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Reading the
New Testament in the
Manifold Contexts of
a Globalized World
Exegetical Perspectives
Eve-Marie Becker / Jens Herzer /
Angela Standhartinger / Florian Wilk (Eds.)
32
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Reading the New Testament in the
Manifold Contexts of a Globalized World
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eesene nre zr Tee
Band 2 • 2022
Herseeen n ere eer, Jens Herzer,
Angela Standhartinger und Florian Wilk
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Eve-Marie Becker / Jens Herzer /
Angela Standhartinger / Florian Wilk (Eds.)
Reading the New Testament
in the Manifold Contexts of
a Globalized World
Exegetical Perspectives
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We acknowledge financial support for the publication of this book by the State Digitiza‐
tion Program for Science and Culture of Saxony.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.24053/9783772057656
© 2022 · Eve-Marie Becker / Jens Herzer / Angela Standhartinger / Florian Wilk (Eds.)
Das Werk ist eine Open Access-Publikation. Es wird unter der Creative Commons
Namensnennung – Weitergabe unter gleichen Bedingungen | CC BY-SA 4.0
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Vervielfältigung, Bearbeitung, Verbreitung und Wiedergabe in jeglichem Medium und
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sind stets die jeweiligen Anbieter oder Betreibenden der Seiten verantwortlich.
Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG
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ISSN 1862-2666
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nalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über
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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contextualization: Exegetical and biographical readings
Faustin Leonard Mahali
Appraising Exegetical Procedures in Reading the New Testament in African
Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ernest van Eck
Reading the Text Does Matter. Texts as Symbols of Personal and Social
Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gregory Thomas Basker
Interpreting the Bible in the Tamil Context. Reading Matthew (10:40–42) in
Light of Tirukkuṟaḷ (Ch.9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rospita Siahaan
The Absolute Assurance of Giving. A Socio-Rhetorical Approach to the
Parable of the Friend at Midnight in Luke 11:5–8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yoshimi Azuma
A Japanese Ecofeminist Reading of John 1:14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kenneth Mtata
Transformative Reading of Women, Childbirth and Death in John’s Gospel
from an African and Intercultural Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aliou Cissé Niang
Reading and Teaching the New Testament. A Concise Contextual Diola
Interpretation of Gal 3:26–29 under Empires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lyn M. Kidson
Aussie Men, Roman Men, and Fashioning the Evangelical Man from
1 Timothy 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.
195
209
227
245
269
289
305
321
337
341
353
361
Contextualization: Theoretical and biographical perspectives
Armand Puig i Tàrrech
Reading the New Testament in Manifold Contexts of a Globalized World.
Exegetical Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Francisco Lozada, Jr.
New Testament Interpretation in the United States. A Perspective from a
Cultural Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kay Higuera Smith
Racism and New Testament Scholarship in Latinx California. U.S. Debates
on Racism and Biblical Scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Marcelo da Silva Carneiro
Die Erfahrung, im brasilianischen Kontext zum Neuen Testament zu lehren
und zu forschen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ronald Charles
Researching and Teaching OtherWise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
William Loader
Reflections on a Lifetime of New Testament Teaching and Research in
Australasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Paul Trebilco
Reading the New Testament in Aotearoa New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alexey B. Somov
Reflections on Reading and Translating the New Testament in
Contemporary Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authors and Editors of the Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index of Subjects and Ancient Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index of Ancient Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index of Modern Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Contents
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1 K. Giles says that it is described as “the woman problem” in the Sydney Anglican diocese,
The Headship of Men and the Abuse of Women: Are they Related in Any Way (Eugene,
OR: Cascade Books, 2020), 17.
2 Australian Fellowship of Evangelical Students.
3 Ordination of Women to the Priesthood, SDS: https://www.sds.asn.au/1091-ordination
-women-priesthood-1993.
Aussie Men, Roman Men, and Fashioning the
Evangelical Man from 1 Timothy 2
Lyn M. Kidson
1. Women’s Experiences in Australia’s Sydney Anglican Diocese
Women are problematic in many evangelical circles.1 For many women at‐
tending evangelical churches in Australia, they are barred from holding lead‐
ership positions such as the senior minister or pastor, elder, worship leader,
or ministry leader. So women are confined to speaking to other women at
women’s events and teaching children. When I first heard it said that the Bible
was “clear” that women shouldn’t teach or lead men, I was a relatively new
arrival to the Christian ministry scene. In 1993, I joined the evangelical group,
Student Life, and I was ministering on the campus of Macquarie University in
Sydney. Student Life at the time was relatively laissez-faire about the gender
of its leaders since the focus was on leadership ability. However, over in the
Anglican dominated group Christian Union, there was a different story.2 And
it was from that leadership that I first heard the idea that the “Bible said that
women shouldn’t teach or lead men.” Little did I know that I was a participant
in a major cultural and theological shift in evangelicalism in Australia.
It was in 1992 that the Sydney Diocese held a conference to discuss the ordi‐
nation of women.3 The report given by the committee sets out the contributions
of those for and against the ordination of women. It is rather even-handed.
However, it was only when I read this document for myself that I discovered
that cogent arguments were made for the ordination of women in the diocese.
What I had heard up until then was that those who allowed women to teach
and lead men were “unbiblical.” 1 Timothy 2:12, we were told, clearly said that
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4 G. Knight III, The Role Relationship of Men and Women: New Testament Teaching
(Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1977), passim.
5 Issues dealing with the claims that gender hierarchy relates to a hierarchical ordering
within the Trinity are comprehensively dealt with by K. Giles, The Rise and Fall of the
Complementarian Doctrine of the Trinity (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2017).
6 For the term “complementarian” see J. Piper and W. Grudem, “Preface,” in Recovering
Biblical Manhood Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism (eds. J. Piper and W.
Grudem; Wheaton, IL: Crossways Books, 1991), xiv.
women should not teach men nor have authority over them. I have observed
that this stance against women’s ordination coloured the reception of women in
ministry in many churches and ministries in New South Wales. On at least one
occasion I was ruled out of the running for a ministry position at a Baptist church
because of my gender. And I suspect that this happened with several positions I
applied for over the course of the decade 2002 to 2012. Since then I have shifted
my career focus to New Testament studies. The purpose of this current volume,
in part, is to demonstrate the “system relevance” of New Testament studies to
the church. I will be drawing on my studies on gender and 1 Timothy to engage
with the women’s ministry debate in evangelical churches in Australia.
There is another side to the discussion about women’s role in ministry.
Originally in the 1980s/90s, there was an effort made to keep roles and ontology
distinct. It was a woman’s role to submit.4 It was not because of her essential
being. However, over time there has been a noticeable shift in this, particularly
in the realm of social media. Just as there is a shift to see women as created
as submissive beings so there is a shift to see men as created to be active
and leaders. This has profound consequences for how men and women relate
to one another within the church community, and ultimately how they view
the relationships within the Godhead. While it is not my intention to discuss
the Trinitarian debate that recently arose at the conference of the Evangelical
Theological Society (2016), what we are considering does have implications for
how evangelicals view their relationships with each other and with God.5 In
this essay, I want to propose that the “complementarian” reading of 1 Timothy 2
creates a problem for the evangelical man because complementarians do not
take into account the ideal Roman man.6 I propose that a reading that lacks this
context creates a superficial and weak vision of masculinity. In this essay, I will
be briefly looking at a number of Australian evangelicals and their reading of
1 Timothy 2 and analysing them in terms of their implied stance on masculinity.
Following this, I will offer a reading of 1 Timothy 2 in the light of Roman
masculinity, and then we will consider the similarities and differences between
the two readings. Then I will make some comments about the implications of
170 Lyn M. Kidson
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7 G. Davies, “Biblical Study Paper: 1 Timothy 2:8–15,” in Personhood, Sexuality, and
Christian Ministry (ed. B. Webb; Homebush West, N.S.W: Lancer Books, 1987), 83–95.
8 C. Smith, God’s Good Design: What the Bible Really Says about Men and Women
(Kingsford: Matthias Media, 2012).
9 H. Jones, “Women, Teaching, and Authority: A Case for Understanding the Nature of
Congregational Oversight as Underlying 1 Timothy 2:11–12,” in The Gender Conversa‐
tion: Evangelical Perspective on Gender, Scripture, and the Christian Life (ed. E. Murphy
and D. Starling; Macquarie Park; Eugene: Morling Press; Wipf and Stock, 2016), 143–154.
10 K. Clatterbaugh, Contemporary Perspectives on Masculinity: Men, Women, and Politics
in Modern Society, 2nd ed. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997), 1–16; G. Olson et al. (eds.),
Masculinity Studies: Contemporary Approaches and Alternative Perspectives (London;
New York: Routledge, 2018), passim.
11 This is assuming that the North American homogeny applies to Australia; R. Connell,
“The Study of Masculinities,” Qualitative Research Journal 14.1 (2014): 5–15; L. Gerber,
“Grit, Guts, and Vanilla Beans: Godly Masculinity in the Ex-Gay Movement,” Gender
and Society 29.1 (2015): 26–50.
the complementarian view and the increased risk of domestic violence during
the COVID 19 pandemic.
There are three readings of 1 Timothy 2 by complementarians I would like to
consider. The first essay is by Glenn Davies, now retired Anglican Archbishop of
Sydney, from a book edited by Barry Webb, Personhood, Sexuality and Christian
Ministry (1987).7 The essay was a paper given at Moore College at the height
of the debate in the 1980s. The second essay is by Anglican Claire Smith in
a book she wrote defending the complementarian view, God’s Good Design
(2012).8 Lastly, we will be looking at Baptist Hefin Jones in a paper presented
at a symposium at Morling Bible College in Sydney.9 I was on the panel at this
symposium and our papers and responses can be found in the book, The Gender
Conversation (2016). All of these works are aimed at the popular level. So an
investigation of this literature is an important step to understanding how the
complementarian reading has translated into the life of the evangelical church
in Australia.
A methodological problem arises in how to analyse these three complemen‐
tarian readings. My object is to analyse their studies in terms of their conception
of an ideal man, which is more assumed than discussed. Since a clearer picture
of the ideal man is our objective, then a useful framework can be derived from
modern masculinity studies.10 The study of masculinity came as a response to
feminism and women’s studies in the 1980s. While it is now recognised that
there is no such thing as ‘masculinity,’ since this concept varies depending
on a person’s sub-group, ethnicity, sexual orientation, we will stay with the
term “masculinity.”11 My assumption is that the ideal masculinity that is being
171Aussie Men, Roman Men, and Fashioning the Evangelical Man from 1 Timothy 2
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12 Connell, “The Study of Masculinities,” 9.
13 Ibid., 9.
14 T. W. Reeser, “Concepts of Masculinity and Masculinity Studies,” in Configuring
Masculinity in Theory and Literary Practice (ed. S. Horlacher; Leiden; Boston, MA: Brill,
2015), 11–38 (12–13).
15 Reeser, “Concepts of Masculinity,” 12.
16 S. Horlacher, “Configuring Masculinity,” in Configuring Masculinity in Theory and
Literary Practice, 1–10 (4).
17 Davies, “Biblical Study Paper,” 83.
promoted in Evangelicalism is fairly uniform, even across national borders.12
One could argue that the masculinity being promoted in many western countries
including Australia is a North American variety.13 One of the assumptions of
masculinity studies that is relevant for our study is “the idea that masculinity
had to be made visible, to be brought out as an object of study, and to not
be considered an unmarked category.”14 However, masculinity/ies studies is
primarily a field of the social sciences and our object is to analyse literary outputs
for their construction of masculinity. Helpfully, the volume edited by Stefan
Horlacher, Configuring Masculinity in Theory and Literary Practice, has made
the case for analysing literary texts to describe representations of masculinity.15
While our texts are not fictional, the object for the writers is to persuade their
readers that their view of masculinity in 1 Timothy is the only correct and
‘biblical’ one. As Horlacher says, quoting Peter Murphy, “literature has played
[a role] in reinforcing the assumptions about masculinity and, at times, [in]
helping to establish the norm of manhood.”16 Therefore, our method of analysis
will be to describe how each writer presents men in their texts. Words that refer
to men in relation to 1 Timothy will be used as keys to note the construction of
masculinity by the writer. Further, it will be noted when the writer observes a
contrast between men and women in their discussion.
2. Davies: Men Teaching in Public, Women in Private
The first text to be analysed is Davies’ “Biblical Study Paper: 1 Timothy 2:8–15.”
Since this paper was offered in the heat of the ordination debate, our analysis
will focus primarily on this text. The other two texts by Smith and Jones will
be considered in the light of this analysis in terms of repeating conclusions or
differences in emphasis. Smith and Jones are offering what they perceive to be
a consensus on the interpretation of 1 Timothy 2.
The first thing to note about Davies’ paper is that there is no introduction so
that its purpose remains obscure.17 It is only in the conclusion that the purpose
becomes apparent, “the passage under review has been the centre of much
172 Lyn M. Kidson
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18 Ibid, 93.
19 Ibid, 94.
20 Ibid., 83–88.
21 Ibid., 83.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid., 84.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
debate in the Christian community.”18 The purpose is to outline Davies’ reasons
for why this passage should be read to exclude women from ordination, “there is
no role for [women] in the teaching of congregations where men are present.”19
Thus, this paper is far more than an exegesis of a passage for the benefit of the
students at a Bible college. It is a polemical response arguing against a change
of practice. The paper is divided into six sections, moving from “the context
of the passage” through to overviews of the verses “8–10,” and verses “11–12.”
The section “Reasons for Paul’s Prohibition [vv.13–14],” is divided into two
subsections “i. Adam was formed first then Eve,” and “ii. Adam was not deceived,
but the woman was deceived.” The last section is “Women and the Bearing of
Children, 1 Timothy 2:15,” followed by the conclusion. For the of sake brevity,
we will focus on the first two sections.20
In the first section Paul and Timothy are described in narrative terms,
“Timothy who is resident in Ephesus, Paul expects to come to Ephesus.” There
is no mention of the genre or the salutation. There is a discussion of “certain
false teachers,” and “these people.” Davies says the opening verses of chapter 2
refer to the prayer offered in the congregation. It is quite striking that Davies
uses the more antiquated term “men” (he is not quoting) to refer to humanity
in a paper discussing men and women.21
In the next section “Paul’s desire for Prayer, vv 8–10,” Davies says that Paul’s
“concern is the manner in which men pray.”22 Paul’s use of βούλομαι, he says,
“carries a strong authoritative tone.”23 He goes on to say that it is a “strong
desire of apostolic authority that he lays upon the men in their prayer life.”24
But then he shifts his focus from the men because “the assumption” (Davies’
assumption?) is that “Paul is still speaking of the life of the congregation, that
is, of the public prayer offered when Christians assemble.”25 He then generalizes
what the men are to do to the whole congregation, saying “their prayer is to be
prayer offered with clean lips or holy hands.” Davies has inserted “clean lips”
here, even though this phrase is not used in 1 Timothy. This recalls Isaiah 6:5–7
where Isaiah is made clean for service, but this is unsaid. He says that the raising
of “holy hands” is “a metaphor for purity of intention, and is to be paralleled by
purity of life.” The implication is that the call to lift “holy hands” is metaphorical
173Aussie Men, Roman Men, and Fashioning the Evangelical Man from 1 Timothy 2
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26 Ibid.
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid.
so that the action itself ceases to be the focus. The application is not just to
the men but to the whole congregation as a metaphor for the “purity of life,”
which is to “be seen especially in the relationships that members have with one
another.”26 The instructions to the men become the instructions to the whole
congregation and therefore the men are representative of the congregation.
He then moves to discuss the conjunction ὡσαύτως, “likewise,” as it “links
what follows with what has preceded.”27 This conjunction is problematic, “the
exact nature of this link may not be certain.” Davies seems to be signalling
that there is doubt as to how ὡσαύτως works in connecting the instructions
to the men and the instructions to the women. The problem for Davies is not
reading from men to women as “at the very least” the “same sphere in verse
9” is in consideration as in “verse 8,” that is “the behaviour of Christians in
the congregation.”28 What was an assumption in the previous paragraph is
now a certainty, even though nothing is explicitly said about the meeting of
believers. He says that “Paul could also be expressing his desire for the way
in which women ought to pray when they do so in public assembly” and then
points to 1 Corinthians 11:5, which is explicitly addressing the assembly of
believers. The problem is how the rubrics that Paul gives for the men and the
women are interchangeable (in light of the ὡσαύτως). Twice in this sentence,
Davis mentions the “public assembly.” Davies says that the instruction not to
quarrel or express anger could apply to women: there is no problem carrying the
instructions forward. What is odd is that he qualifies this instruction to the men
saying the quarrelling and anger could be a particular problem with the men in
Ephesus or it may be because the Christians were “following the Jewish custom
of allowing only men to pray.”29 How this relates to a command not to quarrel
or be angry he does not say. But this ambivalence allows him to move on and
rule out the idea that the instructions about apparel do not apply to the men,
“it probably would not have occurred to men to wear the kind of apparel which
Paul prohibits in verse 9” nor is Paul prohibiting “the men from braiding their
hair with gold or pearls or costly attire.”30 Thus the instructions about attire and
hair are specific to women but not to men. Further, nothing is mentioned about
“good works” in verse 10, which could have general relevance for the whole
congregation.
174 Lyn M. Kidson
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31 Ibid., 84.
32 Ibid., 85.
33 Ibid.; Davies’ emphasis.
34 Ibid.; again Davies’ emphasis.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid., 85–86.
The next section is “Learning and Teaching” and Davies is primarily focused
on the women (1 Tim 2:11–12). He says that “verse 11 is concerned with
one particular issue, the manner in which women learn, whereas verse 12 is
concerned with the prohibition of women teaching or exercising authority over
men.”31 There is a shift here in theme from the manner in which something is
accomplished to the activity itself. However, nothing is mentioned about Paul
shifting focus. After a discussion about ἡσυχία, “silence,” Davies reiterates Paul’s
authority saying, he “does not permit (ἐπιτρέπω, which is a word of strong
injunction) a woman to teach or to exercise authority over a man.”32 Davies
shifts from the plural to the singular throughout this section without comment.
He says in concluding his discussion on αὐθεντεῖν, “to have authority over”
(or domineer), that “what is pertinent to Paul’s remark is that this authority is
not to be exercised over a man.”33 He then adds to this sentence “presumably
Paul would be happy for women to exercise authority over women, but what
is prohibited for women is their exercise of authority over men.”34 So although
Davies emphasizes “man” and “men,” no explanation is given as to why he
shifts from the singular as it is in the text of 1 Timothy 2:12 (ἀνδρός) to the
plural. Further, he makes no mention of his shift from the singular “woman” to
“women.” It would appear that since Davies has assumed that the context of the
passage is the meeting of the congregation then Paul must be talking about the
men and women who would be in a meeting of believers. Davies is adjusting
the language of the text to suit his assumptions.
In the next section of his argument, Davies writes of other “interpreters,” who
he does not reference. He says that some want to retain the KJV’s translation
of αὐθεντεῖν as “to usurp authority” so as to remove the difficulty of “Paul’s
prohibition of women exercising authority over men.”35 He says however that
they embrace a greater difficulty, “for if Paul is denying women the opportunity
of usurping authority, surely this injunction would equally apply to men as well
as women. Yet the reason that Paul gives is unique to women and indeed could
not apply to men (vv 13–14).”36 He then makes the argument that if αὐθεντεῖν
is to be read in its negative nuance, to usurp authority or to “domineer” and in
this instance is being applied to women but not to men, then the inference is
that “men are permitted [to usurp authority] or to domineer.” The same “logical
175Aussie Men, Roman Men, and Fashioning the Evangelical Man from 1 Timothy 2
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37 In private communication with Dr Robert Anderson, retired lecturer in logic, Notre
Dame University, Sydney. It is an example of an argument from silence.
38 Davies, “Biblical Study Paper,” 86.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid., 87.
43 Ibid.
inference” applies to those who wish to infer that Paul is prohibiting women
from teaching falsely. This argument is not actually logical.37 In terms of our
analysis, Paul’s authority is at the forefront. He is the one prohibiting women
from teaching and exercising authority over men. He can do this because he
is an apostle but subliminally it is because he too is a man with authority. So
there is something unique about women which means that the apostle needs to
command them not to teach or have authority over men. This implies that there
is something unique about men that means that they cannot have a woman
teach or exercise authority over them, although this is not stated.
The last part of this section deals with “the exact nature of teaching and the
exercise of authority that Paul had in mind.”38 Davies needs to deal with this
because his argument has created a problem since “it is obvious that in Paul’s
teaching elsewhere that every Christian is able to teach.” A critical problem
is in Acts 18 where Priscilla and her husband Aquilla teach Apollos. To deal
with this he says that the evidence suggests that “there are two levels of
teaching operating in Paul’s mind: the private one-to-one level and the public
one-to-many level.”39 He then proceeds with a series of inferences about what
Paul is saying the light of this conclusion. First, “it is not permitted for women
to take the role of a teacher,” and this role is “given only to the few.” This leads
to the next inference that “the role of the teacher is part … of the role of the
elder.”40 Paul, says Davies, includes “women among those who are eligible for
the office of deacon and, by inference, excludes women from the office of elder
(or bishop).”41 The criterion of aptitude to teach for the elder, says Davies, is
“not to deny the general permission … of women in one-to-one situations to
teach and admonish any disciple, be they male or female.”42 He says that the
concern throughout chapter 2 “is the conduct of the congregation and in the
congregation the public office of teaching is to be reserved for men and not for
women.”43 He goes on to discuss the nature of the role of a teacher without any
reference to 1 Timothy. This does seem somewhat contrived, but the point of
this section is to demonstrate that “there is an authority invested in the office of
teacher,” that teachers are leaders, and leaders “have the authority to admonish.”
He is then able to conclude that Paul is prohibiting women from taking the
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44 Ibid.
45 Ibid., 88.
46 Ibid.; Davies’ emphasis.
47 Ibid.
48 On “normative masculinity” see Gerber, “Grit, Guts, and Vanilla Beans,” 30–31.
authoritative role as a teacher. The authoritative role would also “include ruling,
but it is specifically teaching that Paul has in mind.”44
Davies finishes this section of his argument on verses 11 to 12 by dealing
with the question of prophesy since it would seem that “prophecy is virtually
equivalent to teaching, or preaching.”45 Davies makes a distinction between
“words given [to the prophet] are directly from God. Whereas the authority
of the [teacher] is in the person as well as the words.”46 He is, therefore, able
to conclude that teaching in the Old Testament was “given to priests, who
were exclusively male,” but the “task of being agents of God’s revelation … was
given to male and female alike” because the words of the prophet are given to
them directly from God. He concludes the section by saying, “the existence of
prophetesses, therefore, in no way detracts from Paul’s instruction that women
ought not to teach or exercise authority over men.”47
What can we conclude about Davies’ vision of masculinity that emerges
from this analysis? The first thing to note is that masculinity is essentially
normative.48 The actions prescribed to men, “lifting holy hands” while in prayer,
are generalised by describing them as a metaphor for “purity of life” so this
action becomes applicable to the whole congregation. The instructions to the
women are particular only to the women, as Davies said, he cannot imagine
the men of Ephesus or Paul being concerned about dress or hair. In this way,
men’s bodies dissolve as an issue and women’s bodies become a special concern,
particularly in the public sphere. Paul might want the men of Ephesus to lift
holy hands, but this can be laid aside for the contemporary man as it is only
a metaphor. The contemporary woman, on the other hand, is obliged by the
command of Paul to consider her conduct in terms of her dress. This masculinity
is not concerned about the deportment of a man’s body nor his dress or hair.
Further, since verses 9 to 11 concern only women, the good works, which
women are instructed to concern themselves with are therefore not normative in
this instance. Good works are not even mentioned, thus they do not contribute
to the picture of masculinity. This means that women are portrayed as passive
and their activity within the congregation is essentially confined to women’s
only activity. They are prohibited from “authoritative” activity in the public
sphere of the congregation. Men, on the other hand, are permitted to act as
authoritative and are not portrayed in the negative. Even when he discusses the
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injunction to avoid anger or dissension, Davies mitigates this by introducing
an ambiguity about the interpretation of this verse. Therefore, nothing hinders
the men of Ephesus from taking up the role of teacher or elder. Thus for Davies,
masculinity is defined as official role bearing from which women are excluded.
Only a man can admonish a man. His masculinity is encompassed by the voices
of men in the public sphere of the congregation. He may learn something from
a woman in a one-on-one private situation, away from the ears of other men.
Overwhelmingly, however, judging by the repetitive use of the words “teaching”
and “authority” (or synonyms), a man teaches others with authority in a public
role. It is a picture of masculinity that is public, which fulfils a role, which is
active, and which exercises authority over others. These things obscure the
man’s body and any failing in relation to his anger or propensity for conflict.
For Davies, this fades into an ambiguous background.
In summary, the men and women are being sorted into two categories and
this perhaps best represented in a table.
Men Women
Aren’t concerned about their dress or hair Are concerned about their dress and hair
Are public Are private
Take up the role of teacher Are prohibited from the role of teacher
Are elders Are not elders
Exercise authority Do not exercise authority
Are leaders Are not leaders
Admonish Don’t admonish
Are agents of authoritative interpretation Passively report words of revelation
(prophecy)
Tab. 1: Categorizing Men and Women
This critique forms the basis of the engagement with the next two Australian
evangelicals, Smith and Jones. For the sake of brevity, we will discuss where they
extensively agree with Davies on verses 8 to 12 and where they depart. Smith (2012)
in the second chapter of her book, God’s Good Design, aims to give a “plain reading” of
chapter 2 of 1 Timothy. Like Davies, she is portraying her approach as an exegetical
reading of the text. This is a book for a popular audience and is primarily aimed at
women asking questions about feminism and the Bible. Her purpose is to defend a
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49 Smith, God’s Good Design, 27–28.
50 Ibid., 28.
51 Ibid., 29.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid., 30.
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid.,
common English translation of verses 11–12 as a straightforward interpretation of
the underlying Greek without any reference to the Greek text.
3. Anger Management and Dress Codes: Claire Smith on “God’s
Good Design”
Smith takes “every place” in 1 Timothy 2:8 as inferring that verses 8–15 refer to
the corporate meetings of believers.49 Like Davies, she focuses on how prayer is
offered, but unlike Davies makes an unambiguous acknowledgement that the
second part of verse 8 references “male aggression and self-promotion.” Verses
9 to 15 she says addresses the women, but says nothing about the problematic
ὡσαύτως, “likewise.” In her reading the women’s issue is different from the
men: it is not “anger management.”50 Like Davies, her focus is on the women’s
dress, but unlike him, she mentions that women are to be “proactive in doing
good.”51 Her theme is that women are to show quiet decorum; they are to learn
but “not to teach or to exercise authority over a man.” Smith sums up by saying
that “when it comes to teaching the gathered Christian community, women are
to keep quiet. They are not to teach. Teaching is someone else’s responsibility,
not theirs.”52 In other words, it is the responsibility of men, and the emphasis is
on the women’s silence.
She then adds a caveat. Women can teach but not in a role that involves being
ordained.53 The thrust of her argument is that this is self-explanatory from the
English rendition of this passage.54 However, no acknowledgement is made that
the concept of “ordination” is anachronistic when it comes to reading this text.
She goes on to address questions about her “plain reading.” It’s important to her
project to addresses the issue of submission; it “is a common Christian response,”
which is not just confined to women.55 However, she goes on to argue that
“in quietness” used in verses 11 to 12 is the “underlining the main point about
the conduct of women.” Although she acknowledges that quietness is a point
the writer has already made about the Christian life, she does not generalise
the women’s quietness as an example of the Christian life. This quietness is
particular to women as they cannot “teach” and “exercise authority.” It’s not that
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56 Ibid., 35.
57 Ibid., 36.
58 Ibid.
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid., 36–37.
61 Jones, “Women, Teaching, and Authority,” 144.
62 Ibid., 145.
women submit themselves to “all men, all the time” but only when they are “in
church, when teaching is happening, to what is taught and those men who are
teaching it.”56 Again we have a few men to whom women are to submit when
they teach. These men “labour in preaching,” so they are active in this public
space, while all the gathered women are passive learners.
This brings her to Adam and Eve. She says that there are two reasons for
restricting women from “the authoritative teaching role.” The first reason is
Adam “was made first,” and as the firstborn has “the responsibilities that go
with that.”57 Thus “Paul” gives instructions “based on the way things are meant
to be; the way God originally created men and women.”58 The second reason is
“based on what happened when God’s ideal was disobeyed … She gave some to
the man … and he ate too … [Adam] disobeyed God by eating the fruit … and
by abdicating his responsibility of leadership to his wife.”59 This is the pattern
of “male leadership and female submission … the [Ephesian] women are not to
usurp the male leadership God has provided.”60 Thus the argument is that men
are created to lead, for a woman to lead is disobeying God’s created order. The
image of masculinity here is one that is created to have authority and to lead,
and there is an expectation that the women in the congregation will submit to
what is taught by a few men. It is a masculinity that can be devolved if it obeys
a woman’s teaching. How any of this relates to Eve’s deception is difficult to
see. There appears to be a lot of interpretative weight brought to bear on the
text based on an elaborate reading of Genesis 2.
4. Hen Jones: Equality of Interdependence between Men and
Women
The last writer to be considered is Jones (2016), who takes for granted that
his readers are familiar with the argument that 1 Timothy 2:12 “prohibits
women from authoritatively teaching men, and thus bars women functioning
as overseers.”61 Like Smith, he sees “in quietness” forming “a wrapper for the
instruction for women to learn and the prohibition of them authoritatively teach
men.”62 “Full submission (2:11),” says Jones, does not apply to men in general
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63 Ibid.
64 Ibid., 146.
65 Ibid., 151; P. B. Payne, “The Bible Teaches the Equality of Man and Woman,” Priscilla
Papers 29 (2015): 3–10.
66 Jones, “Women, Teaching, and Authority,” 153.
67 Davies says there is a “private one-to-one level,” “Biblical Study Paper,” 86.
but to whoever is their instructor (which would be a man).63 He argues that the
two infinitives are to be understood as “one composite activity” so that “Paul
prohibits women from authoritatively teaching men.”64 There is then a detailed
exegetical discussion where he qualifies Philip B. Payne’s argument that Paul is
discussing equality between men and women in 1 Corinthians 11:11, by saying
that “this isn’t a symmetrical equality or an equality of equivalence but rather an
equality of interdependence.”65 In conclusion, he says that “it is the combination
of authority with teaching that provides the key contextual indicator that Paul
is prohibiting women from functioning as overseers.”66 Like Davies and Smith,
he repeatedly insists that teaching a congregation from the Scriptures is an
authoritative function and this should only be done by men.
In sum, the view of masculinity promoted by these three writers over the course
of three decades has changed very little. Masculinity is the normative state for
the Christian. In men reside all the attributes that our society takes for granted
are positive: a man is active, he is a free agent, he is expected to participate in the
public sphere, and in him resides legitimate authority. When he speaks from the
Scriptures he does so authoritatively. The exercise of authority is the cornerstone
of Christian manhood. But this is a picture of masculinity that is inherently weak
as it needs to be defined against womanhood. Further, it can be undermined by the
exercise of authority of a woman, even if she is faithfully teaching the Scriptures.
One wonders if Davies’ man who is taught by a woman in private would be
able to bear the affront to his masculinity.67 The image of masculinity that is
projected by these writers is frail. There is a sense in which it is constantly in
reference to the women and whether they are in public or private contexts if the
Scriptures are being spoken about. In summary, the masculinity that these writers
are promoting is at its most complete when it is in charge, active in the public
sphere, and expounding Scripture. Masculinity is normative and for this reason,
the man’s body is dissolved; he teaches by his speech. Women are silent, but men
speak and are listened to. The identity of the Christian man is tied to his speech
and the response of the women who listen to him. Fundamentally, his identity is
inherently unstable as it is tied to the response of those he expects will listen, but
these may become deviant and not listen.
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68 Eg. L. R. Donelson, Pseudepigraphy and Ethical Argument in the Pastoral Epistles (Tübingen:
J.C.B. Mohr, 1986); M. Harding, Tradition and Rhetoric in the Pastoral Epistles (New York:
Peter Lang Publishing, 1998).
69 C. T. Hoklotubbe, Civilized Piety: The Rhetoric of Pietas in the Pastoral Epistles and the Roman
Empire (Waco, TX: Baylor Press, 2017), 103–104; C. R. Hutson, First and Second Timothy
and Titus (Paideia; Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2019), 62–71. Christianity as an act
of political sedition, E. A. Judge, Paul and the Conflict of Cultures: The Legacy of His Though
Today (ed. J. R. Harrison; Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2019), 154–155.
70 Hoklotubbe, 103; D. R. MacDonald, The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story
and Canon (Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1983), 59, 100; J. A. Glancy, “Protocols
of Masculinity in the Pastoral Epistles,” in New Testament Masculinities (ed. S. D. Moore et.
al.; Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2003), 235–264.
71 On the translation of διδασκαλία as “instruction” see L. M. Kidson, Persuading Shipwrecked
Men: The Rhetorical Strategies of 1 Timothy 1 (WUNT 526; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020),
112–120.
72 Ibid., 136, 138.
73 Ibid., 1–2; 274–275.
5. Beyond Domination: Masculinity and Femininity in 1 Timothy
Is this really the view of masculinity in 1 Timothy? For the last decade, a lot of
scholarship has been done on the Pastoral Epistles. Concentrated efforts have been
made on understanding the writer’s use of rhetoric to persuade his audience away
from the false teaching.68 In light of these advances I would like to propose that in
1 Timothy 2, masculinity and femininity are secondary issues to the writer’s prime
concern. His view of masculinity and femininity is being shaped by his response
to the false teaching that is being promoted within his Christian community and
by the missional demands of the believers’ political and social context.69
Nearly all commentators see the writer of 1 Timothy as reinforcing traditional,
patriarchal expectations about women.70 However, I would argue that careful
attention to the purpose of the letter and its structure provides coordinates for
a reading that takes into account the writer’s strategy against his opponents. In
my recent book, I argued that the purpose of 1 Timothy is to remove or reduce
the threat to the community by the false or “other instruction” (1 Tim 1:3–4).71
1 Timothy 1:3–4 forms the purpose statement of the letter; “certain men” (τισιν)
and, as it turns out, women (1 Tim 2:12; 5:15), are commanded not “to teach the
other instruction” (μὴ ἑτεροδιδασκαλεῖν) and return to God’s “administration”
(1 Tim 1:4).72 My argument is that all the commands form part of this “instruction”
(διδασκαλία), which is sound (1 Tim 1:10) and good (1 Tim 4:6) as opposed to
the “instruction” (διδασκαλία) of spirits and demons (1 Tim 4:1). Therefore, any
discussion of “church order” is subsidiary to the primary purpose, which is to put
an end to the promotion of the “other instruction.”73
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74 Ibid., 180–182.
75 Ibid., 190.
76 Ibid., 263–267.
77 Ibid., 218–220.
78 Ibid., 218–220; 270–271.
79 Smith, God’s Good Design, 26.
My focus in Persuading Shipwrecked Men is on the ethical digression in
chapter 1, verses 5 to 20.74 Verse 5 is designed to win the goodwill of those
listening to the letter since love is the virtue all would agree is praiseworthy.75
This is an important step because throughout the digression the writer is
exercising frank speech (παρρησία) to stimulate his opponents’ consciences
(1 Tim 1:5; 19).76 He wants to convince them to turn from potential disaster,
shipwrecking their faith, to faithfully implementing Paul’s instructions. Paul’s
relationship with Jesus Christ acts as an exemplar of this repentance (1 Tim
1:16).77 Paul had been a man of arrogance and ignorance, and like the opponents,
a blasphemer (1 Tim 1:13). Hymenaeus and Alexander act as exemplars of
shipwrecked men; they have been “turned over to Satan” to learn not to
blaspheme (1 Tim 1:20).78 These men were once in the community and are now
outside of it. However, the opponents or potential opponents that are being
addressed in this letter are still within the community. Thus this letter is a
warning to those inside the community not to promote the other instruction
lest they shipwreck their faith.
It is important to see the connection of chapter 2 to what has proceeded. Only
Smith noted the conjunction, (οὖν) “then,” and says that “this lets us know that what
follows is … dependent on what went before” and this is that “Paul charged Timothy
with the duty of resisting the false teaching.”79 However, she abandons this insight
to focus on prayer conducted in the church meeting. Structurally, the whole chapter
(1 Tim 2:1–15) is intimately connected to the ethical digression in chapter 1:
1 Timothy 2:1 Παρακαλῶ οὖν
1 Timothy 2:5 εἷς γὰρ θεός
1 Timothy 2:8 Βούλομαι οὖν
1 Timothy 2:9 ὡσαύτως καὶ γυναῖκας
1 Timothy 2:10 ἀλλ’
1 Timothy 2:12 διδάσκειν δὲ
1 Timothy 2:12 ἀλλ’
1 Timothy 2:13 Ἀδὰμ γὰρ
1 Timothy 2:15 σωθήσεται δὲ
Tab. 2: Ethical digression in 1 Timothy 2:1–15
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80 S. E. Runge, Discourse Grammar of the Greek New Testament (Peabody: Hendrickson
Pub., 2010), 19.
81 Ibid., 43.
82 Kidson, Persuading Shipwrecked Men, 218–220.
83 Hoklotubbe, Civilized Piety, 5–6.
84 Ibid.; the English word piety is based on the Latin word; as Hoklotubbe persuasively
argues both the Greek and Roman aspects are anticipated in the Pastoral Epistles.
85 Ibid., 105–110.
Laid out like this one can see the connectedness and development of this
chapter to the proceeding digression. As Runge describes each connective
brings “its unique constraint to bear in the context.”80 The οὖν in particular
is significant as it is found on high-level boundaries where “the next major
topic is drawn from and builds upon what precedes.”81 At 1 Timothy 2:1 the
οὖν is performing this function: the writer is urging his readers, in the light
of Hymenaeus’ and Alexander’s destruction of their faith and their blasphemy,
to offer “supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings … be made
for everyone” (NRSV). The context is not the public gathering of the church,
rather it is thematic. The believers are to offer supplications etc. “so that we
may lead a quiet and peaceful life (ἤρεμον καὶ ἡσύχιον βίον) in all godliness
(εὐσεβείᾳ) and dignity (σεμνότητι)” (NRSV, 1 Tim 2:2). These character qualities
stand in contrast to the character qualities of Hymenaeus and Alexander, who
are blasphemous. As examples of Paul’s former life they are also self-promoting
and men of hubris.82 They belong to the group of “certain men/people” who
have turned to meaningless talk and want to be teachers of the law but are
ignorant (1 Tim 1:6–7). In contrast, the writer wants the believers to be pious
and dignified.
Hoklotubbe describes the relationship of the Greek εὐσέβεια, which “tended
to signify both a reverent attitude toward and proper ritual conduct before the
gods,” and the Roman pietas, which “encompassed an affectionate dutifulness
directed also to one’s parents, homeland, and emperor.”83 Pietas is summed up
by Cicero as “the feeling which renders offices and loving service to one’s kin
and country” and arises from “the knowledge of the gods” (Inv. 2.53.161; Nat.
d.2.61.153).84 Pietas was the fulfilment of one’s filial, religious, civic, and imperial
obligations that sustained reciprocal relationships. As Hoklotubbe argues the
prayers for all men and kings was an expression of piety toward the emperor
and was supportive of imperial ideology.85 In 1 Timothy the basis of this piety is
built on the theological basis: “For there is one God” (1 Tim 2:5). Paul’s relation
to this foundational basis serves as his call into service (1 Tim 1:12), but adds
in 1 Timothy 2:7 that he is “a teacher to the Gentiles.” In other words, he is the
Ephesians’ teacher as opposed to Hymenaeus and Alexander. This foundational
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86 Runge, Discourse Grammar, 44–45.
87 See A. Corbeill’s criticism of those scholars, “who valorize language over bodily
movement … an anachronism for early Rome,” “Gesture in early Roman law: empty
forms for essential formalities,” in Body Language in the Greek and Roman Worlds (ed.
D. Cains: Swansea, Wales: The Classical Press of Wales, 2005), 157–174 (159).
88 Glancy, “Protocols,” 235–264.
89 A. J. Malherbe, “The Virtus Feminarum in 1 Timothy 2:9–15,” in Renewing Tradition:
Studies in Texts and Contexts in Honor of James W. Thompson (ed. M. W. Hamilton, et
al.: Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2007), 45–65 (58).
90 De Officiis: With An English Translation (trans. W. Miller. LCL 30; Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1913); H. North describes how Greek σωφροσύνη relates to the
concept of propriety, Sophrosyne: Self-Knowledge and Self-Restraint in Greek Literature
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1966), 222. She comments on Cicero’s use
of σωφροσύνη, “In the Tusculans Cicero observes that the Greeks apply the term
σωφροσύνη to the virtue that he calls temperantia or moderatio, occasionally modestia,
or even frugalitas,” 268–285; Malherbe, “The Virtus Feminarum,” 56–59.
91 In commenting about Cicero’s De oratore, J. Dugan, Making the New Man: Ciceronian
Self-Fashioning in the Rhetorical Works (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 157.
point, however, takes the writer away from his main point: the character and
conduct of believers.
The οὖν can resume a main topic of discussion after a digression.86 So in
1 Timothy 2:8, the οὖν resumes the topic of piety and dignity. This informs
how we should read the instructions to the men. Since the focus is on their
character and conduct in opposition to the opponents, then who they are and
what they are doing with their bodies comes into focus.87 In the first century, a
man’s deportment was of great significance.88 How he walked, talked, gestured
indicated his moral rectitude.89 For example, Cicero describes what a man did
with his hands as a matter of propriety (Latin decorum),
And they [Cynics] assail modesty with a great many other arguments to the same
purport. But as for us, let us follow Nature and shun everything that is offensive
to our eyes or our ears. So, in standing or walking, in sitting or reclining, in our
expression, our eyes, or the movements of our hands, let us preserve what we have
called “propriety” (Off. 1.35.128).90
Thus as Dugan explains, Cicero attests “to the traditional Graeco-Roman view
that the orator’s bodily self and his words are connected.”91 In the oration Against
Timarchus, Aeschines describes Solon, Pericles, Themistocles, and Aristides
as models of decorum (σώϕρονες) because they addressed the assembly with
restrained gestures and kept one arm inside the cloak (1.25). Gesturing signals
other important virtues, including piety. Outstretched hands are the right
attitude for prayer. Plutarch describes Marius washing his hands and both he
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92 Plutarch, Marius, 26.3.2–4; cf. 22.2.2–3; cf. Dio Chrysostom, Discourse 32.82 &12.61.
93 First Clement, in The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations (trans.
Michael W. Holmes; 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007).
94 Deportment signals “a certain aptitude” including “a high-minded nature free from
anger,” M. W. Gleason, Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 60–61.
95 North, Sophrosyne, 41–42.
96 Ibid., 64–65, 114; Glancy, “Protocols,” 240–241.
97 Kidson, Persuading Shipwrecked Men, 264–266.
98 A. J. Malherbe, “Medical Imagery in the Pastoral Epistles,” in Light from the Gentiles:
Hellenistic Philosophy and Early Christianity: Collected Essays, 1959–2012 (ed. C. R.
Holladay et. al.; Leiden; Boston, MA: Brill, 2014), 117–134; Gleason, “Protocols,” 260.
99 Runge, Discourse Grammar, 68.
and Catulus, “lifting them up towards Heaven” while making vows to the gods.92
A Christian example is Clement of Rome, who urges the Corinthians:
Let us, therefore, approach him in holiness of soul, lifting up to him pure and undefiled
hands, loving our gentle and compassionate Father who made us his own chosen
portion (29:1).93
Here there is a close connection between the lifting up of pure and undefiled
hands and what could be considered a pious attitude towards God. Not only does
appropriate reverent conduct need to be directed towards him because he is the
divine, but also “loving service,” as Cicero says, because God is the Christian’s
true father.
In 1 Timothy the lifting up of “holy hands” is “without wrath (ὀργῆς)
and dissension (διαλογισμοῦ)” (NSAB). Therefore, the man of verse 8 is to
demonstrate his piety through his bodily deportment.94 On the other hand,
conflict demonstrates the contrasting vice of hubris.95 Such men not only
lack piety but moderation (σωφροσύνη), demonstrated by their willingness to
be angry and cause dissension between believers.96 And internally they are
deformed because they have seared their consciences (1 Tim 4:1–2). Their seared
consciences allow them to promote the “other instruction” while ignoring Paul’s
commands.97 The writer describes this as a sickness; these people are sick for
controversy and disputes about words (1 Tim 6:4). Thus the writer views the
masculinity of these men as ill.98
But it is not just the men who are infected with this disease and need to be
urged to be pious. The ὡσαύτως is pointing forward to describe the degree with
which an action is done.99 This explains the somewhat redundant exhortation
to the men in verse 8. Since the writer has spent all of the digression discussing
the behaviour of the men, among who are Hymenaeus and Alexander, then
there seems little point in repeating the need for the men to be pious (1 Tim
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100 Anger is comparable to self-indulgence in men, “to be arrayed in purple, to be roofed
in gold,” Seneca, Ira 1.21.1; Glancy, “Protocols,” 241.
101 North, Sophrosyne, 42–43, 62, 64, 95, 323; Malherbe, “The Virtus Feminarum,” 48–63.
102 Runge, 55–56; this word is an intensification of εὐσεβεία inferring “real godliness,” J. D.
Quinn and W. C. Wacker, The First and Second Letters to Timothy (vol. 1. ECC; reprint;
Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), 220–221.
103 Lyn M. Kidson, “‘Teaching’ and Other Persuasions: The Interpretation of Didaskein ‘to
Teach’ in 1 Timothy 2:2,” in The Gender Conversation: Evangelical Perspective on Gender,
Scripture and the Christian Life (eds. E. Murphy and D. Starling; Macquarie Park; Eugene,
OR: Morling Press; Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2016), 125–137 (131–133).
104 Smith, God’s Good Design, 29 and Jones, “wrapper,” “Women, Teaching, and Authority,”
145.
105 Kidson, Persuading Shipwrecked Men, 188–189; B. Longenecker, “‘Linked Like a Chain’:
Rev 22.6–9 in Light of an Ancient Transition Technique,” NTS 47 (2001): 105–17; H. van
Dyke Parunak, “Transitional Techniques in the Bible,” JBL 102 (1983): 525–48; applied
to 1 Timothy see R. van Neste, “Cohesion and Structure in the Pastoral Epistles,” in
Entrusted with the Gospel: Paul’s Theology in the Pastoral Epistles (eds. A. J. Köstenberger
and T. L. Wilder; Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 84–104.
1:4b–5; 2:1–2) and refrain from anger and dissension (1 Tim 1:6–7; 13, 19–20).
The ὡσαύτως, however, connects the women’s attitude and behaviour to the
men through the careful use of conjunctions. The women are to demonstrate the
same pious and reverent behaviour through their deportment as do the men.100
Singled out is their clothing, hair, and accessories as these are indicators of
a woman’s moderation (σωφροσύνη), which is closely linked to their piety.101
Indeed, the writer makes this explicit by using “but” (ἀλλά) to contrast and
highlight the object of these instructions, which is “proper for a woman
making a claim to godliness (θεοσέβειαν)” (NASB; 1 Tim 2:10).102 This highlight
strengthens our argument that the theme of verse 8 is piety and dignity. This
would mean that the women’s pious behaviour acts as a general principle: both
the men and women are to make “a claim to godliness by [their] good works”
(NASB). The following sentence, verse 11, belongs to this contrast and sums
up the women’s quiet deportment, or dignity, and is an expression of her pious
good works.103 Through the connection to the digression, the women are to be
like the men, submissive to Paul’s command (1 Tim 1:3–4).
The δέ in verse 12 is related to the οὖν in verse 8 and marks a new
development. There is therefore a break in thought between verse 11 and verse
12, which our commentators gloss over, even arguing for a chiasm.104 However,
our writer is indicating a close connection between this new section and the
previous focus on piety and dignity. The repetition of “a woman” and “quietness”
in verses 11 and 12 is an example of the writer’s use of “hooked keywords”; it is
a structural device used to link units of argument together.105 As a development
of his previous argument, the writer has shifted from the plural “women” and
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106 The transition signalling a change in topic to husband and wife, Quinn and Wacker,
The First and Second Letters to Timothy, 221.
107 Runge, 190.
108 αὐθεντεῖν = to domineer, Philip B. Payne, Man and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical
and Theological Study of Paul’s Letters (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 380–394;
Cynthia Westfall, Paul and Gender: Reclaiming the Apostle’s Vision for Men and Women
(Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2016), 305–311.
109 Payne, Man and Woman, 353–356.
110 L. M. Kidson, “Fasting, Bodily Care, and the Widows of 1 Timothy 5:3–15,” EC 11.2
(2020): 191–205.
“men” to the singular “woman” and “man.” Our commentators barely mention
this transition, but it marks a change in view. While the men and women/woman
of verses 8 to 11 are in the public view making a claim to godliness, we now
turn to the husband and wife and a private viewpoint in verses 12–15.106
This section is on what the writer does not want and stands in contrast to
what he wants in verse 8. However, the indicative verb and its negation “I do
not want” are displaced by the infinitive “to teach” (διδάσκειν). Since the Greek
word order is not as constrained as in English, this infinitive at the beginning of
the sentence marks it out as the focus.107 This infinitive belongs to a hendiadys
normally translated as “to teach nor have authority over” (NRSV). However,
in this marked position, διδάσκειν is indicating a resumption of a theme or
argument in the earlier part of the letter. The command “let a woman learn in
quietness in all submission,” indicates a submission to Paul’s command at the
beginning of the letter. But the infinitive “to teach” (διδάσκειν) reiterates this
command in 1 Timothy 1:3 that “certain people” are not to “teach the other
instruction.” The second part of the hendiadys refines the unwanted behaviour,
“and not to domineer her husband.”108 The word “man” (ἀνδρός) rightfully
belongs to the αὐθεντεῖν and not to the word διδάσκειν.109 This is a reiteration
of the “some” in 1 Timothy 1:7 who are “without understanding either what
they are saying or things about which they make assertions.” This behaviour
is leading to anger, verbal wrangling, and disputes. Thus if the wife were to
do the same it would lead to a similar breakdown in her marriage. And this
is the finale that the writer has been moving towards since the οὖν in verse
8. There is something particular that the wife is potentially doing that is not
covered by the first command at 1 Timothy 1:3–4. The answer to this is found
in 1 Timothy 4:1–3. “Certain people” are paying attention to spirits and demons
and are forbidding marriage and requiring a certain diet.110 In other words, this
is an ascetic program (1 Tim 4:1), which is the “other instruction” of 1 Timothy
1:3–4. The writer perceives a threat that the wife could persuade her husband
to take up this ascetic program, which he opposes.
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111 For examples of Eve as Adam’s wife see LXX: Genesis 4:1, 25; Tobias 8:6; Josephus,
Antiquity of the Jews, 1:40; Jubilees 3:4–7. That γάρ can be used to introduce an example
Plato, Republic, 551C.
112 This phrase implies sexual union, G. W. Wenham, Genesis 1–15 (Word; Waco: Word,
1987), 70–71.
113 Wenham, Genesis, 33.
114 On the relationship between diet and control of sexual desire, Kidson, “Fasting, Bodily
Care,” 196–202.
115 P. Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women, & Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 21–24.
116 Proverbs 31; for Roman wives, Brown, The Body and Society, 15.
117 Ajax might have saved himself by listening to his wife’s counsel, Sophocles, Ajax; North,
Sophrosyne, 59–60.
This anxiety on the part of the writer gives us a rare insight into the Christian
marriage at this time. While he has provided Hymenaeus and Alexander as
examples of men who have shipwrecked their faith, he provides Eve, the first
wife, as an example for the wives who are tempted by the other instruction.111
They are not to become like Eve and be deceived and sin. Our commentators
see the sequence that Adam was formed first then Eve as indicating a hierarchy
of relationship. I would like to suggest, however, that the emphasis is on the
“was formed,” which is taken directly from the Septuagint (Gen 2:7). Adam was
formed (ἐπλάσθη) then the woman, Eve, was taken from him so that Adam
could cling to her (Gen 2:24).112 This pictures the intimacy of husband and wife
in fulfilling the command of God in Genesis 1:28 “to be fruitful and multiply.”113
In refuting the ascetics in 1 Timothy 4:4–5, the writer calls God the good creator,
who created marriage and food to be “received with thanksgiving.”114 Thus Adam
and Eve are the basis for the writer’s command to the wife not to teach the ascetic
program to her husband. The wife and her husband were created for marriage;
in other words, sexual relations. The reiteration of the command to the wife to
be in quietness in verse 12, stands in contrast to a wife who is trying to persuade
and pressure her husband into taking up the other instruction. The contrastive
ἀλλά in verse 12 repeats the contrast in verse 10. She is to conduct herself
with a quiet deportment both in public and in the bedroom.115 This woman is a
model Roman matron, who conducts herself with piety toward the divine and
her husband.
Therefore, the writer foresees a danger within the married relationship
because traditionally wives advised husbands.116 A man could be saved from
dishonour by the sage advice from his wife.117 Men relied on their wives
for sound advice and were thought to be particularly vulnerable to a wife’s
persuasive words, thus the strong injunction by the writer to the wife of verse
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118 L. McClure, Spoken Like a Woman: Speech and Gender in Athenian Drama (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 62, 70–71; North, Sophrosyne, 62.
119 Kidson, Persuading Shipwrecked Men, 108–110.
120 Ibid., 132–136.
121 Hutson, First and Second Timothy, 62–71; 80–85.
12 not to teach/persuade and domineer her husband to take up the ascetic
program.118
The vision of masculinity in 1 Timothy is one that is far more robust than
many modern commentators. The man might be in danger of being persuaded
by his wife to take up the other instruction, but this is because of their unique
relationship. The writer is not thinking that all men are somehow weakened in
their masculinity by hearing a woman teaching in the gathering of believers.
Nor are they constantly anxious about the spoken words of the women in the
congregation. The command at the beginning to “certain people” (1 Tim 1:3)
is primarily directed at the men as the example of Hymenaeus and Alexander
demonstrates.119 Logically the men of the congregation are in danger of being
deceived into taking up their ascetic program, which is why some men must be
warned or commanded not to be engaged in teaching it. Equally, there are some
women who are trying to win their husbands over to the ascetic program, and
these are singled out in verses 12–15. There is an even-handedness to the writer’s
instruction, first to the men, then to the women. He sees them both in danger of
seduction by the “certain men,” but both are equally able to heed his command.
Both the men and women are to be submissive to Paul as he instructs both to give
attention to God’s administration. This is the implementation of Paul’s sound
and good instruction.120 In 1 Timothy there is an assumed equality between the
men and women in their relationship to Jesus Christ; Paul’s relationship is the
model for all believers. And this model assumes all are called into service (1 Tim
1:12), although this service is tempered by cultural restraints.121 Men and women
exhibit their service in a culturally appropriate manner. But this does not imply
that a man should be fundamentally anxious about his masculinity in the face
of a woman’s service.
6. Implications for the Complementarian Interpreters: the Risk of
Domestic Violence
The goal of this present volume is to raise awareness of new directions in New
Testament studies and draw connections to current socio-political debates. We
have drawn upon the emergent gender studies to focus on the masculinity
constructed by certain evangelicals in Australia. The commentators we have
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122 J. Baird, “Is Your Pastor Sexist,” New York Times, April 19, 2017, 25; “Domestic Violence
in the Church: When women are Believed, Change will Happen,” ABC report posted
23 May 2018, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-23/when-women-are-believed-the
-church-will-change/9782184. J. Baird and H. Gleeson, “‘Submit to your husbands’”:
Women told to endure domestic violence in the name of God,” ABC report posted
October 2018: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-07-18/domestic-violence-church-sub
mit-to-husbands/8652028?nw=0; cf. Giles, The Headship of Men and the Abuse of Women,
5–17, 32–38, 41–42.
123 Baird and Gleeson, “‘Submit to your husbands,’” based on the finding that men who
attend church on an irregular basis are more likely to commit domestic abuse.
124 A. Galloway, “Domestic violence on the rise during pandemic,” SMH July 13,
2020: https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/domestic-violence-on-the-rise-during-
pandemic-20200712-p55b8q.html.
examined have crafted a masculinity that is inherently unstable as it must
continually examine itself in relation to the women in the congregation. The
vision of masculinity in 1 Timothy, however, is one that is crafted as a response
to the “other instruction” (1 Tim 1:3; 4:1; 6:3). So while the writer may view
the errant men as diseased, it is a far more robust view of masculinity than the
present-day commentators. The men’s masculinity is not diminished by their
relationship to the women in the congregation, but by their submission to the
“other instruction.”
This analysis raises serious concerns about relationship between men and
women in the home during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. In recent
years, journalist Julia Baird has been highlighting the connections between
complementarianism and domestic abuse in Sydney Anglican churches.122 She
highlights research conducted by the Australian Institute of Family Studies,
which concluded that “the gender norms and beliefs surrounding male domi‐
nance and male superiority, created by power hierarchies … accord men greater
status.” In our analysis, we have observed the idea that men are inherently
“designed” to be leaders and to be obeyed. Not to do this is deviant on the
part of the woman. Although our writers are at pains to say that women and
men are interdependent and women can teach in private, this subtle message
could be missed by men who irregularly attend church.123 In this time of social
disconnection because of the pandemic, the rates of domestic abuse appear to
have increased.124 It could be surmised that a reduction in church attendance
and a faulty view of masculinity could put evangelical wives at risk of abuse
by their husbands. Baird’s call for more attention to the increased risks that
complementarian women face is even more salutatory. The inherent weakness
in the complementarian view of masculinity means that any conflict in the home
could result in husbands feeling that their masculine identity is challenged.
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However, a renewed vision of the masculinity of 1 Timothy would secure the
contemporary man’s identity to his relationship with Jesus Christ.
192 Lyn M. Kidson
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