphorae and pottery of Iberian tradition are widely represented, coexisting with
an extensive ceramic repertoire of foreign origin, above all Italic.
Although the Iberian amphorae are predominant, the great amount of foreign
amphorae productions can be observed, with a clear predominance of Italian am-
phorae; also, among the imported ne ware production the same predominance
is detected. It is very relevant the great proportion of Campanian or black-gloss
pottery from the group A that has been recovered, a great amount that could be
surprising in a settlement that is located more than one hundred kilometres away
from the coast, where it could be hard to supply with these imported goods.
Until now, the excavations have provided very few examples of metallic ma-
terial, partly due to the intense clandestine activity that the site had been suering
for decades (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8).
Fig. 7. Fine imported ware and ne local pottery repertoire of Puig Castellar (Puig Castellar Team).

157
The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
Fig. 8. Imported cooking ware and amphorae repertoire in Puig Castellar (Can Tacó team).
Only two coins from private collections can safely be attributed to Puig Cas-
tellar: one quadrans from Kesse (1st half of the 2nd century BC) and another from
Arse (last quarter of the 2nd century BC).
Other metallic objects recovered in archaeological excavation are a bronze
handle of a situla, coming from the cistern, three small bronze bolts and several
drops of lead.
Among the materials of strictly military character, one bronze arrowhead
with a central nerve and an iron horn of a long weapon were found.
As far as we know, Puig Castellar de Biosca can be considered a singular set-
tlement, perhaps a castellum, a military establishment with an important historical
signicance due to the fact that it would be one of the earliest Roman military
fortresses of the Iberian Peninsula. The military character of the establishment is

158 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
beyond reasonable doubt, despite no signicant remains of militaria have been
identied. Its chronology, the location in height of the fortication, with an exten-
sive visual domain of the territory, its considerable extension (1.6 ha), the singular
typology of its main building, the existence of a defensive towered wall, the early
use in Hispania of a series of noble building materials, such as terrazzo and opus
signinum pavements, tegulae and imbrices of italic origin, painted and moulded
stuccos, and, above all, a large amount of imported pottery are sucient elements
to support this interpretation.
If we analyse the architectural plan of the main building that presides over
the settlement, we can see that it ts the constructive parameters of a command
centre (principia?), a type of building that is documented in many military estab-
lishments although most of the examples known at present belong to the imperial
period (Pera et al. 2019: 38).
In the same way, one fundamental aspect to consider is what could have been
the main function of this settlement in the historical and territorial framework of
the northeast peninsular area.
It should be remembered that, at the same time of the occupation of Puig
Castellar de Biosca, Rome was involved in several wars in Hispania, such as the
wars in Lusitania and Celtiberia, among which the long campaign of Numancia
(154–133 BC) must be highlighted. In this context, it can be argued that Puig
Castellar acted as a castellum from which the Roman Army exercised the control
of one of the routes that linked the coast (Empúries or central coast) with the in-
terior of the country. Following this approach, the fortress of Puig Castellar could
have held a control function for the immediate territory and, above all, could have
given logistical support, if necessary, to the troops that were traveling along this
route. Its position in height, its defensive systems, its considerable extension and
easy access from the valley t perfectly to this purpose.
Another important aspect that we cannot ignore is the close relationship that
we can establish between the end of the establishment and the foundation of the
Roman Town of Iesso (Guissona), located only 6 kilometres away. It should be
remembered that the foundational layers of the new Town indicate a chronology
of the end of the 2nd century BC. For us it is clear the relationship between the
two centres, Puig Castellar and Iesso, a thesis that is supported by the chronol-
ogy and the serial succession of the materials that we have been able to study in
both enclaves.
In this case we are facing a planned abandonment of the establishment, car-
ried out in a well-ordered way. This would justify the absence of some construc-
tive materials, since everything that could be reused (vessels, tiles, ashlars) does
not appear in the recovered archaeological record. Although these are the rst
conclusions, we think that the establishment of Puig Castellar, together with its
strictly military role, could have also functioned as the ocial headquarters of
a Roman centre of territorial administration. If we take account of this function, it

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The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
would not be strange to nd high ocials of the Roman administration living and
developing their activity in these military installations, maybe some delegates of
the Roman power that we do not discard that they formed part of the same mili-
tary establishment. It would be these representatives of the Roman power who left
their mark on the settlement, through the sumptuous details shown by the archi-
tecture and some of the products consumed.
Can Tacó (Montmeló-Montornès del Vallès, Barcelona)
A fortied residential complex
The case of Can Tacó is another example of these rst Roman establishments
that emerges in the previous moment to urban foundations. The site currently
belongs to two municipalities in the Vallès Oriental region (Montmeló and Mon-
tornès, Barcelona), a territory that in the 2nd century BC would correspond to the
interior region of Iberian Laietania. Can Tacó is an archaeological site located
at the top of a small hill that oers a wide visual domain of the natural corridor
of the Vallès region through which the Ancient Via Heraklea (later Via Augusta)
ran. The hill of Can Tacó is a spur of steep slopes that oer a natural defence to
the settlement (Rodrigo et al. 2013a) (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Aerial view of the situation of Can Tacó (Institut Cartogràc i Geogràc de Catalunya).

160 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
The main building
The residential building of Can Tacó consists of two architectural bodies that
show dierent orientations, although are enclosed by the same perimeter wall
that delimits the entire architectural ensemble. This change of orientation is due
to the need to adapt the construction of the buildings to the topography of the hill.
It should be noted that the settlement has not been fully preserved and shows a high
degree of destruction caused by natural erosion and a modern urbanisation attempt.
The total extension of the settlement covers an area of approximately
2,500 m². The settlement is adapted to the geological unevenness of the hill itself
by arranging the dierent residential buildings on three tiered terraces.
Despite being the most eroded area of the complex and where the archaeolog-
ical remains have been most damaged, we can arm that the upper terrace formed
a platform where the residential spaces of the settlement were located, occupying
a main position. (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. Aerial view with the archaeological plan of Can Tacó (Institut Català d’Arqueologia
Clàssica-Mònica Mercado).
In this upper terrace, a large central open-air space with a cistern and a well,
and three rooms around it, are identied. Also, we could assume the existence
of many other accommodations that have not been preserved. It is in this area
where the most outstanding dwellings of the settlement would be located, as it is
suggested by the considerable number of white tesserae set in opus signinum and
cocciopesto pavements that have been recovered.

161
The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
At a lower level and on the eastern and western slopes of the hill, a second
level of terrace is documented where there are located a battery of rooms (ve
in one side and three in the other side), that we have identied as service rooms,
working spaces, and also storerooms.
Finally, a third terrace encircles the hill on the east, south and west sides, and
would initially function as a circulation space since there are no building structures
in this terrace, except for a second large capacity water reservoir built on the southern
slope. This third terrace is delimited by a perimeter wall that closes the whole, built
with a double-sided stone wall and an internal lling of earth and smaller stones,
without showing this wall signs of fortication that may suggest its defensive use.
The secondary building
The second building would be formed by a large courtyard where the access
to the main building is located. It would present two annex buildings where a to-
tal of ten rooms dedicated to domestic activities or storage have been found. We
deduce from the preserved remains that the main access to the settlement was
located on the north slope of the hill, although the existence of secondary accesses
cannot be ruled out in other points of the site.
In terms of water consumption, the settlement dwellers were self-sucient,
since two connected cisterns coated with a fairly well-preserved opus hidraulicum
are recorded, with sucient water capacity to meet needs of the site (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11. The upper cistern of Can Tacó (Can Tacó team).

162 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
Building techniques
The buildings techniques and materials used are very homogeneous through-
out the site. The hill of Can Tacó presents a geological composition of quaternary
slates and degraded schist, which were used massively in the foundations in ma-
sonry of the walls (Fig. 12), occasionally combined with other stone materials
taken from some nearby extraction areas, such as some granite blocks and river
pebbles. On top of the stone foundation, the walls were raised using mud bricks
and rammed earth, especially the interior walls that divided some rooms.
Fig. 12. The foundation in stone masonry of western wall of the room 7 (Can Tacó team).
The oors of the lodgings located in the lower terraces that we interpret as
workspaces or warehouses, as well as the oors in the areas of passage, are made
in beaten earth.
In the upper terrace, where the most luxurious rooms of the settlement would
be located, we place the pavements made in opus signinum that have decorations
with white tesserae. Unfortunately, we have only recovered two fragments of this
type of pavement inside the upper cistern. In any case, on the surface layers, a few
hundred tesserae have been collected, which are the clearest evidence of the ex-
istence of this typology of pavements.
Also, a large number of fragments of opus signinum and cocciopesto pave-
ments have been recovered in the upper layers of the settlement.

163
The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
The decoration of these noble rooms would be completed with stuccos and
mouldings that follow the techniques and decorative themes of the First Pom-
peian Style. Most of them were recovered fragmentarily at dierent points of the
settlement and in the cistern itself. These remains of mural decorations are one of
the most outstanding aspects that the excavations at Can Tacó have uncovered:
a mural decoration that consists of the simulation of marble ashlars with stucco
in relief, outlined by a painted red line, the fragmentary remains of what would
be the base painted in dark red are also preserved, and the remains of cornices,
denting mouldings, and beads and reel mouldings.
The exceptionality of these features together with the early chronology, on
the rst phases of the Roman occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, made of this site
an exceptional study case (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13. The reconstruction of the mural decoration that corresponds with a First Pompeian Style
(Can Tacó team).
As we have seen for Puig Castellar, tegulae and imbrices were used for the
roong. From the analysis of fabrics made by the Archaeometry Unit of ICAC-Tar-
ragona, we have been able to verify that a part of this material comes from the
Lazio-Campanian area. However, the large majority of tiles recovered were clear-
ly locally produced (Rodrigo et al. 2013b).
The archaeological materials
Regarding the pottery assemblage, it is worth mentioning the chronological
homogeneity corresponding to the moment of occupation. The imported table-
ware productions are well represented by the production of Italic black-gloss ware

164 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
from the group A, many of the forms that have been recorded correspond to pro-
ductions of the second third of the second century BC (Lamboglia 25, 27a, 31b,
33, 36). Due to the extended chronology of the Black-Glazed form repertoire it
has been certainly dicult to accurately determine the initial moment of the set-
tlement only considering this pottery type. The productions of Italic black-gloss
ware of the so-called circle of the B appear in a proportion clearly inferior to the
A vessels, and in its major part comes from the supercial strata or from the layers
that correspond to nal abandonment of the site. Among these, the early produc-
tions of this group, which are disseminated by the north-eastern peninsular region
between the end of the second century BC and the rst years of the rst century
BC, are predominant.
In the group of Italic imported coarse ware, we detect the presence of plat-
ters-lid, cooking pots and mortaria, which do not provide a more accurate dating
for the site due to their wide chronology.
Another very abundant material in the settlement are the imported amphorae,
especially from Italy, being the most characteristic the wine amphorae of the area of
Campania (Dressel 1A) and the oil amphorae from Brindisi (Apani I and V) (Car-
reras 2016); the amphora types of the Greco-Italic variety are almost testimonial.
Among the amphorae repertoire, the presence of three stamps on Rhodian amphorae
repertoire must be highlighted because they provide a dating between 166 BC and
150 BC (Rodrigo et al. 2015). Also, we have a Punic stamp from Carthage that plac-
es us on a horizon prior to the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC.
The local Iberian ceramic vessels (kalathoi, dishes, bowls, jars), both painted
and plain, are very abundant in the settlement and are present in a higher quantity
than the imported ceramics. It must be noted that among these, numerous Iberian
imitations of forms of the repertoire of the black-gloss pottery or Campanian ware
have been identied (forms Lamboglia 25, 27, 36 and 33). Locally produced ce-
ramic cooking pots and pans are also a widely represented material.
Together both the materials documented in the building construction strata,
as in the occupation and abandonment strata of the settlement give us a chrono-
logical horizon from the second half of the second century BC to the rst decades
from the 1st century BC (Fig. 14).
Moreover, we have documented a few remains of militaria: a blade from
a Gladius hispaniensis, a pointed butt spike that tted a pilum, and one fragment
of spearhead.
From the data provided by the excavations, we can reach the conclusion
that Can Tacó is congured as another singular case of settlement from the rst
moments of the Roman presence; we consider that to its unequivocal residential
character it is necessary to add the function of ocial representation tasks of the
Roman power in this region, the Iberian Laietania.
We would highlight the strategic value of its location close to an important
road hub that communicates the Catalan central coast with the interior territories,

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The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
and likewise there is a broad visual domain over the immediate area and vice ver-
sa, that is, its elevated position constitutes a visual reference of the new power in
the territory, especially for the Iberian communities.
Fig. 14. The ceramic repertoire of Can Tacó (Can Tacó team).
Starting from the documented architectural plan and the luxurious decora-
tions of the building there is no doubt about the italic aliation of its inhabitants
and their high social status, aspects that we can relate to the presence in the settle-
ment of an administrative elite, perhaps coming from the military itself. Despite

166 Esther Rodrigo Requena, Núria Romaní Sala
this, we can discard a strictly military function of this residential complex, as had
been suggested at the beginning of our research, due to the fact that there are no
defensive walls and we consider that it clearly departs from the classic model of
castellum. In any case, it would be a type of settlement for which we do not know
exact parallels throughout the north-eastern Citerior Province for this period
(2nd century BC).
The only explanation that seems feasible to us is its function as a residential
complex that represents the new power and where it could have carried out admin-
istrative control over the territories of Laietania Interior.
Conclusions
The dating of Can Tacó (circa 165/150 BC to 90/80 BC) and Puig Castellar
(circa 180–120 BCE) provides new data that allows us to ll in some of the gaps
we have had for this period until a few years ago, especially the absence of perma-
nent military settlements in the province of Citerior between 180 and 120 BC in
areas far from both the battlefront and the military bases of Tarraco and Empuries.
If until a decade ago the historiography and the archaeological data seemed to
indicate a scarce deployment of the Roman army throughout the territory, since
the last decade this vision has been gradually changing thanks to the location and
excavation of new archaeological sites of an undeniable military nature.
As was stated before, the fortress of Puig Castellar ts perfectly to a Ro-
man military-type installation, and its Roman aliation would be reinforced by
a well-dened chronology between 180 and 120 BC, since we consider that, in
this period, only the Roman Administration would be able to establish a military
fortress of this kind. Considering its chronology and features, it can be considered
one of earliest and well documented examples of permanent military occupation
of the Roman Army in the Iberian Peninsula.
In the case of the residential complex of Can Tacó, if we analyse the docu-
mented architectural plan and the luxurious decoration of the building, we have
no doubt of the Italian aliation of its inhabitants and their high social status, as-
pects that we can relate to the presence in the settlement of an administrative elite,
perhaps coming from the military itself. Despite this, we can rule out a strictly
military function of this residential complex, because there are no defensive walls
and we consider that it clearly deviates from the classic castellum model. In any
case it would be a type of settlement for which we do not know exact parallels
throughout the NE for this period (2nd century BC).
Over the last decade, the number of recovered settlements from Roman
Republic period in this region have increased considerably, the majority of them
being of military nature (Fig. 14). In the area of Catalonia, it may be the recent-
ly excavated sites of Monteró (Camarasa, Lleida) (Principal et al. 2015), Sant

167
The Roman Conquest of Hispania Citerior. Strategies and Archaeological Evidence...
Miquel de Sorba (Navès, Lleida) (Asensio et al. 2014), Puig Pelat (Puig Pelat,
Tarragona) (Díaz, Ramírez 2015), Ilturo (Cabrera de Mar, Barcelona) (Martin
2006) Sant Julià de Ramis (Sant Julià de Ramis, Girona) and Mas Gusó (Bell-
caire d’Empordà, Girona) (Casas et al. 2015) which show notable functional and
typological similarities with both Puig Castellar and Can Tacó. In addition to the
settlements afore-mentioned, other important sites of the north-eastern Hispania
show some of its phases within this historical period: Olèrdola (Olèrdola, Bar-
celona) (Molist 2008), Sigarra (Els Prats de Rei, Anoia) (Salazar et al. 2016),
Serrat dels Espinyers-Aeso (Isona, Lleida) (Belmonte 2015), El Camp de les
Lloses (Tona, Barcelona) (Duran et al. 2015), Puig Ciutat (Oristà, Barcelona)
(Padrós et al. 2015), Tarraco (Tarragona) (Ruiz de Arbulo 2015) and Empúries
(Girona) (Castanyer et al. 2015), as well as others of lesser importance. All of
them, although their existence could obey to other functions, should be consid-
ered for the global study of the rst century of the Roman presence in the NE
area of the Iberian Peninsula.
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Dr Esther Rodrigo Requena – obtained her PhD in Archeology in 2006 with
the dissertation: “The evolution of the settlement and organization of the Ager
de Iesso from the Iberian period to Late Antiquity. Study of the occupation and
structuration of the territory”. Her eld of expertise focuses on the study of ter-
ritory and landscape in Antiquity and the process of Romanization in the Iberian
Peninsula. She has participated in numerous projects on the Romanization process
in the Iberian Peninsula, such as the excavation and research project of the Serrat
dels Tres Hereus (Casserres, Barcelona) from 1996 to 2000, the research project
of the Roman republican complex of Can Tacó (Montmeló/Montornès del Vallès,
Barcelona), from 2004 to 2017, in which she was the director of the excavations
that have had a special impact on the studies of the rst Roman settlement in the
territory between the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, and also the archaeological research
project in the Roman Republican fortress of Puig Castellar de Biosca (Lleida)
since 2012 until now, and in the Roman municipality of Iesso (Guissona, Lleida).
Finally, it is also important to highlight her participation as a member of the
research team on the landscape of the Greek city of Emporion, a project that start-
ed in 2012 under the direction of Josep Maria Palet.
e-mail: esther.rodrigo@uab.cat
Dr Núria Romaní Sala – is a tenure-eligible lecturer (Serra Húnter fellow) in
the Department of Antiquity and Middle Age Studies of the Autonomous Univer-
sity of Barcelona. Her research has focused on Roman urbanism and water engi-
neering, especially on the evolution, construction techniques and organization of
streets and urban public services, mainly the water supply and sewerage systems
in the Roman town. She is also particularly interested in exploring the early stages
of the Roman conquest of north-eastern Hispania, as a member of the research
team of the Puig Castellar de Biosca archaeological project.
e-mail: nuria.romani@uab.cat
Funding: This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Inno-
vation and Universities (De la consolidación del poder militar romana a la fun-
dación de ciudades (mediados del siglo II a.C.-principios del siglo I d.C). en la
Cuenca del rio Segre: Iesso y Iulia Libica DGYCIT PID2019-104120GB-I00-
2023-2021), and the Department of Culture of the Catalan Autonomous Govern-
ment (La conquesta romana a la Catalunya interior: l’exemple de Puig Castellar
(Biosca), CLT009/18/00014).