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The MIS 4 environmental stress impact on hominin occupation in the northwestern Caucasus: New evidence from the Hadjoh 2 site
Abstract
The Hadjoh 2 open-air site is one of a few Middle Palaeolithic sites known in the northwestern Caucasus, which provide evidence of both the early (MIS 5) and late (MIS 3) stages of the Middle Palaeolithic occupation of the region. The 2020 multidisciplinary research indicates that Hadjoh 2 preserves four distinct Middle Palaeolithic layers, which house the evidence for hominins that produced the Middle Palaeolithic assemblages and visited the site periodically from about 120-100 ka in MIS 5d to about 50-45 ka in MIS 3. At present, Hadjoh 2 is the only Middle Palaeolithic open-air site in the North Caucasus, in which the site's lithostratigraphy and paleoenvir-onmental conditions were investigated by means of modern-level studies, including palynological and paleo-pedologic analyses, and magnetic proxy data.
The north-central Caucasus region—located between the highest Caucasian volcanic mountain peaks of Elbrus (5642m asl) and Kazbek (5034m asl)—is notable as the area producing the only obsidian source (called Baksan or Zayukovo) known in the Northern Caucasus. Only two stratified sites, however, provide evidence of the Middle Paleolithic (MP) occupation in the region. These are the Weasel Cave (Myshtulagty Lagat) in the east (Kazbek region) and the Saradj-Chuko Grotto in the west (Elbrus region) of the north-central Caucasus. Both sites are located in the Terek River basin (the Caspian Sea marine basin). In this paper, we report results of the 2017–2019 multidisciplinary research at Saradj-Chuko Grotto and summarize the latest information about the Neanderthal occupation of the north-central Caucasus in the broader MP cultural context.
The Mezmaiskaya cave is located on the North Caucasus near the border that divides Europe and Asia. Previously, fossil remains for two Neanderthals were reported from Mezmaiskaya Cave. A tooth from the third archaic hominin specimen ( Mezmaiskaya 3 ) was retrieved from layer 3 in Mezmaiskaya Cave. We performed genome sequencing of Mezmaiskaya 3. Analysis of partial nuclear genome sequence revealed that it belongs to a Homo sapiens neanderthalensis female . Based on a high-coverage mitochondrial genome sequence, we demonstrated that the relationships of Mezmaiskaya 3 to Mezmaiskaya 1 and Stajnia S5000 individuals were closer than those to other Neanderthals. Our data demonstrate the close genetic connections between the early Middle Palaeolithic Neanderthals that were replaced by genetically distant later group in the same geographic areas. Based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data, we suggest that Mezmaiskaya 3 was the latest Neanderthal individual from the early Neanderthal’s branches. We proposed a hierarchical nomenclature for the mtDNA haplogroups of Neanderthals. In addition, we retrieved ancestral mtDNA mutations in presumably functional sites fixed in the Neanderthal clades, and also provided the first data showing mtDNA heteroplasmy in Neanderthal specimen.
Recent studies of the Middle and Upper Paleolithic in the northwestern Caucasus are focused on the research of relations between natural (climate and environment) and social (behavior and adaptations) factors that governed settlement dynamics of Neanderthal and anatomically modern human populations in the region. The majority of Middle Paleolithic sites in the region show temporal changes within a local variant of the Eastern Micoquian industry between approximately 90 and 40 thousand years (ka) ago. The final stage of the Eastern Micoquian occupation in the northwestern Caucasus is notable in that the number of Neanderthal sites increases, and these sites show a higher variety and spread towards the eastern boundary of the region. The research provides new data indicating that ecology and subsistence of late Neanderthals were affected by a large, catastrophic volcanogenic event, which likely caused the Neanderthal extinction, and that was followed by a subsequent reoccupation of the region by Upper Paleolithic modern humans. In addition, recent genetic analyses indicate that a population turnover is likely to have occurred, either in the Caucasus or throughout Europe, towards the end of Neanderthal history. In the northwestern Caucasus, Upper Paleolithic sites are found mostly in caves or rockshelters, and show two major periods of modern human occupation: (1) Upper Paleolithic, from ~39/38 ka to the onset of the Last Glacial Maximum; and, (2) Epipaleolithic, from the Last Glacial Maximum to ~11/10 ka. The Upper Paleolithic sites are rare, while the Epipaleolithic sites are quite numerous in the region. After the Last Glacial Maximum, milder conditions of the Late Glacial promoted an increase in the number of sites and mobility of the Epipaleo-lithic human groups. A high mobility is confirmed by the facts that similar Epipaleolithic industries are found in the Southern and Northern Caucasus and that the same obsidian sources were exploited in both regions. Results of recent studies indicate that the most crucial factors for hominin settlement during the entire Upper Pleistocene in the northwestern Caucasus were favorable climatic and environmental conditions. In comparison to other regions, including the Levant, the Caucasus' archaeological record shows distinct regional peculiarities and a specific pathway of Upper Paleolithic development, which we identify as the "Caucasus Upper Paleolithic". In support of this view, the results of two recent palaeogenomic analyses of two human individuals from the Southern Caucasus indicate that the first modern humans in the Caucasus shared ancestry with Upper Paleolithic humans of Western Asia, and that the first Upper Paleolithic modern humans in the Caucasus belonged to a distinct ancient clade, which split from the European Upper Paleolithic populations about 45 ka ago, shortly after the expansion of modern humans into Europe.
Multidisciplinary investigations into Paleolithic sites make it possible to identify all the main sta-dials in the Late Pleistocene history of the North Caucasus, including Heinrich stadials 6 (ca. 63–60 kyr) and5 (ca. 48–47 kyr) for the Middle Paleolithic. Most of the coolings correlate with volcanic events. The resultsof geochemical and microprobe research into the deposits and volcanic glasses from cave sites in the north-west and northern central Caucasus are published for the first time. On some multilayer sites, changes in lithicindustries by the end of the Middle Paleolithic are revealed. The results of a genetic study of a Neanderthalindividual from layer 2 of Mezmaiskaya Cave and several later Neanderthals from Europe showed that, by theend of the Middle Paleolithic, a large-scale genetic turnover of the Neanderthal population was likely tooccur. The global cooling of Heinrich 4 was a frontier where the Middle Paleolithic industries vanished andevidence of the penetration of the Upper Paleolithic industries associated with Homo sapiens first emerged inthe northwest Caucasus. These industries appear as a completely established cultural tradition. The migrationof modern humans to the Caucasus from the Near East is confirmed by the results of studying obsidian trans-port. The Last Glacial Maximum is the main climatic event during the Upper Paleolithic era. Paleoclimateevents of this period had a great impact on the human settlement of the Caucasus. After the Last Glacial Max-imum, the Epi-Paleolithic culture of the Caucasus shows numerous innovations in technology. One import-ant result of the interdisciplinary research of the Late Pleistocene sites in the North Caucasus is understand-ing the impact made by climatic stresses and coolings associated with intensification of volcanic activity onthe ecological niches of the ancient population.
Due to the high preservation of the loess series and the availability of coastal outcrop sections loess cover of Western Ciscaucasia has ample opportunities for spatial paleogeographical reconstructions for the Middle and Late Pleistocene. Currently, the level of knowledge on the structure and composition of the loess-paleosol sequences of Western Ciscaucasia remains unequal. The Azov coast is studied in more detail in comparison with the inner part of the region. The structure and composition of the loess-paleosol sequences of different parts of Western Ciscaucasia (the Sea of Azov coast and western macroslope of the Stavropol Upland) for the Middle and Late Pleistocene are compared. Comparison of the loess-paleosol sequences key sections are based on investigations of litho- and pedostratigraphy, magnetic susceptibility, grain size, elemental and mineral composition, and luminescence dating. Recent results of luminescence dating allowed correcting the structure of the Mezin pedocomplex (S1). It was found out that this pedocomplex includes three phases of soil formation (S1SS1, S1SS2, S1SS3), which approximately correspond to the warm stages of marine isotope stage 5 (MIS 5) – 5a, 5c, 5e. In all sections, a clear trend towards an increase in the accumulation rates over the last three climatic macrocycles is observed. The last interglacial-glacial macrocycle (MISs 2–5) is characterized by the most significant increase in average accumulation rates, which were ∼1.8 times higher compared to MISs 6–7 and ∼2.3 times higher than during the MISs 8–9. A likely reason for the regional increase in the average dust accumulation rate was the directional increase in climate aridity. The patterns of the spatial distribution of the loess thickness and material composition indicate that the main source of aeolian dust is situated in the east. We suppose that the main sources of dust are sand masses of the alluvial plains of Lover Volga, Terek, Kuma and Kura rivers in the Caspian lowland. The Lower Don sandy province is reconstructed to be a secondary source. Dust is blown from the sandy terraces of the Don, and in the past - from the Don deltas, during the period when the Sea of Azov dried up.
This article outlines the results of a multidisciplinary study of stratified Middle Paleolithic site Hadjoh-2, northwestern Caucasus, situated at the outcrop of high-quality Shahan fl int. During fi ve fi eld seasons, more than 6-meter deep deposits were excavated over an area of ca 33 sq. m. Ten lithological strata and four habitation-horizons were identifi ed. Excavations focused on bottom layers 6 and 7. During their accumulation, the site occupied a fl oodplain terrace on the right bank of the Sredniy Hadjoh River, a right tributary of the Belaya. Because the terrace dates to the Middle/Late Pleistocene boundary, the site is no earlier than the beginning of Late Pleistocene, 130-120 ka BP. Results of pollen-analysis suggest that the climate was cold and dry, and subalpine and alpine meadows prevailed around the site at that time. The study of lithic assemblages shows that the bottom layers accumulated when the site was a workshop near the fl int outcrops. In both layers, knapping debris such as cores, chips, and small fragments predominate. Most tools are unfi nished bifacial forms. These assemblages are paralleled by the Eastern Micoquian industries of Mezmaiskaya, Barakaevskaya, Monasheskaya, and Ilskaya.
Although it has previously been shown that Neanderthals contributed DNA to modern humans, not much is known about the genetic diversity of Neanderthals or the relationship between late Neanderthal populations at the time at which their last interactions with early modern humans occurred and before they eventually disappeared. Our ability to retrieve DNA from a larger number of Neanderthal individuals has been limited by poor preservation of endogenous DNA and contamination of Neanderthal skeletal remains by large amounts of microbial and present-day human DNA. Here we use hypochlorite treatment of as little as 9 mg of bone or tooth powder to generate between 1- and 2.7-fold genomic coverage of five Neanderthals who lived around 39,000 to 47,000 years ago (that is, late Neanderthals), thereby doubling the number of Neanderthals for which genome sequences are available. Genetic similarity among late Neanderthals is well predicted by their geographical location, and comparison to the genome of an older Neanderthal from the Caucasus indicates that a population turnover is likely to have occurred, either in the Caucasus or throughout Europe, towards the end of Neanderthal history. We find that the bulk of Neanderthal gene flow into early modern humans originated from one or more source populations that diverged from the Neanderthals that were studied here at least 70,000 years ago, but after they split from a previously sequenced Neanderthal from Siberia around 150,000 years ago. Although four of the Neanderthals studied here post-date the putative arrival of early modern humans into Europe, we do not detect any recent gene flow from early modern humans in their ancestry.
Abstract
The book presents a new study of sites that were traditionally considered transitional from Acheulean to Mousterian in the North-Western Caucasus. The issue of evolution of local Acheulean into Mousterian was discussed only provisionally, mainly based on the fact that some sites contain small handaxes. However, the reanalysis of these assemblages reveals a more complex picture, as well as suggests that the issue of the existence of a transitional Early Mousterian industry cannot be currently resolved unambiguously.
The analysis reveals considerable differences among the sites. Bifacial tools that were thought to be indicators of the early Mousterian age in fact have similarities in assemblages of different ages. For example, two bifaces from the Semiyablonevskoe location (early Mousterian) are analogous to bifaces from the Abadzekhskoe and Kurdjipskoe Late Acheulean locations.
Main technical characteristics of the lithic assemblages from Semiyablonevskoe and Lochkovskoe early Mousterian locations are similar to those characteristic to local Late Acheulean sites. Bifacial and flake tools from these locations also are similar to those characteristic to the Late Acheulean sites. Although the presence of Mousterian points increases the total percent of convergent tools in these locations, the percent is still much lower than in the Mousterian assemblages. The early Mousterian assemblages analyzed in this book are similar to the local Late Acheulean assemblages of the Abadzekh group, and, probably, may be included to the same group, although are somewhat later in the age.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the analyzed assemblages have no continuation in the later Mousterian sites, as well as a break exists between the local Late Acheulean and early Mousterian industries. The issue of the transition from Lower to Middle Paleolithic in the North-Western Caucasus requires both the restudy of now available materials and surveys of new stratified sites that can shed a new light on the problem.
In the Northwestern Caucasus, there are 12 sites that contain in total about 27 occupational layers with Micoquian lithic assemblages, dated from late MIS 5/MIS 4 thought MIS 3. During the long time period, local Neanderthals preserved the tradition of manufacturing bifacial backed scraper-knives that are found in different site types, including flint-knapping camp-workshops, short-term camps, and long-term and intensively occupied campsites. We present the study of bifacial scraper-knives in the Micoquian sites in the Northwestern Caucasus, which has been divided into two stages – a morpho-metrical analysis, followed by the interpretation of factors that could influence forms of these tools, including technology, reduction, function, raw material used, and functional types of occupations.
Modern data do not show a local evolutionary development of lithic industries throughout the Lower to Middle Paleolithic transition in the Northwestern Caucasus. Human occupation of these territories was not continuous during the Pleistocene. On the contrary, the lacunarity of archaeological record in some periods and a generally cooler climate characteristic for Eastern Europe and the Northwestern Caucasus in late Middle Pleistocene suggest that major climatic deteriorations had a great impact on human settlement of the regions. The human colonization of the Northwestern Caucasus at the interface of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic demonstrates a peculiar dynamics associated with climate cycles of the late Middle Pleistocene – the first half of Upper Pleistocene.
The paper presents the results of a high-resolution palynological, paleomagnetic, and microtheriological study of the Pleistocene sediment sequence at Otkaznoye in the Eastern Ciscaucasian foreland; a sequence which is unique in its stratigraphic completeness and thickness (∼160 m). The sequence includes loess-paleosol, alluvial, and alluvial-proluvial beds. The detailed climatostratigraphic subdivision of the Otkaznoye sequence allows a correlation of the established paleoclimatic record with the global marine isotope stages. The past climatically induced variability in the landscape of the Terek-Kuma Lowland is reconstructed for all Neopleistocene (i.e., Middle and Late Pleistocene) interglacial and glacial periods and for some intervals during the later Early Pleistocene stages.
A complete and optimized scheme of lettered marine isotope substages spanning the last 1.0 million years is proposed. Lettered substages for Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 were explicitly defined by Shackleton (1969), but analogous substages before or after MIS 5 have not been coherently defined. Short-term discrete events in the isotopic record were defined in the 1980s and given decimal-style numbers, rather than letters, but unlike substages they were neither intended nor suited to identify contiguous intervals of time. Substages for time outside MIS 5 have been lettered, or in some cases numbered, piecemeal and with conflicting designations. We therefore propose a system of lettered substages that is complete, without missing substages, and optimized to match previous published usage to the maximum extent possible. Our goal is to provide order and unity to a taxonomy and nomenclature that has developed ad hoc and somewhat chaotically over the decades. Our system is defined relative to the LR04 stack of marine benthic oxygen isotope records, and thus it is grounded in a continuous record responsive largely to changes in ice volume that are inherently global.
This paper presents a short review of the data and new approaches to Middle Paleolithic chronology and variability in the Caucasus. A climatostratigraphic scheme of the Caucasian Middle Paleolithic is proposed on the basis of the oxygen isotope stages. The authors attempt to identify tool types characteristic of the Caucasian Middle Paleolithic industries, as well as to reveal its development during more than 100,000 years. A new approach to treating Middle Paleolithic variability in the Caucasus recognizes three general cultural areas: (1) North Caucasian Micoquian in the Northwestern Caucasus; (2) Khostinian and several cultural entities possibly rooted in Levantine D (Djruchulian), Levantine B (Tskhinvali group), and Karain (?) Mousterian (Tskhaltsitela–Tsutskhvati group) in the South-central Great Caucasus; (3) Zagros Mousterian in the southernmost part of the Caucasus.
RAPID shifts in climate during the last glacial are now well documented,
particularly from the oxygen isotope records of the two Greenland ice
cores GRIP1,2 and GISP23. In the GRIP
record1,2 these climate events are also seen during the
preceding (Eemian) interglacial which may be an analogue for the future
climate, warmed by the greenhouse effect. But these shifts are not found
in the Eemian section of the GISP2 core3, casting doubt on
whether the rapid shifts in the GRIP oxygen isotope record really do
represent a climate signal. Here we present magnetic susceptibility,
pollen and organic carbon records from maar lake deposits in the Massif
Central, France. These data provide an independent record of past
climate and we find that they correlate well with the ice-core records
during the last glacial. During the Eemian, two rapid cooling events
seen in our record also correlate with those seen in the GRIP ice core,
supporting the idea that rapid climate change did occur in the Eemian
interglacial and demonstrating that it extended to continental Europe.
Herbaceous communities in forest ecosystems on the southern part of the Russian Plain appeared in the Middle Miocene (∼10 Ma BP). In the Late Miocene (∼7 Ma BP), feather-grass steppe associations appeared among them. In the time span of 2.7 to 2.1 Ma BP (i.e., in the Early Quaternary, according to the current chronostratigraphic scale), the steppe zone arose on the southern Russian Plain in the Don-Azov Region. Seven stages of this zone development here have been distinguished throughout the Quaternary. The first one (Eopleistocene-Early Pleistocene) was characterized by savanna-like subtropic ecosystems. Then, in the Middle Pleistocene, the temperate zone ecosystems (tallgrass prairie-like steppes) developed here and were followed by steppe ecosystems close to the modern ones in Central Europe. The ecosystems of rich-species forb steppes developed in the Late Pleistocene. Finally, in the optimum of the modern interglacial (Holocene), steppes became similar to the modern ones here, but with a slightly higher precipitation. The general trend is characterized by reduction in heat and water provision and increase in aridization progressing from earlier to later stages.
The magnetic properties of certain soils indicate the widespread
presence of ultrafine-grained magnetite, even where there is no detrital
input of magnetite1-3. This suggests that in situformation of
magnetite can occur under soil-forming conditions. Schwertmann and
Taylor4 have stated, however, that magnetite has not been
found as a newly formed mineral in soils. Here we report the recovery
and identification of pure, ultrafine-grained magnetite from some UK
soils that have no apparent external source of magnetite. We consider
this magnetite to be of inorganic, in situ origin. The identification of
magnetite formation during soil development has significance for studies
of iron in soils but also has wider environmental implications.
Soil-derived magnetite may contribute to the natural remanent magnetism
of sediments, and act as a specific indicator of erosional events.
SUMMARYA study of mineral magnetic parameters was carried out on a Late Pleistocene and Holocene sedimentary sequence (of nearly 18 m) from Lake Bledowo (central Poland). Sediments of Lake Bledowo have already been analysed for bulk sediment mineralogy and biogenic materials. The mineral magnetic stratigraphy confirms the major changes in palaeo-environmental conditions that have been deduced from other methods. The most important mineral magnetic change results from the authigenetic formation of ferrimagnetic greigite, Fe3S4, during the beginning of lacustrine conditions (± 12 000 yr BP). Our data also indicate a detrital origin of overlying ferrimagnetic iron oxides. It is suggested that they originate from brown soils developed on the boulder clay constituting the west side of the lake shore. Variations of ferrimagnetic iron oxide size are related to the early diagenetic processes in the sediment. Larger particles are present in periods with early diagenesis of organic matter in anoxic conditions. This indicates the dissolution of fine magnetic particles by iron-oxide-reducing bacteria and results in homogeneous magnetic grain sizes, despite their origin from soils, characterized by a multimodal grain-size distribution.
Neandertals, the closest evolutionary relatives of present-day humans, lived in large parts of Europe and western Asia before
disappearing 30,000 years ago. We present a draft sequence of the Neandertal genome composed of more than 4 billion nucleotides
from three individuals. Comparisons of the Neandertal genome to the genomes of five present-day humans from different parts
of the world identify a number of genomic regions that may have been affected by positive selection in ancestral modern humans,
including genes involved in metabolism and in cognitive and skeletal development. We show that Neandertals shared more genetic
variants with present-day humans in Eurasia than with present-day humans in sub-Saharan Africa, suggesting that gene flow
from Neandertals into the ancestors of non-Africans occurred before the divergence of Eurasian groups from each other.
The Armenian Highlands and Caucasus comprise a pivotal region within the known Neanderthal biogeographic range. This topographically and eco-geologically diverse area is very rich in Middle Palaeolithic (MP) archaeology; however, it is still understudied. This
chapter summarises results of recent fieldwork and current data on patterns and variability in MP site contexts, chronology, stone tool
manufacture, technological organisation, land use, subsistence practices, and potential symbolic behaviour. MP hunter–gatherers were
well adapted to Late Pleistocene mosaic landscapes and environmental-elevation gradients in the area. The spatial and temporal dynamics of the regional Middle to Upper Palaeolithic (UP) ‘transition’ are not fully resolved. Further research is likely to reveal complexity in
the timing and nature of the disappearance of the MP and appearance of the UP, with implications for the replacement of Neanderthals
by Homo sapiens in the region.
The north-central Caucasus region is notable as the area producing the only obsidian source (called Baksan or Zayukovo) known in the Northern Caucasus. Recent research indicates that both Upper Paleolithic humans and Middle Paleolithic (MP) Neanderthals exploited the Zayukovo obsidian and transported it to distances in order 250 km from the source. However, only in 2016 the first stratified MP site (Saradj-Chuko Grotto) was found in the region. Preliminary results of the 2017 multi-disciplinary research suggest that the grotto was occupied by Neanderthals likely during a warm period of MIS 5. The Neanderthals used this cave as an active habitation site for consumption of ungulates, which they hunted, and production of tools from obsidian. Saradj-Chuko Grotto has yielded the first MP industry in the Northern Caucasus, in which obsidian artefacts absolutely prevail. The technical-typological peculiarities allow us to define the industry initially as the laminar Mousterian, which differs from the Eastern Micoquian industry widespread in the north-western Caucasus, that recall early MP artefacts from Weasel Cave located further east at the border with north-eastern Caucasus, MP sites in the Southern Caucasus and Zagros Mousterian in the Lesser Caucasus. Saradj-Chuko Grotto has a great potential to provide prominent results that illuminate culture-technological variability, differences of subsistence, and characteristics of obsidian exchange among MP Neanderthal groups in the Caucasus and the broader region.
This article outlines the results of a multidisciplinary study of stratified Middle Paleolithic site Hadjoh-2,northwestern Caucasus, situated at the outcrop of high-quality Shahanflint. During five field seasons, more than 6-meterdeep deposits were excavated over an area of ca 33 sq. m. Ten lithological strata and four habitation-horizons wereidentified. Excavations focused on bottom layers 6 and 7. During their accumulation, the site occupied a floodplainterrace on the right bank of the Sredniy Hadjoh River, a right tributary of the Belaya. Because the terrace dates to theMiddle/Late Pleistocene boundary, the site is no earlier than the beginning of Late Pleistocene, 130–120 ka BP. Resultsof pollen-analysis suggest that the climate was cold and dry, and subalpine and alpine meadows prevailed around thesite at that time. The study of lithic assemblages shows that the bottom layers accumulated when the site was a workshopnear the flint outcrops. In both layers, knapping debris such as cores, chips, and small fragments predominate. Most toolsare unfinished bifacial forms. These assemblages are paralleled by the Eastern Micoquian industries of Mezmaiskaya,Barakaevskaya, Monasheskaya, and Ilskaya
This book presents the major tool types of European Lower and Middle Paleolithic. Building on the typelist of the late Francois Bordes, with many forms that have been recognized since, it presents working definitions of the types with illustrations and discussions of the variability inherent to lithic typologies. The authors combine classic typological views with current notions of lithic typological variation. This handbook represents not only an important reference source for gaining a practical understanding of how Lower and Middle Paleolithic typology is applied but of the nature of lithic variability in other kinds of assemblages as well. © 1994 University Museum University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia. All rights reserved.
Rock-magnetic studies of the Belovo key loess-paleosol section (52.4° N, 83.4° E) have shown that the loess accumulation and soil genesis on the Ob' Plateau were affected by a specific regional paleoclimate. During the periods of loess formation corresponding to periods of cooling, the main factor responsible for the increased magnetic properties of loess was the force of wind transporting products of disintegration and weathering of rocks with abundant magnetic material. In the periods of warming, the wind attenuation led to a decreased supply of clastic and magnetic material and to weaker magnetic properties of paleosols to follow the "Alaskan" model. During the interglacials, the climatic conditions were warm and wet enough to favor the enrichment of the rocks of soil complexes in fine-grained magnetic fraction according to the "Chinese" type. Thus, the magnetic properties of the loesses and paleosols of southern West Siberia display the superposition of two known types of record of paleoclimatic fluctuations.
Izucheniye kamennogo syrya v paleolite: Metody i rezultaty
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Metody i rezultaty. Rossiyskaya arkheologiya 2, 5-18. In Russian.
Ekologicheskie nishi i modeli adaptatsii v spednem paleolite Kavkaza (Ecological niches and adaptation models in the Middle Palaeolithic of Caucasus)
- Golovanova
Golovanova, L.V., Doronichev, V.B., 2005. Ekologicheskie nishi i modeli adaptatsii v
spednem paleolite Kavkaza (Ecological niches and adaptation models in the Middle
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La grotte moust́erienne Barakaevskaia (Nord Caucase)
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