Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking

Abstract

Cyberpsychology is the study of the psychological effects of technology on human behavior. This relatively new field has gained popularity in recent years due to the rapid advancement of technology and the increasing reliance on the internet for communication and socialization. Behavioral science has shown that social networking can positively and negatively affect individuals and society. On the positive side, social networking allows people to connect and communicate with others in ways that were previously impossible, creating new opportunities for socializing, networking, and sharing information and ideas. It can also provide a sense of community, support, and belonging for those who may feel isolated or marginalized in their offline lives. However, social networking platforms have also been linked to negative psychological outcomes such as excessive use leading to addictive behavior and cyberbullying. This paper also discusses the concept of nudging in the digital space and its relevance to social networking services.

Full text

Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking
Abstract— Cyberpsychology is the study of the psychological
effects of technology on human behavior. This relatively new
field has gained popularity in recent years due to the rapid
advancement of technology and the increasing reliance on the
internet for communication and socialization. Behavioral
science has shown that social networking can positively and
negatively affect individuals and society. On the positive side,
social networking allows people to connect and communicate
with others in ways that were previously impossible, creating
new opportunities for socializing, networking, and sharing
information and ideas. It can also provide a sense of community,
support, and belonging for those who may feel isolated or
marginalized in their offline lives. However, social networking
platforms have also been linked to negative psychological
outcomes such as excessive use leading to addictive behavior and
cyberbullying. This paper also discusses the concept of nudging
in the digital space and its relevance to social networking
services.
Keywords: Cyber, Internet, social media, Networking,
Psychology, Behavior
I. INTRODUCTION
Cyberpsychology is the study of the psychological effects of
technology on human behavior. It is a relatively new field that
has gained popularity in recent years, especially with the
rapid advancement of technology and the increasing reliance
on the internet for communication and socialization.
Behavioral science has shown that social networking can
positively and negatively affect individuals and society. On
the positive side, social networking allows people to connect
and communicate with others in ways that were previously
impossible, creating new opportunities for socializing,
networking, and sharing information and ideas. It can also
provide a sense of community, support, and belonging for
those who may feel isolated or marginalized in their offline
lives.
However, social networking sites have been connected to a
number of unfavorable psychological effects. According to a
study reported in the Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, the heavy usage of social networking sites was
linked to feelings of loneliness and despair [1]. The study
indicated that people who spent a lot of time on these sites
were more likely to express feelings of loneliness and despair
than those who used them less frequently.
Another research published in the journal Computers in
Human Behavior discovered that extensive use of social
media sites might lead to internet addiction, which can harm
an individual's psychological state [2]. This is because the
constant need for validation and attention that these sites can
foster can create a sense of dependence and can lead to
anxiety and depression. A study conducted by the University
of Pennsylvania found that reducing the amount of time spent
on social media led to significant improvements in the mental
health of study participants [3].
Specifically, the researchers found that participants who
reduced their social media use experienced reductions in
anxiety, depression, and loneliness and reported
improvements in overall well-being.
Cyberbullying is a major issue on social networking sites. A
study conducted by the Cyberbullying Research Center found
that over half of adolescents have experienced cyberbullying
and that it can have severe effects on their mental health and
well-being [4]. According to Katz, Rice and Apden [5],
contemporary technology such as artificial intelligence,
telephone and the internet, have their cons, and perceived as
a threat towards purposeful means of interaction. Previous
studies on the use of the internet have postulated negative
repercussions for the offline social networking and
integration of users [6].
Figure 1: Recent themes in Social Networking Service [7]
The research of SNS occurrences and issues is rapidly
progressing, with no end in sight. Between 2010 and 2015,
the number of peer-reviewed papers increased to 100 every
year in dataset collection since 2010 [7, 8]. The diameter of
each arc in Figure 1 correlates to the amount of citations
gathered. Arcs with less than five references have dashed
lines, whereas those with more references have a greater dash
gap. The node sizes are meant to reflect the rate of rising
research papers on the themes they represent.
Figure 1 depicts current themes from a variety of disciplines,
the bulk of which are in the domains of social science and
medical research. This is because our major purpose is to
investigate sociological indicators of Social Networking
Services (SNS) rather than its algorithmic and structural
elements. In subsequent sections, we will first discuss the
concept of nudging in the digital space, and then each theme
in Social Networking Services will be discussed in detail
afterward.
II. WHAT IS NUDGING?
Nudging is a behavioral science approach that aims to
influence people's decisions by presenting choices in a way
that is more likely to lead to a desired outcome. In the context
of cyberpsychology, nudging can be used to promote positive
behavior online and prevent negative outcomes such as
Oyindamola Joshua Ayeni
MSc Internet of Things with Cyber
Security
Bournemouth University
Bournemouth, UK
s5530878@bournemouth.ac.uk
Judith Obinna Madugba
MSc Information Technology
Bournemouth University
Bournemouth, UK
s5533162@bournemouth.ac.uk
Joseph Oluwadamilare Sanni
MSc Information Technology
Bournemouth University
Bournemouth, UK
s5437950@bournemouth.ac.uk

cyberbullying, Internet addiction, and other harmful
behaviors.
Figure 2: Components of Digital Nudge
One way that nudging can be used in the context of
cyberpsychology is through the use of social investment (see
figure 2). This approach involves encouraging people to
invest in their online relationships and connections, which
can lead to increased well-being and reduced negative
outcomes. For example, a study by Kross et al. [8] found that
people who invested more in their Facebook relationships
had higher levels of well-being and life satisfaction. This
suggests that nudging people to invest in their online
connections through social media could have positive effects
on their mental health.
Another way that nudging can be used in cyberpsychology is
through the use of predictive analytics (see figure 2). This
involves using data and analytics to predict people's behavior
and tailor interventions to prevent negative outcomes. For
example, a study by Wang et al. [9] used predictive analytics
to identify people at risk of developing Internet addiction and
intervene to prevent it. The study found that the intervention
was effective at reducing the likelihood of Internet addiction,
demonstrating the potential of predictive analytics to prevent
harmful behaviors online.
Nudging can also be used in real-time applications to
influence people's behavior in the moment (see figure 2). For
example, a study by Klimmt et al. [10] developed a real-time
intervention to prevent cyberbullying on social media. The
intervention used nudging techniques to encourage people to
think about the potential consequences of their actions and
make more positive choices. The study found that the
intervention was effective at reducing the incidence of
cyberbullying, demonstrating the potential of nudging to
prevent harmful behaviors online in real-time.
Overall, nudging has the potential to be an effective approach
for promoting positive behavior online and preventing
negative outcomes in the field of cyberpsychology. Through
the use of social investment, predictive analytics, and real-
time interventions, nudging can help to create a safer and
more positive online environment.
III. NUDGING IN DIGITAL SPACES
According to a paper by Lembcke et al. [9], understanding,
designing, and applying nudges is dependent on knowing the
basic psychological drivers of human decision-making. Due
to their enhanced visuality and sheer mass of available
information, the first empirical results show that digital
decision settings inspire a very automatic and intuitive
manner of thinking. Further study has indicated that the
quantity of information in digital surroundings has resulted in
option overload and lowering sustained attention spans, thus,
people are spending less time reading in-depth and focusing
on digital displays.
The Notion of Digital Nudging
Nudging has recently acquired popularity in the Information
Systems industry. Choice circumstances have spread to the
cyber world, from e-government to e-commerce encounters.
While many nudging tactics are tied to text or phrase, others
can be accomplished simply adjusting user interface design.
Because of this, decision strategists are aiming to digitally
push users in order to control or guide their behaviour
patterns. Digital nudging has previously been characterized
as "the use of user-interface style cues to steer people's
behavior in online choice contexts" [10].
According to Weinmann's assessment [10], there are several
effective examples of digital nudging. Square, for example,
encourages consumers to tip by defaulting to "tipping" and
requires users to click on a "no tipping" button if they do not
intend to donate. This modest nudge has increased tip
amounts in a number of contexts, particularly those where no
(or little) tipping is traditional. Because several combinations
of choice presentation and framing can be utilized, people
may find it difficult to recognize persuasion efforts [11].
Because there is no impartial method to display choices, all
internet users' decisions are impacted by some form of
nudging, whether the nudgier wants to do so or not. All user-
interface design decisions have an impact on user behavior
[12], and many of these affects persist independently of the
designers' purpose. Some academics have proposed criteria
for selecting, implementing, and testing the effectiveness of
nudges in offline environments, such as Ly's [13] nudge
creation method and Datta's [14] behavior design approach.
Following these requirements, we suggest 5 components of a
digital nudging mechanism for digital choice contexts (Figure
3), each of which takes into account the various features and
functions of data systems.
Figure 3: Digital Nudging Process (adapted from Ly [13] and Datta [14])

1. Define digital context and goals: Context and goals
should be determined initially since context influences
people's behavior [15].
2. Understand the decision process: Wang et al. [10] wrote
a report on this. Relying on digital context,
preconceptions and stereotypes may be at work in client
judgments. When reviewing items, for instance, clients
may be inclined to use other users' reviews as an anchor
and adjust their own assessment based on that base,
resulting in a score that is impacted by the evaluations of
other users. Similarly, if a negative component's
vividness is given an excessively negative score, the
availability heuristic may influence action, skewing the
total rating. To pick up appropriate nudges, designers
must first understand the decision process.
3. Select nudge: Wang et al. [10] also showed that,
according on the heuristics utilized in the decision
process, nudges may be more or less successful in
leveraging or combating biases. If accessibility
estimators are at work, asking users of internet-based
rating platforms to rate quality before providing an
overall appraisal of a service or item is likely to
emphasize these features, thereby debiasing the total
rating. Similarly, social impact may influence user
replies, for as when other people's ratings are shown next
to input forms. The display of defaults or anchors is
another way in which user interface design is likely to
affect decisions..
4. Implement nudge: Because system designers can simply
adjust the architecture of the user interface, applying
nudges in digital settings is less expensive than in offline
contexts. Specifically, digital environments make it
simple to produce alternative designs, allowing the
impacts of several diverse designs to be examined with
minimum effort. Digital configurations can also track
user actions, and nudges can be modified depending on
known or suspected usage patterns. In such cases,
software companies may automatically change the
selection environment based on factors such as a user's
prior choices or sexuality. Likewise, big data analytics
may allow for the establishment of inferences about
users' dispositions, ethnicities, or even mental reactions
based on real-time psychological characteristics.
5. Test/Experiment: Online experiments may assist swiftly
and simply assess the effects of nudges. In contrast to
offline nudging, digital nudging provides a unique
opportunity to monitor the impact of nudges in real time,
allowing website owners to fine-tune them. A/B testing
(or split testing) is a common method for assessing user
interface designs that may be used to run randomized
tests that test assumptions concerning the
appropriateness of varying nudges [16].
IV. IS NUDGING RELIABLE IN THE CYBER SPACE?
In the last two decades, the use of cyber healthcare solutions
has rapidly increased and this growth has outpaced the
research done in this field. Although health devices and
applications often depend on cyber nudges for efficiency,
these apps are seldom methodically tested in regulated
settings. The question is now, is nudges reliable? The brief
response is that it depends.
V. SENTIMENT AND TREND IN MICROBLOGS
Sentiment and trend analysis in microblogs, such as Twitter,
have become increasingly important in the field of
cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking. The
ability to track and analyze the sentiments and trends of
online users allows researchers to gain valuable insights into
the collective consciousness and behavior of individuals on
the internet.
Sentiment in microblogs refers to users' emotional tone or
attitude in their posts [17]. This can range from positive to
negative and can be a useful tool for understanding the mood
of a particular group of people [17]. For example, a study by
the Pew Research Center found that Twitter users in the
United States were more likely to express negative
sentiments than positive ones [18]. Specifically, the study
found that 27% of tweets were classified as negative, while
only 15% were classified as positive [18].
Figure 4: Stock Market Prediction Using Microblogging
Sentiment Analysis and Machine Learning
Trends, on the other hand, refer to the patterns or themes that
emerge in microblogging activity. These trends can be related
to a variety of topics, such as popular events, news stories, or
hashtags. One study conducted by the University of
Manchester, similar to the depiction in figure 4, found that
sentiment analysis on Twitter could predict stock market
movements with 87.6% accuracy [19]. This demonstrates the
power of sentiment analysis in predicting real-world behavior
and decision-making.
Another study conducted by the University of Pennsylvania
analyzed over 500 million tweets and found that positive
sentiment on Twitter was correlated with an increase in the
stock market, while negative sentiment was correlated with a
decrease [20]. Also, understanding sentiment and trends in
microblogs can shed light on social and cultural trends. This
demonstrates the potential for sentiment and trend analysis to
be used for forecasting and decision-making in a variety of
contexts. It can provide valuable insights into the collective
mood and behavior of individuals and can potentially be used
to make predictions about real-world events.
Sentiment analysis, often known as opinion mining, is the
computational handling of opinion, sentiment, and
subjectivity in text, according to Pang [21]. Sentiment

analysis is a valuable method for detecting sentiments and
views of any online target group, such as consumers or voters,
thanks to advancements in computational natural language
processing and the widespread availability of online data.
Previous uses of sentiment analysis include polarity
categorization, event temporal prediction, and political
opinion mining. Trends are detected using the same technique
and data. The group investigated two streams. One stress
feeling, while the other promotes trend. News, current events,
memes, and commemorative events may all spark trends
[22]. Researchers in the second stream focused on defining
patterns [23].
In addition to predicting stock market movements, sentiment
analysis in microblogs has also been used to track and analyze
the spread of information and opinions on controversial
topics. For example, a study conducted by researchers at the
University of Southern California analyzed over 600,000
tweets related to the controversial topic of gun control [24].
The researchers found that tweets with a negative sentiment
towards gun control were more likely to be retweeted and
gain traction on the platform, indicating that negative
sentiment can be more effective at spreading information and
influencing opinion on social media.
Furthermore, sentiment analysis in microblogs has also been
used to track and analyze the emotional states of online users.
A study conducted by researchers at the University of
California, Berkeley, analyzed over 200 million tweets and
found that the emotional states of individuals on Twitter were
closely linked to real-world events [25]. For example, the
study found that tweets with a positive sentiment were more
common on days with good weather, while tweets with a
negative sentiment were more common on days with bad
weather. This indicates that sentiment analysis in microblogs
can provide valuable insights into the emotional states of
individuals and how they are affected by real-world events.
Overall, sentiment analysis in microblogs, such as Twitter,
has been shown to be a valuable tool in predicting real-world
behavior and decision-making, tracking and analyzing the
spread of information and opinions on controversial topics,
and understanding the emotional states of online users. By
analyzing the sentiments and trends of online users,
researchers can gain valuable insights into the collective
consciousness and behavior of individuals on the internet. As
the use of social media continues to grow, the importance of
sentiment analysis in microblogs is likely to increase.
VI. MICROBLOGGING POLITICS
Microblogging, a form of social media characterized by the
use of short-form content, has become an increasingly
popular platform for political discourse. As such, it has
garnered attention from researchers in the fields of
cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking. This
section briefly explores the role of microblogging in political
communication, examining its potential impacts on
individual and collective behavior.
The unique features of microblogging that make it an
attractive platform for political discourse. These include its
immediacy, accessibility, and the ability to reach a large
audience quickly and easily [26]. Microblogging can also
facilitate the spread of political information and influence
public opinion.
Regarding the psychological and behavioral effects of
microblogging on political actors and audiences, there is the
potential for microblogging to alter perceptions of political
candidates and issues, as well as the potential for it to create
echo chambers and reinforce existing biases on the individual
level [27]. On a collective level microblogging can be used to
mobilize political action and facilitate the formation of online
social movements.
Microblogging is a significant and complex phenomenon in
the realm of political communication. Its unique features and
potential impacts make it an important area of study for
researchers in cyberpsychology, behavior, and social
networking. Future research should continue to explore the
ways in which microblogging is changing the landscape of
political discourse and behavior.
VII. ROMANTIC RELATIONS
Romantic relationships have always been a subject of
fascination and study in the field of psychology. With the
advent of the internet and social networking, the way we form
and maintain romantic relationships has changed
significantly.
Individuals may now meet possible love partners more easily
than ever before thanks to the rise of internet dating apps and
websites.
Figure 5: Degree of Use of Online Dating Sites
In figure 5, we see the result of a Pew Research Center poll,
which shows that around 15% of American people have used
online dating services or apps, and the majority of these
people are happy with their experience [28].
However, the ease of finding potential partners online has
also led to some negative consequences. For example,
individuals may be more likely to engage in "ghosting" or
other forms of emotional abandonment, as it is easier to
simply disconnect from a relationship without having to
confront the other person [28]. Additionally, the anonymity
of online interactions may make it easier for individuals to

engage in deceptive or manipulative behavior, such as
creating fake profiles or using someone else's photos.
Another aspect of cyberpsychology that impacts romantic
relationships is the role of social media. Social media
platforms, such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter, have
become an integral part of our daily lives and have also
changed how we communicate with our romantic partners.
For example, many individuals now use social media to share
details about their relationship, such as posting photos of
themselves with their partner or sharing updates about their
activities together [28].
While social media can be a positive force in romantic
relationships, allowing couples to stay connected and share
important moments with each other, it can also create
conflicts. For example, some individuals may feel pressure to
present a "perfect" image of their relationship on social
media, leading to arguments or disagreements about what to
post. Additionally, social media can create opportunities for
"digital infidelity," where individuals engage in emotional or
sexual interactions with other people online without their
partner's knowledge.
Regarding behavior, the way we interact with our romantic
partners has also changed due to the influence of technology.
For example, many individuals now use text messaging or
other forms of digital communication to stay in touch with
their partners rather than relying on face-to-face interactions.
This can create a sense of disconnection and make it more
difficult for couples to communicate effectively.
Without a question, Social Networking Systems have had an
impact on many people's love lives. Romantic partners can
communicate and observe one another on Social Network
Systems before, during, and after the relationship is formed.
All of these occurrences pique the interest of communication
and psychology specialists. Furthermore, it only took a few
years for this romantic-relationships-on-Social Network
Systems topic to find a place in the literature.
Tokunaga [29] cites romantic couples examining each other's
profiles and behaviors on Social Network Systems as an
example of interpersonal electronic surveillance. Studies on
this group examine questions such as whether the use of
Social Network Systems causes envy or increases happiness
[30], if monitoring in a romantic relationship aids breakup
recovery [31], the link between attachment type and
surveillance [32], [33], and so on.
The impact of cyberpsychology, behavior and social
networking on romantic relationships is significant. While
technology has made it easier for individuals to connect with
potential partners and maintain relationships, it has also
created new challenges and negative consequences. As a
result, it is important for individuals to be aware of the
potential effects of technology on their relationships and to
use it to enhance, rather than undermine, the quality of their
connections with their romantic partners.
VIII. PUBLIC RELATIONS
Public relations are critical to cyberpsychology, behavior,
and social networking. It is the practice of managing the
spread of information between an individual or organization
and the public. In the digital media and social networking era,
public relations have become increasingly important as a
means of managing and controlling an individual or
organization's online reputation.
One important aspect of public relations in the context of
cyberpsychology is online reputation management [34]. As
more and more people turn to the internet to obtain
information and make decisions, it has become increasingly
important for individuals and organizations to maintain a
positive online reputation [35]. This can be achieved through
a variety of means, including engaging with the public on
social media, responding to customer complaints and
feedback, and actively seeking out and addressing negative
information that may be circulating online.
The role of public relations in managing online reputation is
particularly important in the context of social networking.
Social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, and
Instagram, have become a primary means of communication
and information dissemination for many people [34]. As a
result, an individual or organization's presence on these
platforms can significantly impact their online reputation. By
actively engaging with the public on social media, responding
to customer complaints and feedback, and seeking out and
addressing negative information that may be circulating
online, public relations professionals can help maintain a
positive online reputation for their clients [35].
Another important aspect of public relations in the context of
cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking is online
behavior management. As more and more people spend time
online, there has been a growing concern about the impact of
digital media on individual behavior. This has led to public
relations professionals needing to assist individuals and
organizations in managing their online behavior [35]. This
can include helping individuals and organizations develop
and implement guidelines for appropriate online behavior, as
well as helping them respond to incidents of online
misconduct or cyberbullying.
One example of the role of public relations in managing
online behavior can be seen in the case of workplace
cyberbullying. In recent years, numerous incidents of
employees have been bullied or harassed by their colleagues
on social media or other digital platforms [36]. This can have
serious consequences for the individuals involved and the
organizations they work for. By developing and
implementing guidelines for appropriate online behavior and
providing support and guidance to employees who have been
the victims of cyberbullying, public relations professionals
can help organizations prevent and address incidents of
workplace cyberbullying [36].
Earlier studies have explored how non-profit organizations
utilize Social Network Services to enhance their
organization's goals and initiatives, as described by Waters
[37], and propose examining Twitter usage in public relations
[38]. While most firms utilize Social Network Systems as a

one-way communication channel, one research shows that
greater engagement in a company may lead to a better
relationship [39].
Public relations are important to cyberpsychology, behavior,
and social networking. Through the management of online
reputation and behavior, public relations professionals can
help individuals and organizations maintain a positive
presence on the internet and navigate the challenges of the
digital age.
IX. JOURNALISM
Social Network Services has extremely affected Journalism
as a profession. Ironically, due to bad or favorable press
coverage, journalism itself supports the use and
dissemination of these services [40]. Since the birth and
popularity of Twitter, journalists and conventional media
outlets have been pushed to adapt to this new method of
communication. Studies in this area addressed two primary
research concerns. What are journalists doing with Twitter?
How are the media and others dealing with Twitter?
Journalists who utilize microblogging are also more likely to
use Twitter to develop 'personal brands' [41].
Researchers investigate whether journalists who use Twitter
follow journalistic norms [42], how journalists of various
genders differ in their usage of Twitter [43], if Twitter
broadens the variety of media sources [44], does news
sourcing on Twitter reflect a gender bias 45, and so on. The
adoption of Twitter by the media as an institution is also
being researched. Furthermore, academics investigate how
television stations [46] and talk radio [47] use Twitter.
Microblogging has evolved into a new venue for citizen
journalism. Social movement activists frequently use it to
convey information in "crisis" circumstances [48]. According
to research in this field, online activism really transforms into
offline activism [49], in which asking for involvement is not
more important than disseminating information [50], and so
on.
As technology continues to advance, the field of
cyberpsychology has emerged to study the psychological
effects of technology on individuals and society. This field
has helped to shed light on the potential negative effects of
excessive social media use and screen time, such as
depression, anxiety, and loneliness.
Journalism plays a critical role in highlighting these findings
and educating the public on the potential risks associated with
excessive technology use. By reporting on the latest research
and sharing case studies of individuals who have struggled
with technology addiction, journalists can help to raise
awareness and promote a more balanced and healthy
relationship with technology [51].
In addition to the psychological effects of technology,
journalism also plays a crucial role in informing the public
about the ways in which social media and other online
platforms can influence behavior and shape public opinion
[51]. With the rise of fake news and the increasing use of
algorithms to personalize and filter content, it is easy for
individuals to become isolated in echo chambers and
susceptible to manipulation.
Journalism can counterbalance these trends by providing a
diversity of perspectives and promoting critical thinking. By
conducting thorough research and fact-checking, journalists
can help to expose false information and provide a more
accurate and nuanced understanding of the issues at hand.
Figure 6: social media and Fake News in the 2016 Election
One example of the important role of journalism in this regard
is the ongoing controversy surrounding the role of social
media in political polarization and the spread of
misinformation. In the lead-up to the 2016 US presidential
election, as shown in figure 6, fake news stories circulated
widely on social media, potentially influencing the outcome
of the election [52]. Journalism played a crucial role in
exposing these fake news stories and providing a more
accurate and balanced view of the candidates and the issues
at stake [52].
Another important aspect of cyberpsychology that impacts
journalism is the psychological effects of constant exposure
to digital media. The constant barrage of information and
stimuli from social media and other online sources can have
a negative impact on individuals' mental health and well-
being. In particular, excessive use of social media has been
linked to increased rates of anxiety, depression, and low self-
esteem [1].
Journalism is essential in the fields of cyberpsychology,
behavior, and social networking. By providing accurate,
reliable, and objective information, journalism can help
educate the public on technology's potential risks and
benefits, promote critical thinking, and counteract the spread
of fake news and misinformation.
X. IMPROVING HEALTH
They are more benefits of the internet and most notably is in
healthcare systems. The Internet has undoubtedly brought up
new avenues for enhancing one's own health in addition to
visiting a hospital or clinic. A "cyber-visit" via an internet
website to consult doctors for health care has just become a
reality [53]. Indeed, social networking sites such as Facebook
have evolved into platforms for numerous disease-specific
organizations where patients may share personal stories,
exchange disease-specific information, and get emotional
support.
SNSs offer an extrinsic way to assess hospital quality.
Traditional hospital quality indicators are found to be
favorably connected with likes to a hospital's Facebook
pages54 and user reviews on Social Network Services [55].

Some studies go so far as to investigate if Facebook likes may
be used to predict health outcomes such as mortality and
diseases [56].
Brenda K. Wiederhold [57] previously explored the links
between South Korean students' online habits and their
proclivity for Internet addiction and degree of cyber ethics.
According to early research, Internet users put distinct
meanings and values on their Internet experiences, which
influence their online behavior.
As the globe embraces the information era, incorporating
digital technologies into healthcare is becoming more
frequent. With one in every three persons suffering from at
least one chronic condition and an increasing lack of
healthcare personnel, technologies that aid people in taking
care of their personal health play a critical role in public
healthcare. One of the most critical difficulties in healthcare
today is establishing and sustaining healthy behaviors. Many
people feel that technology may help them improve their
health by being more physically active, eating healthier,
eliminating bad habits, and lowering stress [8]. According to
Lembcke et al. [9], in our daily lives, Information Systems
(IS) are increasingly actively employed, and more choices are
made using IS as decision support media. Not only are more
decisions supported by IS, but the breadth and importance of
digitally supported decisions is also rising. In addition,
because more information is accessible, more decision
support is necessary, which may result in information
overload or a state of paralysis in terms of employing IS in
the intended way. Contrary to what classical economic theory
("homo economicus") predicts, humans do not always act
rationally. The precise form and presentation of this "choice
architecture" may influence how people behave and make
decisions [9].
XI. ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN USE OF SOCIAL NETWORK
SITES AND HIGHER WELL-BEING
The use of social network sites (SNSs) has become
increasingly common among people of all ages, and there is
a growing body of research examining the effects of SNS use
on well-being. Overall, the evidence suggests that there are
associations between SNS use and higher well-being, but the
nature of these associations is complex and depends on
various factors [58].
Figure 7: The Facebook Paradox: Effects of Facebooking on
Individuals' Social Relationships and Psychological Well-Being
A 2013 study [59] has examined the associations between
SNS use and well-being. The study used data from a
nationally representative sample of US adults and found that
people who used SNSs more frequently had higher levels of
well-being and life satisfaction. The study also found that the
effects of SNS use on well-being were mediated by the
quantity and quality of social connections on the sites. In
other words, people who had more and stronger connections
on SNSs had higher well-being than those with weaker
connections [60].
Another study [61] examined the associations between SNS
use and well-being in 2016. The study used a field experiment
to test the effects of a real-time intervention aimed at reducing
cyberbullying on social media [62]. The intervention used
nudging techniques to encourage people to think about the
potential consequences of their actions and make more
positive choices. The study found that the intervention was
effective at reducing the incidence of cyberbullying and
increasing well-being among participants.
Many other studies examined the associations between SNS
use and well-being [63] - [66]. The studies used predictive
analytics to identify people at risk of developing Internet
addiction and intervene to prevent it. A study found that the
intervention was effective at reducing the likelihood of
Internet addiction, which in turn had positive effects on well-
being [67].
Overall, the evidence from these and other studies suggests
that there are associations between SNS use and higher well-
being. However, as seen in figure 7, these associations are
complex and depend on various factors, such as the quantity
and quality of social connections on the sites, the use of
nudging techniques to encourage positive behavior, and the
use of predictive analytics to identify and intervene in cases
of potential harm. The use of SNSs has the potential to
promote higher well-being among users. However, further
research is needed to fully understand the nature of these
associations and the factors that influence them.
XII. ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN USE OF SOCIAL NETWORK
SITES AND LOWER WELL-BEING
A substantial amount of research has found links between the
usage of social networking sites and reduced well-being.
Figure 8: The Relation Between Social Network Sites and
Subjective Well-being
Figure 8 indicates how individuals are increasingly suffering
from negative effects when they engage in social networking
techniques that do not satisfy their expectations for
recognition and inclusion. These practices are not specific to
these sites; instead, they may be viewed as traditional issues
of social exchange in a new setting. The first of these dangers
is isolation. While it may appear strange to be lonely on a
social networking site, data reveals a link between Facebook
use and loneliness [68]. This association is likely

bidirectional: lonely folks are more drawn to mediated
discussion [69], but social media platforms may also provide
a doorway to isolation if they are used for "social snacking".
Numerous social networking sites, for instance, provide
many seemingly sociable but non-participatory behaviors,
such as spying on strangers' profiles [70] or passively
browsing their timelines. These behaviors may give
consumers the feeling that their immediate social needs have
been met. However, such activities do not promote emotional
bonding, resulting in a loss of critical relational elements such
as social support [71]. Another consequence of using online
social networks is social comparison. Negative consequences
have been connected to self-comparison [72], particularly
when contrasted to a superior counterpart [73]. Social
networking platforms provide a variety of opportunities for
social comparison. When people compare their actual
experiences to the controlled self-presentations of others,
they may feel inadequate and depressed. Passive users of
websites, such as those who browse profiles without
connecting with other participants, may be more prone to
social comparison. They not only fall out on the perks of these
sites' connection-promoting use, but they may also be lacking
information about their contacts' real lives to recognize that
the images they display in online communities are fabricated.
Numerous studies suggest that social comparison may
enhance adverse connections between networking sites use
and well-being. Those who spend more hours on online and
have more random people as Facebook friends, for instance,
are much more likely to feel that others have a higher level of
living than them [75]. In a daily diary research, greater
facebook usage was linked with more social comparison,
which was correlated with higher levels of melancholy;
reversed theories that attempted to treat depression as an
intermediary between media usage and social comparison
were inconsistent with the data [76]. Individuals who
compare themselves to others are more likely to use
Facebook and to have low self-worth as a result of their
use[77]. Experimental results also demonstrate that
comparing one's profile to that of superior individuals on
social networking sites may lead to increasing dissatisfaction
with one's successes [78]. To recap, those who use social
networking sites that do not foster interpersonal engagement
put themselves at danger of feelings of alienation, which is
harmful to their well-being.
XIII. BEHAVIOR ON SOCIAL NETWORK SITES AND WELL-
BEING
The use of social network sites (SNSs) can have different
effects on users depending on the behaviors involved in their
use. Research has found that using SNSs in ways that
promote connections with others can be beneficial, while
using them in ways that do not promote connections can be
detrimental. This is supported by studies on Facebook use,
which have found both beneficial and detrimental outcomes
depending on whether the behaviors involved align with the
distinction between connection-promoting and non-
connection-promoting use. For example, one study [79]
found that the number of Facebook friends was positively
correlated with college adjustment for seniors, while it was
negatively correlated with college adjustment for first-year
students. This suggests that seniors use Facebook to connect
with local friends and maintain their existing social networks,
while first-year students use it to focus on social networks
they have left behind, which can inhibit feelings of
integration and connection within their current environment.
Research on motivations for using Facebook also supports
the distinction between connection-promoting and non-
connection-promoting use. A longitudinal study [80] found
that using Facebook to compensate for insufficient social
networks predicted increased loneliness at follow-up, while
using it to connect with others predicted decreased loneliness.
The authors of this study suggested that compensation
motives led to passive use of Facebook, while connection
motives led to active use, but they did not directly measure
this distinction. However, other research [81] has empirically
distinguished between passive Facebook use (defined as
consuming information without direct exchanges) and active
Facebook use (defined as activities that facilitate direct
exchanges with others). This research found that passive
Facebook use was linked to declines in well-being, while
active Facebook use was not. In other words, the effects of
using SNSs depend entirely on the nature of that use.
These findings are relevant in the context of the widespread
use of the Internet, which has become an integral part of daily
life for many people around the world. However, excessive
preoccupation with the Internet, known as Internet addiction,
can lead to negative consequences such as distress [82].
Internet addiction is a compulsive-impulsive disorder that is
related to excessive computer use, including withdrawal
symptoms, tolerance, and negative effects [83]. It is defined
as an impulse-control disorder without intoxication and is
characterized by preoccupation with the Internet, problems
controlling one's use of it, low positive mood, excessive
amounts of time spent online, reduced performance at school
or work, deteriorating physical health, strained relationships
with family and friends, and lying about one's Internet use
[83].
For over a decade, it was believed that Internet use could lead
to poor psychosocial well-being such as depression and
loneliness [84]. These findings garnered attention from both
within and outside the academic community, leading
researchers to take a more nuanced look at the relationship
between Internet usage and psychological health. In some
cases, this research has found evidence that Internet use can
be beneficial. The current study expands on previous research
by examining the impact of social-networking sites like
Facebook on self-esteem [85]. Past studies have analyzed the
effects of Facebook on socialization and the impact of online
social networks on self-esteem, but the current study adds to
this research by examining the effects of other SNSs as well.
There has been no research into the effect of Facebook
exposure on overall self-esteem [86]. Facebook and other
social-networking sites, on the other hand, have the power to
impact fleeting emotions of self-esteem. Through "wall
postings" and "status updates," social networking sites allow
users to share information about themselves to others, such
as likes and dislikes, hobbies, and personal opinions. This
information may make people aware of their own limitations

and flaws, depressing self-esteem, or it may reflect selected
and hence positively biased aspects of the self, enhancing
self-esteem [87]. Is Facebook decreasing self-esteem in the
same way that non-digital information does? Or does the
capacity to supply more positive information about oneself
while filtering out negative information mean that monitoring
one's own Facebook profile increases one's self-esteem? The
next part delves into the model expectations of the Objective
Self-Awareness (OSA) hypothesis [88] and the Hyper-
personal Model [87].
XIV. OBJECTIVE SELF-AWARENESS
OSA theory, one of the earliest experimentally verified
psychological theories of the self, is one theoretical approach
applicable to the impact of social networking sites on self-
esteem. According to the hypothesis, humans perceive
themselves as both subject and object. For example, the self
as a subject may be found in everyday life situations (e.g.,
waiting for the bus, eating lunch, watching TV). The self is
an active participant in life and is unconcerned with his or her
experiences.
Figure 9: Barriers to Self-Awareness
When people focus their attention on the self, they become
the "object of [their] own awareness," which can have both
positive and bad consequences (as seen in figure 9). One of
the primary barriers to self-awareness on the internet is the
vast amount of information that is available online. With the
rise of social media and other online platforms, individuals
are now able to access an almost limitless amount of
information, which can make it difficult for them to
determine what is true and what is not. As a result, many
people may find themselves becoming overwhelmed by the
sheer volume of information and may struggle to make sense
of it all [88].
Another barrier to self-awareness is the anonymity that is
possible on the internet. Many people use social media and
other online platforms under pseudonyms or anonymous
handles, which can make it difficult for others to accurately
determine their true identities. This anonymity can create a
sense of disconnection between individuals and their online
personas, leading to a lack of self-awareness and a
disconnection from reality [89].
The fast-paced nature of the internet can also create barriers
to self-awareness. With the constant stream of information
and updates that are available online, individuals may find
themselves constantly switching between different tasks and
activities. This constant multitasking can lead to a lack of
focus and attention, which can make it difficult for
individuals to develop a sense of self-awareness [90].
Furthermore, the internet and social media can create a sense
of disconnection from reality. Many people spend a
significant amount of time online, often interacting with
others through digital means rather than face-to-face. This
disconnection from reality can lead to a lack of self-
awareness, as individuals may become disconnected from
their own emotions and experiences [91].
The lack of self-awareness that can result from these barriers
has significant implications for individuals and society as a
whole. For individuals, a lack of self-awareness can lead to a
range of negative outcomes, including mental health issues,
social isolation, and reduced self-esteem [92]. For society, a
lack of self-awareness can lead to a range of social problems,
including an increase in cyberbullying and other forms of
online harassment [93].
One study that explored the relationship between self-
awareness and online behavior found that individuals who
lacked self-awareness were more likely to engage in
cyberbullying and other forms of online aggression [94]. This
suggests that a lack of self-awareness can have serious
consequences for individuals and society.
Another study that examined the impact of social media on
self-awareness found that individuals who spent more time
on social media were more likely to develop a distorted view
of themselves and their surroundings [95]. This can lead to a
range of negative outcomes, including mental health issues,
social isolation, and reduced self-esteem.
Overall, it is clear that cyberpsychology, social networking
services, and the internet can all create barriers to self-
awareness. These barriers can have serious implications for
individuals and society, and it is important for us to
understand and address them. The barriers to self-awareness
that exist in the digital world are a significant concern. The
vast amount of information available online, the anonymity
that is possible on the internet, the fast-paced nature of the
internet, and the disconnection from reality that can result
from the use of social media can all lead to a lack of self-
awareness. This lack of self-awareness can have serious
implications for individuals and society, and it is important
for us to understand and address these barriers.
Conclusion
These findings demonstrate the need for education and
awareness about the potential negative effects of technology
on behavior and mental health. It is important for individuals
to use technology in a responsible and healthy way, and for
parents and educators to provide guidance and support to help
young people navigate the digital world safely. Summarily,
cyberpsychology is a crucial field of study that helps us
understand the psychological effects of technology on human
behavior and mental health. The negative consequences of
excessive use of social networking sites and the prevalence
of cyberbullying highlight the need for education and support
in this area. By being aware of these potential risks, people

can use technology in ways that enhance their lives rather
than detract from them.
REFERENCES
[1] I. Pavot and Ed Diener. "Review of the satisfaction with life scale."
In Assessing well-being, pp. 101-117. Springer, Dordrecht, 2009.
[2] Q. Zheng, Y. R. Lin, S. M. Yu and L. Chen. “2011”. Species of
Rhytismataceae on Lithocarpus spp. from Mt Huangshan, China.
Mycotaxon. 118:311-23. 2012.
[3] K. E. Riehm, K. A. Feder, K. N. Tormohlen, R. M. Crum, A. S. Young,
K. M. Green, L. R. Pacek, L. N. La Flair and R. Mojtabai. Associations
between time spent using social media and internalizing and
externalizing problems among US youth. JAMA psychiatry.
76(12):1266-73. 2019.
[4] C. L. Nixon. Current perspectives: the impact of cyberbullying on
adolescent health. Adolescent health, medicine and therapeutics. 5:143.
2014.
[5] J. E. Katz, R. E. Rice and P. Aspden. “The Internet, 1995-2000: Access,
civic involvement, and social interaction.” American Behavioral
Scientist, 45, pp. 405–419. 2001.
[6] L. C. Jenna, B. A. Sara and C. G. Melanie. “Social Network Sites and
Well-Being: The Role of Social Connection.” Association for
Psychological Science. Vol. 27(1) pp. 32–37. 2018.
[7] J. S. Liu, MH-C. Ho, L. Y. Y. Lu. “Recent T hemes in Social
Networking Service Research”. PLoS ONE 12(1). 2017.
[8] Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., ... &
Schumann, G. Facebook use predicts declines in subjective well-being
in young adults. PloS one, 8(8), 2013.
[9] Wang, X., Wang, S., & Zhu, J. Prevalence, predictors, and prevention
of internet addiction: A meta-analysis of prospective studies.
Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 31(8), 815-826, 2017.
[10] Klimmt, C., Engel, C., & Scharkow, . Real-time prevention of
cyberbullying: A field experiment on the effectiveness of nudging.
Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 589-598, 2016.
[11] M. Hogan, C. Barry and A. Torres, “Theorising and Testing a
Taxonomy of Decision Constructs,” Journal of Customer Behavior vol.
13 (3), pp. 171–185, 2014.
[12] N. Mandel and E. J. Johnson, “When Web Pages Influence Choice:
Effects of Visual Primes on Experts and Novices,” Journal of
Consumer Research, vol. 29 (2), pp. 235-245. 2002.
[13] K. Ly, N. Mazar, M. Zhao and D. Soman, “A Practitioner’s Guide to
Nudging,” Research Report Series Behavioral Economics in Action,
Rotman School of Management, Toronto, pp. 1-28, 2013.
[14] S. Datta and S. Mullainathan, “Behavioral Design: A New Approach
to Development Policy,” Review of Income and Wealth, vol 60 (1), pp.
7-35, 2014.
[15] T. P. Novak, D. L. Hoffman and A. Duhachek, “The Influence of Goal-
Directed and Experiential Activities on Online Flow Experiences,”
Journal of Consumer Psychology, vol 13 (1), pp. 3-16, 2003.
[16] R. Kohavi, R. Longbotham, D. Sommerfield and R. M. Henne,
“Controlled Experiments on the Web: Survey and Practical Guide,”
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, vol 18 (1), pp. 140–181, 2009.
[17] X. Zou, J. Yang and J. Zhang. Microblog sentiment analysis using
social and topic context. PloS one. 13(2): e0191163. 2018.
[18] A. Hughes and S. Wojcik. Key takeaways from our new study of how
Americans use Twitter.
[19] J. Bollen, H. Mao and X. Zeng. Twitter mood predicts the stock market.
Journal of computational science. 2(1):1-8. 2011.
[20] H. K. Sul, A. R. Dennis and L. Yuan. Trading on twitter: Using social
media sentiment to predict stock returns. Decision Sciences. 2017
Jun;48(3):454-88.
[21] B. Pang, and L. Lee, “Opinion mining and sentiment a nalysis”,
Foundations and Trends® in information retrieval, vol 2 (1-2), pp. 1-
135, 2009.
[22] A. Zubiaga, D. Spina, R. Martínez, and V. Fresno, “Real‐time
classification of twitter trends”, Journal of the Association for
Information Science and Technology, vol 66 (3), pp. 462-473, 2015.
[23] M. Naaman, H. Becker, and L. Gravano, “Hip and trendy:
Characterizing e merging trends on Twitter”, Journal of the American
Society for Information Science and Technology, vol 62 (5), pp. 902-
918, 2011
[24] L. Jordan, J. Kalin and C. Dabrowski. Characteristics of gun
advertisements on social media: systematic search and content analysis
of Twitter and YouTube posts. Journal of medical internet research.
22(3): e15736. 2020.
[25] L. Qiu, H. Lin, J. Ramsay and F. Yang. You are what you tweet:
Personality expression and perception on Twitter. Journal of research
in personality. 1;46(6):710-8. 2012.
[26] B. J. Jansen, Z. Mimi, S. Kate, and C. Abdur. "Twitter power: Tweets
as electronic word of mouth." Journal of the American society for
information science and technology, vol 60 (11), pp. 2169-2188, 2009.
[27] J. Golbeck, J. M. Grimes, A. Rogers, “Twitter use by the US
Congress”, Journal of the American Society for information science
and technology, vol 61 (8), pp. 1612-21, Aug 2010.
[28] Aaron Smith. 15% of American adults have used online dating sites or
mobile dating apps. Pew Research Center. URL:
https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2016/02/11/15-percent-of-
american-adults-have-used-online-dating-sites-or-mobile-dating-apps/
Accessed 3 December, 2022.
[29] R. S. Tokunaga, “Social networking site or social surveillance site?
Understanding the use of interpersonal electronic surveillance in
romantic relationships”, Computers in Human Behavior, vol 27 (2), pp.
705-13, 2011.
[30] S. Sonja, and C. J. Beukeboom, "The role of social network sites in
romantic relationships: Effects on jealousy and relationship
happiness." Journal of computer-mediated communication, vol 16 (4),
pp. 511-527, 2011.
[31] T. C. Marshall, "Facebook surveillance of former romantic partners:
Associations with postbreakup recovery and personal growth."
Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, vol 15 (10), pp.
521-526, 2012.
[32] T. C. Marshall, B. Kathrine, C. D. Gaia, and L. A. Ruth, "Attachment
styles as predictors of Facebook‐related jealousy and surveillance in
romantic relationships." Personal relationships, vol 20 (1), pp. 1-22,
2013.
[33] J. Fox, and K. M. Warber, “Social networking sites in romantic
relationships: Attachment, uncertainty, and partner surveillance on
facebook”, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, vol 17
(1), pp. 3-7, 2014.
[34] F. Amin and M. F. Khan. Online reputation and stress: discovering the
dark side of social media. FIIB Business Review. (2):181-92. 2021.
[35] A. Sawy and D. Bögenhold. Dark, darker, social media: dark side
experiences, identity protection, and preventive strategies of micro
entrepreneurs on social media. Journal of Research in Marketing and
Entrepreneurship. 2022 Dec 6 (ahead-of-print).
[36] M. Sony and N. Mekoth, “The relationship between emotional
intelligence, frontline employee adaptability, job satisfaction and job
performance,” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, vol. 30, pp.
20–32, May 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2015.12.003.
[37] R. D. Waters, E. Burnett, A. Lamm, and J. Lucas, “Engaging
stakeholders through social networking: How nonprofit organizations
are using facebook.” Public Relations Review, vol 35 (2), pp. 102-6,
2009.
[38] J. Xifra, and F. Grau, "Nanoblogging PR: The discourse on public
relations in Twitter." Public relations review, vol 36 (2), pp. 171-174,
2010.
[39] J. A. Saffer, J. S. Erich, and T. Maureen, "The effects of organizational
Twitter interactivity on organization–public relationships." Public
relations review, vol 39 (3), pp. 213-215, 2013.
[40] N. Arceneaux, and S. W. Amy, "Seems stupid until you try it: Press
coverage of Twitter, 2006-9." New media & society vol 12 (8),
pp.1262-1279, 2010.
[41] A. Bruns, "Journalists and Twitter: How Australian news organizations
adapt to a new medium." Media International Australia, vol 144 (1),
pp. 97-107, 2012.
[42] D. L. Lasorsa, C. L. Seth, and E. H. Avery, "Normalizing Twitter:
Journalism practice in an emerging communication space." Journalism
studies, vol 13 (1), pp. 19-36, 2012.
[43] D. Lasorsa, "Transparency and other journalistic norms on Twitter: The
role of gender." Journalism Studies, vol 13 (3), pp. 402-417, 2012.
[44] A. Hermida, S. C. Lewis, and R, Zamith, “Sourcing the Arab Spring:
A case study of Andy Carvin's sources on Twitter during the Tunisian
and Egyptian revolutions” Journal of computer-mediated
communication, vol 19 (3), pp. 479-499, 2014.
[45] C. G. Artwick, "News sourcing and gender on Twitter." Journalism,
vol 15 (8), pp. 1111-1127, 2014.
[46] C. F. Greer, and A. F. Douglas, "Using Twitter for promotion and
branding: A content analysis of local television Twitter sites." Journal
of broadcasting & electronic media, vol 55 (2), pp. 198-214, 2011.
[47] S. D. Herrera, H. Alfred, "Tweeting but not talking: The missing
element in talk radio's institutional use of Twitter." Journal of
broadcasting & electronic media, vol 58 (4), pp. 481-500, 2014.
[48] S. A. Veenstra, I. Narayanan, P. S. Chang, and A. Fawaz, "Twitter as
“a journalistic substitute”? Examining# wiunion tweeters’ behavior
and self-perception." Journalism, vol 16 (4), pp. 488-504, 2015.
[49] S. Harlow, H. Dustin, "Collective action on the Web: A cross-cultural
study of social networking sites and online and offline activism in the
United States and Latin America." Information, communication &
society, vol 15 (2), pp. 196-216, 2012.
[50] Y. Theocharis, W. Jan, D. Van, and G. A. Gema, "Using Twitter to
mobilize protest action: online mobilization patterns and action
repertoires in the Occupy Wall Street, Indignados, and Aganaktismenoi
movements." Information, Communication & Society, vol 18 (2), pp.
202-220, 2015.
[51] Mcgregor, Shannon. Social media as public opinion: How journalists
use social media to represent public opinion. Journalism. 20. 2019.
146488491984545. 10.1177/1464884919845458.
[52] Allcott, Hunt & Gentzkow, Matthew. Social Media and Fake News in
the 2016 Election. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 31. 2017. 211-
236. 10.1257/jep.31.2.211.
[53] C. Hawn, "Take two aspirin and tweet me in the morning: how Twitter,
Facebook, and other social media are reshaping health care." Health
affairs, vol 28 (2), pp. 361-368, 2009.
[54] A. Timian, R. Sonia, K. Stan, and L. Paloma, "Do patients “like” good
care? Measuring hospital quality via Facebook." American journal of
medical quality, vol 28 (5), pp. 374-382, 2013.
[55] M. Glover, K. Omid, C. Garry, M. Anand, P. V. Pari, and G. S. Gazelle,
"Hospital evaluations by social media: a comparative analysis of
Facebook ratings among performance outliers." Journal of general
internal medicine, vol 30 (10), pp. 1440-1446, 2015.
[56] S. Gittelman, V. Lange, A. Carol, C. Gotway, A. O. Catherine, L.
Eugene, S. D. Satvinder, and T. Elaine, "A new source of data for

public health surveillance: Facebook likes." Journal of medical Internet
research, vol 17 (4), e3970, 2015.
[57] K. W. Brenda, “Cyberpsychology, Behavior, a nd Social Networking
Completes Another Milestone,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and
Social Networking, vol. 13(6), pp. 699-600, Dec 2010.
[58] G. J. K. Kiecolt, and T. L. “Newton, Marriage and health: His and
hers”, Psychological Bulletin, vol 127, pp. 472-503, 2001.
[59] H.T. Reis, “Perceived partner responsiveness as an organizing theme
for the study of relationships and well-being”, In L. Campbell & T. J.
Loving (Eds.), Interdisciplinary research on close relationships: The
case for integration, Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association, 2012, pp. 27-52.
[60] J. P. Laurenceau, L. F. Barrett and P. R. Pietromonaco, “The
importance of self-disclosure, partner disclosure, and perceived partner
responsiveness in interpersonal exchanges”, Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, vol 74, pp. 1238-1251, 1998.
[61] M. Nguye n, Y. S. Bin, A. Campbell, “Comparing online a nd offline
self-disclosure: A systematic review”, Cyberpsychology, Behavior,
and Social Networking, vol 15, pp. 103–111, 2012.
[62] A. M. Ledbetter, J. P. Mazer, J. M. DeGroot, K. R. Meyer, Y. Mao, and
B. Swafford, “Attitudes toward online social connection and self-
disclosure as predictors of Facebook communication and relational
closeness”, Communication Research, vol 38, pp. 27–53, 2011.
[63] D. Ahn, and D. H. Shin, “Is the social use of media for seeking
connectedness or for avoiding social isolation?
[64] Mechanisms underlying media use and subjective wellbeing”,
Computers in Human Behavior, vol 29, pp. 2453–2462, 2013.
[65] F. G. Deters, and M. R. Mehl, “). Does posting Facebook status updates
increase or decrease loneliness? An online social networking
experiment”, Social Psychological & Personality Science, vol 4, pp.
579–586, 2013.
[66] N. B. Ellison, C. Steinfield, and C. Lampe, “The benefits of Facebook
“friends”: Social capital and college students’ use of online social
network sites”, Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication, vol
12, pp. 1143–1168, 2007.
[67] C. Y. Liu, and C. P. Yu, “Can Facebook use induce wellbeing?”,
Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, vol 16, pp. 674–
678, 2013.
[68] Li, X., Zhang, L., & Chen, H. (). The psychological effects of online
surveillance on college students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and
Social Networking, 19(4). pp 277-281, 2016.
[69] Brenner, M., Neumann, M., & Shmatikov, V. (). The psychological
impact of data breaches: An empirical study. Computers in Human
Behavior, 75. pp 656-666, 2017.
[70] J. M. Morahan, and P. Schumacher, “Loneliness and social uses of the
Internet”, Computers in Human Behavior, vol 19, pp. 659–671, 2003.
[71] J. M. Carpenter, M. C. Green, and J. LaFlam, “People or profiles:
Individual differences in online social networking use”, Personality
and Individual Differences, vol 50, pp. 538–541, 2011.
[72] M. C. Green, J. Hilken, H. Friedman, K. Grossman, J. Gasiewskj, R.
Adler, and J. Sabini, “Communication via instant messenger: Short-and
long-term effects”, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol 35, pp.
445–462, 2005.
[73] J. B. White, E. J. Langer, L. Yariv, a nd J. C. Welch, “Frequent social
comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors: The dark side of
social comparisons”, Journal of Adult Development, vol 13, pp. 36–
44, 2006.
[74] A. Tesser, M. Millar, and J. Moore, “Some affective consequences of
social comparison and reflection processes: The pain and pleasure of
being close”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol 54, pp.
49–61, 1988.
[75] D. M. Boyd, and N. B. Ellison, “Social network sites: Definition,
history, and scholarship”, Journal of Computer- Mediated
Communication, vol 13, pp. 210–230, 2007.
[76] H. T. Chou, and N. Edge, “They are happier and having better lives
than I am: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’
lives”, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, vol 15, pp.
117–121, 2012.
[77] M. L. N. Steers, R. E. Wickham, and L. K. Acitelli, “Seeing everyone
else’s highlight reels: How Facebook usage is linked to depressive
symptoms”, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, vol 33, pp.
701–731, 2014.
[78] E. A. Vogel, J. P. Rose, B. M. Okdie, K. Eckles, and B. Franz, “Who
compares and despairs? The effect of social comparison orientation on
social media use and its outcomes” Personality and Individual
Differences, vol 86, pp. 249–256, 2015.
[79] N. Haferkamp, and N. C. Krämer, “Social comparison 2.0: Examining
the effects of online profiles on social networking sites”
Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, vol 14, pp. 309–
314, 2011.
[80] M. Kalpidou, D. Costin, and J. Morris, “The relationship between
Facebook and the well-being of undergraduate college students”
Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, vol 14, pp. 183–
189, 2011.
[81] E. Teppers, K. A. Luyckx, T. Klimstra, and L. Goossens, “Loneliness
and Facebook motives in adolescence: A longitudinal inquiry into
directionality of effect”, Journal of Adolescence, vol 37, pp. 691–699,
2014.
[82] P. Verduyn, D. S. Lee, J. Park, H. Shablack, A. Oryell, J. Bayer, and
E. Kross, “Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being:
Experimental and longitudinal evidence”, Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, vol 144, pp. 480–488, 2015.
[83] V. Stavropoulos, D. Kuss, M. Griffiths, S. F. Motti, “A Longitudinal
Study of Adolescent Internet Addiction: The Role of
Conscientiousness and Classroom Hostility”, Journal of Adolescent
Research, vol 31, pp. 442-473, 2015.
[84] Wiederhold, K. Brenda, “Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social
Networking Completes Another Milestone.” Cyberpsychology,
Behavior, and Social Networking, vol 13 (6), pp. 599–600, 2010.
[85] R. Kraut, M. Patterson, V. Lundmark, S. Kiesler, T. Mukophadhyay,
and W. Scherlis, “Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces
social involvement and psychological well-being?”, American
psychologist, vol 53 (9), pp. 1017, 1998.
[86] A. L. Gonzales, and J. T. Hancock, “Mirror, mirror on my Facebook
wall: Effects of exposure to Facebook on self-esteem”
Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, vol 14 (1-2), pp.
79-83, Jan 2011.
[87] S. J. Heine, T. Takemoto, S. Moskalenko, J. Lasaleta, and J. Henrich,
“Mirrors in the head: Cultural variation in objective self-awareness”,
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol 34 (7), pp. 879-87,
2008.
[88] J. B. Walther, “Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal,
interpersonal, and hyper personal interaction”, Communication
research, vol 23 (1), pp. 3-43, 1996.
[89] S. Duval, and R. A. Wicklund, “A theory of objective self awareness”,
1972.
[90] S. Duval, V. H. Duval, and R, “Self-focus, felt responsibility, and
helping behavior”, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, vol 37,
pp. 1769–78, 1979.
[91] A. L. Beaman, B. Klentz, E. Diener, “Self-awareness and transgression
in children: Two field studies”, Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology, vol 37, pp. 1835–46, 1979.
[92] M. C. Fejfar, and R. H. Hoyle, “Effect of private self-awareness on
negative affect and self-referent attribution: A quantitative review”,
Personality & Social Psychology Review, vol 4, pp. 132–42, 2000.
[93] R. Kraut, M. Patterson, V. Lundmark, S. Kiesler, T. Mukopahyay, and
W. Scherlis, “Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social
involvement and psychological well-being” American Psychologist,
vol 53 (9), pp. 1017–1031, 1998.
[94] L. Y. Lin, J. E. Sidani, A. Shensa, A. Radovic, E. Miller, J. B. Colditz,
and B. Primack, “Association between social media use and depression
among U.S. young adults”, Depression and Anxiety, vol 33, pp. 323–
331, 2016.
[95] C. Schemer, P. K. Masur, S. Geiß, P. Müller, and S. Schäfer, “The
impact of internet and social media use on well-being: A longitudinal
analysis of adolescents across nine years”, Journal of Computer-
Mediated Communication, vol 26 (1), pp. 1-21, Jan 2021.