BookPDF Available

Electromagnetic Fields of Wireless Communications: Biological and Health Effects

Authors:
  • National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
Electromagnetic Fields of
Wireless Communications:
Biological and Health Effects
This book reects contributions from experts in the biological and health effects of Radio Frequency
(RF)/Microwave and Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) used in
wireless communications (WC) and other technological applications. Diverse topics related to
physics, biology, pathology, epidemiology, and plausible biophysical and biochemical mechanisms
of WC EMFs emitted by antennas and devices are included. Discussions on the possible conse-
quences of fth generation (5G) mobile telephony (MT) EMFs based on available data and correla-
tion between anthropogenic EMF exposures and various pathological conditions such as infertility,
cancer, electro-hypersensitivity, organic and viral diseases, and effects on animals, plants, trees,
and environment are included. It further illustrates individual and public health protection and the
setting of biologically- and epidemiologically-based exposure limits.
Features:
Covers biological and health effects, including oxidative stress, DNA damage, reproduc-
tive effects of mobile phones/antennas (2G, 3G, 4G), cordless phones, Wi-Fi, etc.
Describes effects induced by real-life exposures by commercially available devices/
antennas.
Illustrates biophysical and biochemical mechanisms that ll the gap between recorded
experimental and epidemiological ndings and their explanations.
Explores experimental and epidemiological facts and mechanisms of action. Provides
explanations and protection tips.
Transcends across physical, biological, chemical, health, epidemiological, and environ-
mental aspects of the topic.
This book is aimed at senior undergraduate/graduate students in physics, biology, medicine, bio-
electromagnetics, electromagnetic biology, non-ionizing radiation biophysics, telecommunications,
electromagnetism, bioengineering, and dosimetry.
Electromagnetic Fields of
Wireless Communications:
Biological and Health Effects
Edited by Dimitris J. Panagopoulos
Designed cover image: © Shutterstock
First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 selection and editorial matter, Dimitris J. Panagopoulos; individual chapters, the contributors
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume respon-
sibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the
copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify
in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any
form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microlming, and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC
please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identication
and explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 9781032061757 (hbk)
ISBN: 9 781032 061764 (pbk)
ISBN: 97810 03201052 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003201052
Typeset in Times
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
v
Contents
The Editor ........................................................................................................................................vii
Contributors ......................................................................................................................................ix
Foreword ...........................................................................................................................................xi
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
PART A Physical Properties of Wireless
Communication Electromagnetic Fields
Chapter 1 Dening Wireless Communication (WC) Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs):
A.Polarization Is a Principal Property of All Man-made EMFs
B. Modulation, Pulsation, and Variability Are Inherent Parameters of WC EMFs
C. Most Man-made EMF Exposures Are Non-thermal
D. Measuring Incident EMFs Is More Relevant than Specic Absorption Rate (SAR)
E. All Man-made EMFs Emit Continuous Waves, Not Photons
F. Differences from Natural EMFs. Interaction with Matter ..................................... 17
Dimitris J. Panagopoulos, AndreasKarabarbounis, and Constantinos Lioliousis
PART B Biological and Health Effects of Wireless
Communication Electromagnetic Fields
Chapter 2 Public Health Implications of Exposure to Wireless Communication
Electromagnetic Fields ............................................................................................... 79
Anthony B. Miller
Chapter 3 Oxidative Stress Induced by Wireless Communication Electromagnetic Fields.......97
Igor Yakymenko and Oleksandr Tsybulin
Chapter 4 Genotoxic Effects of Wireless Communication Electromagnetic Fields................. 137
Ganesh Chandra Jagetia
Chapter 5 DNA and Chromosome Damage in Human and Animal Cells Induced by
Mobile Telephony Electromagnetic Fields and Other Stressors .............................. 189
Dimitris J. Panagopoulos
vi Contents
Chapter 6 The Impacts of Wireless Communication Electromagnetic Fields on Human
Reproductive Biology............................................................................................... 219
Kasey Miller, Kiara Harrison, Jacinta H. Martin, Brett Nixon, and Geoffry N.
De Iuliis
Chapter 7 Effects of Wireless Communication Electromagnetic Fields on Human and
Animal Brain Activity.............................................................................................. 275
Haitham S. Mohammed
Chapter 8 Electro-hypersensitivity asa Worldwide, Man-made Electromagnetic
Pathology: A Review of the Medical Evidence........................................................ 297
Dominique Belpomme, and Philippe Irigaray
Chapter 9 Carcinogenic Effects of Non-thermal Exposure to Wireless Communication
Electromagnetic Fields ............................................................................................. 369
Igor Yakymenko, and Oleksandr Tsybulin
PART C Effects on Wildlife and Environment
Chapter 10 Effects of Man-made and Especially Wireless Communication
Electromagnetic Fields on Wildlife.......................................................................... 393
Alfonso Balmori
PART D Biophysical and Biochemical Mechanisms of Action
Chapter 11 Mechanism of Ion Forced-Oscillation and Voltage-Gated Ion Channel
Dysfunction by Polarized and Coherent Electromagnetic Fields ............................449
Dimitris J. Panagopoulos
Chapter 12 Electromagnetic Field-induced Dysfunction of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels,
Oxidative Stress, DNA Damage, and Related Pathologies ...................................... 481
Dimitris J. Panagopoulos, Igor Yakymenko, and George P. Chrousos
Index ..............................................................................................................................................509
vii
The Editor
Dr. Dimitris J. Panagopoulos (electromagnetic elds – biophysi-
cist) was born in Athens, Greece, where he lives and works. He
has a degree in Physics and a PhD in Biophysics both from the
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA). He com-
pleted his PhD on the Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
(EMFs) in 2001, and two post-doctoral studies on the biological
effects of microwaves (2004) and on cell death induction by wire-
less communication (WC) EMFs (2006). He worked as a post-doc-
toral researcher and lecturer at the Department of Cell Biology and
Biophysics, NKUA, (2002–2014), where he gave undergraduate and
graduate lectures on radiation and EMF biophysics and performed
research on the effects of various types of EMFs in experimental
animals. From 2014 to 2018, he worked as a research associate at the
National Centre for Scientic Research “Demokritos”, Laboratory
of Health Physics, Radiobiology, and Cytogenetics, researching
effects of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation on human cells. Since 2018, he has been working
as a researcher at the Choremeion Research Laboratory, Medical School, NKUA. His experiments
were among the rst that showed damaging effects of man-made EMFs on DNA and reproduction.
He has also shown benecial effects on reproduction of EMFs that mimic natural ones. His theory
on the biophysical mechanism of action of EMFs on cells is considered the most valid amongst all
proposed theories and is cited by more than 700 scientic publications. This theory has explained
the sensing of upcoming earthquakes by animals and the sensing of upcoming thunderstorms by
sensitive individuals through the action of the natural EMFs associated with these phenomena. The
same theory has recently explained the induction of oxidative stress in cells by EMF exposure. Dr.
Panagopoulos has shown why the specic absorption rate (SAR) is not a proper metric for non-
thermal effects; why man-made (totally polarized and coherent) EMFs are damaging, while natural
EMFs are vital; and why highly varying real-life exposures from mobile phones and other WC
devices are signicantly more damaging than simulated exposures with invariable parameters. He
has also shown that genetic damage caused by WC EMFs occurs similarly in human and animal
cells. Dr. Panagopoulos has also argued that photons are strictly wave-packets, not particles of light,
and that man-made electromagnetic radiation does not consist of photons but of continuous “clas-
sical” polarized waves, in contrast to what has been postulated by quantum physicists for the past
100 years. He is the rst or sole author in more than 40 peer-reviewed highly inuential scientic
publications, which have been referenced more than 1,800 times by other scientic publications and
has been included in the Top 10 cited authors by the Mutation Research journals.
Correspondence:
Dr. Dimitris J. Panagopoulos
Email: dpanagop@biophysics.gr
ix
Contributors
Alfonso Balmori
Environmental Department
Castilla and León,
Valladolid, Spain
Dominique Belpomme
1Medical Oncology Department
Paris University
Paris, France
2European Cancer and Environment Research
Institute
Brussels, Belgium
George P. Chrousos
University Research Institute of
MaternalandChild Health and Precision
Medicine
UNESCO Chair on Adolescent
Health Care
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens,
Medical School
Aghia Sophia Children's Hospital
Athens, Greece
Geoffry N. De Iuliis
Reproductive Science Group
School of Environmental and Life Sciences
College of Engineering, Science and
Environment
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, Australia
Kiara Harrison
Reproductive Science Group
School of Environmental and
Life Sciences
College of Engineering, Science and
Environment
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, Australia
Philippe Irigaray
European Cancer and Environment Research
Institute
Brussels, Belgium
Ganesh Chandra Jagetia
Department of Zoology
Cancer and Radiation Biology Laboratory
Mizoram University
Aizawl, India
Andreas Karabarbounis
Physics Department
Section of Nuclear and Particle Physics
National and Kapodistrian University
of Athens
Athens, Greece
Constantinos Lioliousis
Physics Department
Section of Applied Physics
Electronics Laboratory
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
Athens, Greece
Jacinta H. Martin
Reproductive Science Group
School of Environmental and Life Sciences
College of Engineering, Science and
Environment
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, Australia
Anthony B. Miller
Dalla Lana School of Public Health
University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada
Kasey Miller
Reproductive Science Group
School of Environmental and Life Sciences
College of Engineering, Science and
Environment
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, Australia
Haitham S. Mohammed
Biophysics Department
Faculty of Science
Cairo University
Giza, Egypt
x Contributors
Brett Nixon
Reproductive Science Group
School of Environmental and Life Sciences
College of Engineering, Science and
Environment
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, Australia
Dimitris J. Panagopoulos
1National Center for Scientic Research
“Demokritos”
Athens, Greece
2Choremeion Research Laboratory, Medical
School
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
Athens, Greece
3Electromagnetic Field-Biophysics Research
Laboratory
Athens, Greece
Oleksandr Tsybulin
European Collegium
Kyiv, Uk raine
Igor Yakymenko
1Department of Public Health
Kyiv Medical University
Kyiv, Uk raine
2Department of Environmental Safety
National University of Food Technologies
Kyiv, Uk raine
We regret to announce that our teacher, colleague, coworker and friend, Dr. Constantinos Lioliousis,
Professor at the Department of Physics of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, who
distinguished himself in the elds of applied physics, microwave electronics, telecommunications, and
biological effects of electromagnetic elds, and contributed to this book as a coauthor in Chapter 1, a
brilliant scientist and a man of ideals and integrity, passed away soon after the completion of the chapter,
at his 82 years. Chapter 1 of this book, which represents his nal contribution, is dedicated to his memory.
xi
Foreword
Information and communication technology is an ever-evolving medium which has penetrated all
aspects of life as we know it, accruing unprecedented societal benets. But with those benets come
risks that need to be managed, and this book presents an exceptional, fact-based foundation for the
latter.
Originally developed as a military tool, the wireless aspects of information and communication
technology are complex and multi-faceted, with nuances unique to each type of mobile or cordless
device, infrastructure platform, and exposure character, with effect metrics driven in large part by
the sophisticated interplay of genetics and epigenetics.
To fully understand the depth and breadth of wireless technology and its health implications
takes time, intelligence, and longitudinal effort. The growing scientic literature on wireless tech-
nology’s biological activity alone includes thousands of peer-reviewed papers. The tasks of both
learning this eld and integrating the many strands of emerging knowledge portend multiple years
of commitment.
In a time when opinions, informed and not, are readily available through multiple journalistic,
entertainment, and social media platforms, the attainment of factual truth is elusive. But it is only
factual truth that can ensure societal decision-making that is both reliable and actionable. Therein
lies the value of this coalescence of professional factual thinking put forth here by Dr. Panagopoulos
and his colleagues that represent a cross section of the worlds top scientists and their work on the
biological impacts of wireless communications technology.
This book effectively and efciently presents the critically important science that leads to
informed decisions about health, safety, and the environment. All the critical scientic aspects are
considered in a learned fashion on these pages, presented by scientists who do the actual work,
and who have done the heavy lifting of sorting and integrating these complexities for practical
application.
This book is a necessary factual truth resource for scientists looking to informedly pursue wire-
less communications subject matter; for responsible employers looking to protect those in their
workplaces; for regulators looking to protect health and the environment; for clinicians looking to
do the best for their patients; for policy-makers looking to make informed changes to ensure public
safety; and for consumers looking to balance the benets of technology with protections for their
children, families, and friends.
Read this book. Absorb its contents. Believe it. And be comfortable acting on this knowledge.
Dr. George L. Carlo
Washington, DC, USA
December 2022
1
Introduction
Abbreviations: B-eld: magnetic eld. E-eld: electric eld. EHS: electro-hypersensitivity.
ELF: Extremely Low Frequency. EMF: electromagnetic eld. EMR: electromagnetic radiation.
LF: Low Frequency. MT: mobile telephony. MW: Microwaves. NR: New Radio. OS: oxidative
stress. RF: Radio Frequency. ROS: reactive oxygen species. SAR: Specic Absorption Rate.
ULF: Ultra Low Frequency. VGIC: voltage-gated ion channel. VLF: Very Low Frequency. WC:
wireless communications. Wi-Fi: Wireless Fidelity. 1G/2G/3G/4G/5G: rst/second/third/fourth/
fth generation of MT.
Static electric (E) elds are generated by (macroscopicaly) standing electric charges (actually
nothing is “standing” at microscopic level), and static magnetic (B) elds are generated by direct
and constant electric currents (directional movement of electric charge with a constant velocity).
Only static (invariable in time) E- or B-elds can each exist alone without the coexistence of the
other. But again, nothing is absolutely invariable in time, and, thus, totally static, and single E- and
B-elds exist only approximately in certain occasions, such as electric elds of “isolated” charged
objects or of electric batteries and magnetic elds of certain minerals (magnets).
When electric charges oscillate back and forth (as e.g., in alternating electric currents), both E-
and B-elds are generated that also oscillate in phase with the charges. Thus, oscillating electric
charges generate oscillating E- and B-elds simultaneously, and the frequency of the generated
elds is the same as the frequency of the oscillating charges. The generated E-eld oscillates in
parallel to the direction of charge oscillation, while the generated B-eld oscillates vertically to this
direction. Due to this strong interrelation and coexistence between oscillating electric and magnetic
elds, we talk about electromagnetic elds (EMFs). Oscillating electric and magnetic elds are not
only generated simultaneously by oscillating electric charges but also the one reproduces the other
each moment, and the two of them (vertical to each other) can propagate in space in the form of
electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation (EMR) vertically to both of them. Thus, elec-
tromagnetic waves are E- and B-elds oscillating with the same frequency vertically to each other
and vertically to the direction of their propagation. The plane of oscillation of the E-eld is called
the polarization plane of the wave. The frequency of the emitted EMR is the same as the frequency
of its oscillating elds and the oscillating charges that generate them. Thus, oscillating E-/B-elds
not only create each other and always coexist, but they also have the unique property to reproduce
and propagate themselves in the surrounding space, even in the absence of a material medium, i.e.
in the vacuum. All electromagnetic waves propagate with the velocity of light, which is different in
each medium. The velocity of light (and of any electromagnetic wave) in the vacuum or in the air
(measured by the pioneer physicist H. Hertz to be approximately equal to () 3 × 108 m/s) represents
an upper limit for all known velocities of any material or energetic entities (Tesla 1905; Alonso and
Finn 1967; Jackson 1975).
In nature, all electric charges oscillate in all possible directions, and the generated EMFs/EMR
have similarly random polarizations; in other words, they are not polarized, apart from specic
occasions that are locally and partially polarized. Moreover, they do not oscillate with a unique fre-
quency and in phase (coordinately). By contrast, electric charges in electric/electronic circuits oscil-
late in unique directions (determined by the geometry of the metallic conductors) and coordinately
(with a unique frequency and phase), and, thus, the generated technical (man-made) EMFs/EMR are
totally polarized and coherent (Panagopoulos et al. 2015a). All anthropogenic EMFs/EMR oscillate
at subinfrared frequencies (0–3 × 1011 Hz) (Figure 0.1).
DOI: 10.1201/9 781003201052-1
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
FREQUENCY
(Hz)
10-14 3×1022
I
O gamma rays
N 10-12 3×1020
I hard x rays
Z
I 10-10 3×1018
N
G soft x rays
10-8 (= 10 nm) vacuum ultraviolet 3×1016
ULTRAVIOLET
Z 102 3×106
N
Radio Broadcasting
Man-made
I EMFs
N LF (30-300 kHz)
VLF (3-30 kHz)
ELF (3-3000 Hz)
ULF (0-3 Hz)
mm waves
O 10-2 RADAR
VISIBLE LIGHT
MW 3×1010
N WC carrier waves
I RF
100 TV Broadcasting 3×108
O
N
I
G 104 3×104
106 3×102
ELF
108 3×100
ULF
10-6 3×1014
INFRARED
10-4 (= 0.1 mm) 3×1012
WC EMFs (2G-3G-4G-5G MT, Wi-Fi, DECT, etc)
FIGURE 0.1 The electromagnetic spectrum with the ionizing, visible, infrared, and subinfrared parts. Man-
made EMFs occupy the subinfrared frequency range (0–3 × 1011 Hz), and WC EMFs always combine MW
carrier frequencies with ELF modulation and pulsation. Natural EMFs in the subinfrared part of the spectrum
are cosmic microwaves, atmospheric EMFs due to lightning discharges (VLF, ELF), Schumann resonances
(ELF), spontaneous ionic oscillations in cells (ULF), etc.
2 Biological and Heath Effects of WC EMFs
3 Introduction
During the past ve decades and beyond, a great amount of scientic knowledge has been accu-
mulated regarding the biological and health effects of man-made EMFs and corresponding EMR.
High-voltage power transmission lines and transformers operating at the Extremely Low Frequency
(ELF) (3–3000 Hz) band, specically at the so-called power frequency (50–60 Hz), radars, and
various types of analog transmitters operating at the Radio Frequency (RF) (300 kHz–300 GHz)
band and in its highest part called Microwave (MW) band (300 MHz–300 GHz) (Figure 0.1), were
the rst powerful man-made EMF/EMR sources that attracted the attention and concern of scien-
tists and physicians for their biological/health effects (Persinger 1974; Presman 1977; Marino and
Becker 1977; Adey 1981; 1993; Goodman et al. 1995; Puranen and Jokela 1996).
This accumulated knowledge is of particular importance today, as wireless communications
(WC) have become an important part of daily life. In WC technologies, the information is con-
veyed by electtromagnetic waves transmitted by devices and corresponding antennas. Today’s digi-
tal WC technological products include mobile phones and corresponding mobile telephony (MT)
base antennas; cordless domestic phones; wireless Internet connections called Wi-Fi (Wireless
Fidelity); wireless connections among electronic devices (called “Bluetooth”), etc. All digital WC
devices and corresponding antennas emit MW carrier waves that are necessarily modulated and
pulsed by low frequency (mostly ELF) signals in order to carry variable information and provide
simultaneous service to many users. The levels of EMF emissions from WC and other technolo-
gies have increased exponentially, especially during the past 25–30 years that digital WC are in use
and, similarly, the human exposure to these EMF emissions. This tremendous increase of human
exposure to EMFs is an unprecedented phenomenon throughout the billions of years of biological
evolution. Most importantly, as explained already, all anthropogenic EMFs differ signicantly from
the natural EMFs in that they are totally polarized and coherent. Therefore, living organisms are not
expected to have natural defenses against anthropogenic EMFs.
While the rst-generation (1G) mobile phones in the 1980s were analog and of limited use,
digital MT technology since the mid-1990s has evolved fast by producing the existing second,
third, and fourth generations (2G/3G/4G) of devices/antennas with each next generation transmit-
ting increasing amounts of information/data (voice, text, pictures, video, Internet). Today the mas-
sive deployment of the New Radio (NR) 5G (fth generation) MT/WC system around the world by
the telecommunications industry, which is expected to further increase considerably the existing
ambient EMF levels, has already started and is rolling out, despite serious concerns expressed by
scientists (Miller et al. 2018; 2019; Hardell and Nyberg 2020; Kostoff et al. 2020; Levitt et al. 2021).
At the same time, during the past 2 years, humanity was suddenly confronted by a pandemic due to
a new virus. As a result, a lot of concern has been raised among scientists and the general popula-
tion regarding the health and environmental consequences of a vast technological expansion that is
taking place uninvited to such an extend.
Natural EMFs/EMR in the terrestrial environment (geoelectric and geomagnetic elds, atmo-
spheric discharges, Schumann resonances, solar light, cosmic microwaves, gamma radiation, etc.)
are never totally polarized and maintain relatively constant average intensities. Those that are
locally polarized, to a signicant degree, are static with constant polarities, such as the geoelectric
and geomagnetic elds (with average intensities approximately (~) 130 V/m and ~ 0.05 mT, respec-
tively). Similarly, static and locally polarized are the cell membrane elds (~ 107 V/m). During short-
term changes of 20%–30% in the average constant intensities of both the environmental and the
cell membrane natural EMFs, health problems and biological effects respectively are initiated (see
Chapter 1 and Presman 1977; Dubrov 1978; Panagopoulos 2019). This fact suggests that the com-
bination of polarization and variability provides a basis for EMF bioactivity (Panagopoulos 2019).
Now, all man-made EMFs produced by electric/electronic circuits are totally polarized and oscil-
lating, and especially modern digital WC EMFs vary greatly and unpredictably at all times display-
ing, apart from the ELF pulsing and modulation mentioned already, signicant random variability,
mainly in the Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) (0–3 Hz) band, with intensity variations usually exceed-
ing by more than 30% (and even by more than 100% in many instances) the average values because
4 Biological and Heath Effects of WC EMFs
of the varying information they transmit and many other factors (see Chapter 1 and Panagopoulos
2019). These signicant physical differences between natural and man-made EMFs explain their
corresponding differences in the induced biological/health effects.
Natural EMFs are necessary for maintaining the health and wellbeing of all living organisms on
Earth. A characteristic example is the atmospheric “Schumann” resonances that attune the brain
electrical activity in all animals (Persinger 1974; Wever 1979; Cherry 2002; 2003; Panagopoulos
and Chrousos 2019). By contrast, man-made EMFs have been found to produce a great number of
adverse biological and health effects. These include changes in key cellular functions; oxidative
stress (OS); DNA and protein damage; cell death; infertility; cancer; effects on the immune system;
changes in human/animal physiology, such as brain activity; pathological symptoms referred to as
electro-hypersensitivity (EHS); etc. (Adey 1981; 1993; Liburdy 1992; Walleczek 1992; Goodman et
al. 1995; Santini et al. 2005; Phillips et al. 2009; Hardell and Carlberg 2009; Khurana et al. 2009;
De Iuliis et al. 2009; Johansson 2009; Szmigielski 2013; Houston et al. 2016; Yakymenko et al.
2011; 2016; 2018; Mohammed et al. 2013; Balmori 2015; 2021; Gulati et al. 2016; Zothansiama et al.
2017; Miller et al 2018; 2019; Panagopoulos 2019; 2020; Irigaray et al. 2018; Belpomme and Irigaray
2020). From all anthropogenic EMF types, WC EMFs seem to be the most adversely bioactive,
mainly because of their increased variability (Panagopoulos 2019).
Under the weight of accumulating scientic evidence, the International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC), which is part of the World Health Organization (WHO), has categorized both ELF
and RF (in fact WC) man-made EMFs as possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC 2002; 2013).
More recent updates on human cancer epidemiology and animal carcinogenicity studies argue that
WC EMFs should be categorized as “probably carcinogenic” or “carcinogenic” (Miller et al. 2018;
2019; NTP 2018; Falcioni et al. 2018; Hardell and Nyberg 2020).
Signicant scientic evidence shows that the bioactivity of WC EMFs is mainly due to their ELF/
ULF components and that RF/microwave carrier signals alone, without modulation, pulsing, and
variability, do not usually induce biological effects other than heating at adequately high intensities
and frequencies (Bawin et al. 1975; 1978; Blackman et al. 1982; Frei et al. 1988; Walleczek 1992;
Bolshakov and Alekseev 1992; Goodman et al. 1995; Penael et al. 1997; Creasey and Goldberg 2001;
Huber et al. 2002; Betti et al. 2004; Goldsworthy 2006; Höytö et al. 2008; Franzellitti et al. 2010;
Campisi et al. 2010; Mohammed et al. 2013; Panagopoulos 2019). As summarized by Goldsworthy
(2006), “it is widely accepted that continuous unmodulated radio waves are of too high a frequency to
give biological effects but they do become effective when pulsed or amplitude modulated at a low fre-
quency”. All endogenous physiological EMFs discovered so far within living organisms, such as the
intracellular spontaneous ionic oscillations, the endogenous electric currents that control all cellular
and tissue functions, or the electromagnetic signals of brain and heart activities, oscillate at low fre-
quencies (ELF/ULF). And then, like in all forms of matter, molecular oscillations and thermal noise
have frequencies in the infrared band. RF EMFs have not been detected in living organisms (Alberts
et al. 1994; McGaig and Zhao 1997; Huber et al. 2002; Nuccitelli 2003; Mohammed et al. 2013). It
is, thus, absolutely expected for living organisms to be more responsive to external EMFs of similar
frequencies. Although this notion for the principal role of ELFs in the bioactivity of WC EMFs has
long been available and repeatedly veried, many studies focus exclusively on the RF part of the WC
EMFs. A most common problem in published reports on the effects of WC EMFs is that many of
them refer to these EMFs simply as “RF” or “microwave”, without assessing or even mentioning the
inevitable coexistence of ELFs, which are actually the most bioactive (Pakhomov et al. 1998; Betskii
and Lebedeva 2004; Belyaev 2005; EPRS 2020; 2021; Karipidis et al. 2021).
Recently, because of the highest microwave carrier frequencies (“mm-waves”) of the 5G, cer-
tain Russian studies reporting “non-thermal effects of microwave/mm-wave EMFs” came to light.
These studies were written in Russian and became known mostly from reviews in English by other
Russian scientists. Three such reviews are by Pakhomov et al. (1998), Betskii and Lebedeva (2004),
and Belyaev (2005). In several studies reviewed in Pakhomov et al. (1998) and Belyaev (2005), ULF/
ELF and Very Low Frequency (VLF) (3–30 kHz) components were present in the form of pulsing
5 Introduction
and/or modulation/intermittence/variability, while no information on possible existence of such
components was provided in the rest of the reviewed studies. Similarly, in the Betskii and Lebedeva
(2004) review, information on possible existence of low-frequency components (ULF/ELF/VLF) is
absent throughout the paper, but their presence was again not excluded. As it is unlikely that any
microwave electronic circuit/generator is not turned on and off, even only for energy-saving reasons,
the existence of ULF/ELF/VLF components, and the separate roles of the low and high frequencies
in the biological effects, need to be carefully addressed in all experimental studies employing RF/
microwave EMF exposures and in the related reviews in order to prevent misleading conclusions.
This can be done easily and reliably in experimental studies by performing and reporting electric
and magnetic eld measurements in the ELF band by ELF eld meters and/or spectrum analyzers.
Thus, all experimental RF/microwave studies should necessarily include such measurements, and
review studies should necessarily report the ELF components in the various exposures.
While one effect induced by high intensity (>0.1 mW/c m2) and frequency (1 GHz) microwave
EMFs is that of heating exposed materials and living tissues (as happens in microwave ovens with food)
(“thermal effects”) (Metaxas 1991; Goodman et al. 1995; Creasey and Goldberg 2001), the vast major-
ity of the recorded biological/health effects at lower – environmentally relevant – intensities (from either
RF/WC or purely ELF EMFs) are not accompanied by any signicant temperature increases and, thus,
have been categorized as non-thermal effects (Goodman et al. 1995; Belyaev 2005; Panagopoulos et al.
2013; Yakymenko et al. 2016). Still, the metric for RF EMF bioactivity suggested by health agencies
is the Specic Absorption Rate (SAR) (IARC 2013), which, apart from the fact that it is impractical
because it cannot be measured directly but has to be calculated (usually by simplistic and inaccurate
methods), actually accounts only for thermal effects because the only reliable way to estimate it is by
measuring temperature increases (see Chapter 1 and Gandhi et al. 2012; Panagopoulos et al. 2013).
While man-made EMFs cannot directly break chemical bonds and, thus, cause direct ioniza-
tion of molecules, they are capable of inducing such effects indirectly, by triggering production
of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cells (De Iuliis et al. 2009; Burlaka et
al. 2013; Pall 2013; Houston et al. 2016; Yakymenko et al. 2016; 2018; Zothansiama et al. 2017;
Panagopoulos et al. 2021). Such species can damage any critical biomolecules, including DNA. The
(over)production of ROS in cells and the consequent OS that arises can be triggered by irregular
gating of voltage-gated ion channels (VGICs) in the cell membranes due to purely ELF/VLF man-
made EMFs or the ULF/ELF/VLF components of the complex WC EMFs (Creasey and Goldberg
2001; Panagopoulos et al. 2002; 2015a; 2021). Today, irregular gating of VGICs in cell membranes
by man-made EMFs has been veried by many experimental studies (e.g., Liburdy 1992; Piacentini
et al. 2008; Cecchetto et al. 2020; Zheng et al. 2021) and presented by reviews (Pall 2013; Bertagna
et al. 2021). Thus, we are dealing with mechanisms that result in chemical changes of critical bio-
molecules without heating the exposed biological tissues.
Although the majority of peer-reviewed published studies (more than 60%–70%) indicate effects
of purely ELF man-made EMFs for eld intensities down to less than a few V/m or a few μT, or of
pulsed/modulated RF/WC EMFs for RF intensities down to less than 1 μW/cm2 even for short-term
exposures (Goodman et al. 1995; Santini et al. 2005; Phillips et al. 2009; Panagopoulos et al. 2010;
Szmigielski 2013; Burlaka et al. 2013; Manna and Ghosh 2016; Yakymenko et al. 2011; 2016; Leach
et al. 2018; Panagopoulos 2019), health authorities responsible for setting exposure guidelines in most
countries have adopted limits that are thousands (and even millions, in some cases) of times higher,
as set by a private, non-governmental organization (NGO) called the International Commission on
Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP 1998; 2010; 2020; Hardell and Carlberg 2021). These
limits may provide limited protection against thermal RF effects, but certainly not against the non-
thermal effects of the purely ELF man-made EMFs or the ELF components of the complex RF/
WC EMFs, which actually constitute the vast majority of the reported biological and health effects.
Indicative threshold EMF/EMR intensity levels found to induce signicant (non-thermal) bio-
logical/health effects and the corresponding ICNIRP (2010; 2020) limits for public exposure in the
ELF and RF bands are shown in Table 0.1. It is evident that serious biological and health effects
6
TABLE 0.1
Threshold EMF/EMR Intensities for Indicative Biological/Health Effects and Corresponding ICNIRP Limits
Incident EMF
ICNIRP Intensity Limit
(6min Average, Local
Exposure)
Threshold Intensity for
Effect Initiation Exposure Duration Effect References
ELF-E
(CW or pulsed)
(1–50 Hz)
5000 V/m 0.002 V/m
0.0021 V/m
10 V/m
12 h
4 days
Years
Decrease in protein
synthesis rate
Increase in DNA synthesis
rate
Cancer (humans)
McLeod et al. (1987)
Cleary et al. (1988)
Coghill et al. (1996)
ELF-B (50 Hz CW) 2 G (200 μT) 0.002 G (0. 2 μT) Years Cancer (humans) Feychting and Ahlbom
(1994)
Pulsed RF (GSM) 1800 MHz
Pulsed RF (GSM) 900 MHz
Pulsed RF (GSM) 1800 MHz
3655.6 μW/cm2
2014.0 μW/cm2
3655.6 μW/cm2
<1 μW/cm2
0.25 μW/cm2
0.32 μW/cm2
6 min/day, 6days
158–360 h intermittently
19 days (48 s On/12 s Off)
DNA damage, cell death
(fruit y ovarian cells)
OS, DNA damage,
embryonic death (bird
embryos)
OS, DNA damage,
embryonic death (bird
embryos)
Panagopoulos et al.. (2010)
Burlaka et al. (2013)
Yakymenko et al. (2018)
[ICNIRP (2020) limits calculated for 900 and 1800 MHz according to formula: 0.058fM0.86. CW: continuous-wave. G: Gauss].
Biological and Heath Effects of WC EMFs
7 Introduction
such as OS, DNA damage, cancer, etc. may occur from exposure to ELF EMFs or WC EMFs at
levels thousands of times lower than the corresponding ICNIRP limits, while more subtle cellular
effects may be initiated at ELF thresholds more than a million times lower than the corresponding
ICNIRP limits (McLeod et al. 1987; Cleary et al. 1988; Feychting and Ahlbom 1994; Coghill et al.
1996; Panagopoulos et al. 2010; Burlaka et al. 2013; Yakymenko et al. 2018). Hence, these limits do
not provide any health protection.
Because of these facts, and regardless of our remaining knowledge gaps, health complaints
are increasing, especially among people residing close to antennas or high-voltage power lines,
accompanied by increasing cancer rates and symptoms of unwellness (Kundi and Hutter 2009;
Gulati et al. 2016; Zothansiama et al. 2017; Miller et al. 2018; 2019; Belpomme and Irigaray 2020;
Lopez et al. 2021).
The situation may seem confusing with several other studies reporting no effects of ELF or pulsing/
modulated RF/WC EMFs, especially studies that have employed simulated WC EMF exposures from
generators, “exposure chambers”, or “test” mobile phones with invariable parameters (carrier frequency,
intensity, pulsations) and no modulation (ICNIRP 1998; 2020; IARC 2002; 2013; EPRS 2020; 2021;
Karipidis et al. 2021). Indeed, about 50% of the studies that employ simulated EMFs do not nd effects.
In contrast, among studies that employ real-life exposures from commercially available devices with high
variability (such as mobile or cordless phones, Wi-Fi, etc.), more than 95% nd effects (Panagopoulos et
al. 2015b; Yakymenko et al. 2016; Leach et al. 2018; Panagopoulos 2019; Kostoff et al. 2020).
Bioelectromagnetics is a complex scientic eld, featuring an equal combination of physics and
biology. This is why collaboration among experts from different areas (e.g., physicists with biolo-
gists, or medical doctors with engineers) is necessary. EMF bioeffect experiments must necessarily
be carried out by scientists/teams that combine adequate knowledge in both the physical and the
biological parts; otherwise, the methodology may be awed and the conclusions misleading. The
use of any devices such as generators and exposure chambers provided by companies for exposure
of biological samples to simulated EMFs without knowing and measuring the physical details of the
generated EMFs is a major aw in experimental studies.
Unfortunately, conict of interest, corruption, results depending on funding, and misleading
information in scientic papers have become usual phenomena in the eld (Hardell and Carlberg
2021; Leach et al. 2018). Conict of interest is not necessarily limited to economical/professional
benets but may also include other types of personal rewards (Panagopoulos and Karabarbounis
2020; Panagopoulos 2021). It is not unusual for important ndings such as those reported above to
be concealed or neglected in many publications, while their consideration is necessary for further
developments.
At the same time, the massive deployment of the 5G MT/WC system in order to achieve ever
increasing data transmission rates and the so-called Internet of Things (IoT) is well underway
despite serious concerns expressed by many expert scientists who have asked for a moratorium in
5G deployment (Hardell and Nyberg 2020), as implied by the Precautionary Principle (Harremoes
2013; Read and O'Riordan 2017; Frank 2021). Indeed, the deployment of 5G will require a huge
increase in the number of base antennas, combined with potential increases in transmission power/
intensity, and thousands of satellites in the atmosphere to complement the base antennas. Moreover,
the increased amount of variable data transmitted by this new WC EMR type make it even more
variable in intensity, waveform, frequency, etc., with inclusion of ever more variable ELF pulsations
than previous types of MT/WC EMFs (Rappaport et al. 2013; Dahlman et al. 2018). Thus, 5G is
expected to signicantly increase public exposure and consequent health problems (Panagopoulos
2019; Hardell and Nyberg 2020; Kostoff et al. 2020; Levitt et al. 2021).
Strangely, in 2020, the ICNIRP increased the general public exposure limit for WC EMFs (2–6
GHz) averaged over 6 minutes (min) from 1000 to 4000 μW/cm2 (from 1 to 4 mW/cm2) instead of
decreasing it (ICNIRP 1998; 2020). Also strange were the technical reports and papers referring
to the characteristics of 5G that do not provide any information on the ULF/ELF/VLF components
of this new WC EMF type, as if their authors are not aware of their existence (EPRS 2020; 2021;
8 Biological and Heath Effects of WC EMFs
Karipidis et al. 2021). As already mentioned, carrying out studies involving WC EMF exposures
without searching the low-frequency components and attributing any observed effects to the RF/
MW carrier can be very misleading. Similarly, reviewing and evaluating other studies by look-
ing only at the RF/MW part of their EMF exposures and ignoring the low-frequency part or not
examining whether the exposures are from real-life WC devices/antennas or simulated signals with
xed parameters and, thus, signicantly less bioactive, as in EPRS (2020; 2021) (EPRS: European
Parliamentary Research Service) and Karipidis et al. (2021), is a awed methodology. Thus, not
only are WC EMFs dangerous to life, but the evaluation of their risks by certain reviews and orga-
nizations is awed as well. In view of the fact that the ULF/ELF/VLF EMFs are actually the most
bioactive, the low frequency (ULF/ELF/VLF) pulsations of the most recent generations of WC
signals such as the 4G and 5G should be in the forefront of bioelectromagnetic research in order to
allow the correct evaluation of their risks.
Because of the described confusion and misinformation, many people, especially among the
general public, make careless use of WC devices, utilizing cordless domestic phones and Wi-Fi at
homes and workplaces for convenience instead of using wired connections and attaching the mobile
phones on their heads/bodies, subjecting themselves day and night to simultaneous telephone and
Wi-Fi/Bluetooth EMF emissions from their “smart” devices. Unfortunately, they also give such
devices in the hands of young children or even expose their embryos during pregnancy. So far, the
authorities do nothing to educate them or protect them.
When, in many cases, people realize they have become hypersensitive to man-made EMFs,
their efforts to restrict unbearable symptoms, especially from WC antennas, usually lead to risky
solutions, such as metal shielding in their houses and even in their clothes. Any EMF-shielding
attenuates not only the detrimental anthropogenic EMFs but also the natural and absolutely vital
Schumann electromagnetic resonances, which actually attune our brain activity (Persinger 1974;
2014; Wever 1979; Cherry 2002; 2003; Panagopoulos and Chrousos 2019). Therefore, such solutions
should be considered only when other ways of protection are not possible, and should be applied
cautiously (after careful EMF measurements) and partially (e.g., only on certain wall(s) of a house),
possibly in combination with earthing, and/or scientically tested “Schumann generators” emitting
very weak signals that mimic as closely as possible the Schumann oscillations (Panagopoulos and
Chrousos 2019).
It seems that humanity and science are coming to realize that the price for the comfort provided
by technology and the convenience in sharing information may be compromised health, wellbeing,
and natural environment, when technology is not carefully designed to respect these values and
health authorities do not set safe limits.
Another particularly worrying phenomenon is research on nanobiotechnology – magnetogenet-
ics carried out during the past 10 years. Such research is crossing sensitive boundaries of bioethics
by trying to control the cellular processes via magnetic nanoparticles injected in cells and manipu-
lated by external electromagnetic signals (Monzel et al. 2017; He et al. 2021). Such methods can not
only have unpredictable, adverse effects on the cell/organism, granted that such nanoparticles are
unnatural and foreign to the cells, and are, thus, dangerous for many reasons and probably toxic, but
can also violate the privacy and freedom of a treated individual, who could then be monitored and
manipulated remotely by electromagnetic signals. It is questionable how such research is considered
acceptable in the scientic community and compatible with bioethical principles.
This book on the Biological and Health Effects of WC EMFs includes contributions from top
international experts on the various areas of this important subject and is published to increase
scientic knowledge, awareness, and debate that would benet science, public health, and the
environment. Expert scientists were invited to submit specic chapters on the physics, biology,
pathology, epidemiology, and plausible biophysical and biochemical mechanisms of action of WC
EMFs. The invitations were specic. The contributors were invited to write on topics related to
their previous publications and expertise so that the book covers a minimum number of the most
important topics.
9 Introduction
Because both RF and ELF EMFs are contained in all WC EMFs, studies on both frequency bands
are examined in the chapters. Thus, the book describes effects from most types of man-made EMF
exposures. In all chapters, the terms “EMF” and “EMR” (for example WC EMFs or WC EMR) are
used interchangeably with equivalent meaning, as EMR is produced by temporally varying EMFs,
and man-made (polarized and coherent) EMR carries net EMFs as well (Panagopoulos et al. 2015a).
Moreover, because all types of WC EMFs commonly combine MW carrier waves with ELF modu-
lation, pulsation, and ULF random variability, their biological/health effects are very similar, and,
thus, they are treated similarly in the chapters, emphasizing though that newer generations of WC/
MT EMFs (3G/4G/5G) are increasingly more variable and, thus, increasingly more bioactive. The
terms “cell phone” and “cell tower” used occasionally in the book refer to digital mobile phones
and base station antennas respectively. Thus, they have the same meaning as “mobile phones” and
“MT base station antennas” (used in most cases) since all existing MT/WC systems (2G, 3G, 4G,
5G) today are digital. Digital MT uses the so called “cellular system” according to which the space
is divided into areas called “cells” with one base station in each “cell”.
The chapters present cutting-edge knowledge on the effects of man-made EMFs on living sys-
tems and their mechanisms. It is evident that serious effects induced by man-made and especially
WC EMFs, such as genetic damage, are well documented as resulting from OS. This explains other
reported pathological conditions, such as infertility or cancer. It is also evident that a most plausible
biophysical/biochemical mechanism for OS induction in the cells is the dysfunction of the VGICs in
the cell membranes and that the low frequency (ELF/ULF/VLF) components (pulsation, modulation,
etc.) of the WC EMFs play a major role. The chapters emphasize the need for setting much tighter
exposure limits and recommend prudent avoidance of exposure to man-made and especially WC
EMFs, a moratorium in 5G roll-out, and urgent application of the Precautionary Principle (Harremoes
2013; Read and O'Riordan 2017; Frank 2021). Moreover, the chapters underline the need for improve-
ment and standardization of the experimental procedures, use of real-life EMFs, and better denition
of the EMF exposures by measuring all their parameters, especially the low-frequency ones.
I thank all the distinguished scientists in this book for kindly accepting my invitation, for their
high-quality contributions, and their collaboration during the editing process. Inviting the chapters,
editing, and shaping this book was, for me, a unique experience and a great source of combined
knowledge. I also thank Dr. G.L. Carlo for writing the Forward of the book, and Dr. G. Singh from
CRC for his invitation and repeated reminders to submit a book proposal.
This book will have served its purpose if it contributes toward setting scientic research in this
eld on a better base, leaving behind conicts of interest and misinformation; when evidence-based
discussions on the consequences of WC EMFs and possible correlations between an EMF-polluted
environment and viral and other diseases are unbiased and welcomed by scientists, concerned indi-
viduals, health authorities and governments; when suggestions on individual and public health protec-
tion, and the setting of biologically and epidemiologically based exposure limits are also welcomed.
Finally, this book will have served its purpose if it contributes toward a “real and honest sci-
ence” as Dr. Neil J. Cherry (1946–2003) would say. A science that is applicable to life and works for
the benet of humanity, not for its destruction or enslavement. A science that increases awareness
on the safety of our natural environment and our planet Earth, which is in great danger because of
the uncontrolled expansion of human technology and the unrestricted use of the natural resources.
We are gifted to live on this beautiful planet. We should love and respect it and live in harmony
with it without destroying it. We should not disturb its natural balance by destroying the forests,
changing the weather, genetically modifying our food and the natural organisms, lling the sky
with thousands of satellites, and polluting the atmosphere with chemicals and articial polarized
EMFs/EMR. Instead of trying to inhabit other planets unfriendly to life, we should rather protect
our home Earth, which is unique in the known universe. The balance of our planet is very fragile,
and so is our existence. We all share the same home and the same future. It is our duty to protect it.
Dr. Dimitris J. Panagopoulos (Editor)
10 Biological and Heath Effects of WC EMFs
REFERENCES
Adey WR, (1981): Tissue interactions with non-ionizing electromagnetic elds. Physiological Reviews, 61(2),
435 –514.
Adey WR, (1993): Biological effects of electromagnetic elds. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 51(4),
410 –416 .
Alberts B, Bray D, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Watson JD, (1994): Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland
Publishing, Inc., New York.
Alonso M, Finn EJ, (1967): Fundamental University Physics (Vol. 2). Fields and Waves, Addison-Wesley.
Balmori A, (2015): Anthropogenic radiofrequency electromagnetic elds as an emerging threat to wildlife
orientation. Science of the Total Environment, 518–519, 58 60.
Balmori A, (2021): Electromagnetic radiation as an emerging driver factor for the decline of insects. Science
of the Total Environment, 767, 144913.
Bawin SM, Kaczmarek LK, Adey WR, (1975): Effects of modulated VHF elds, on the central nervous sys-
tem. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 247, 74–81.
Bawin SM, Adey WR, Sabbot IM, (1978): Ionic factors in release of 45Ca2+ from chick cerebral tissue by elec-
tromagnetic elds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
75(12), 6314 6318.
Belpomme D, Irigaray P, (2020): Electrohypersensitivity as a newly identied and characterized neurologic
pathological disorder: How to diagnose, treat, and prevent it. International Journal of Molecular
Sciences, 21(6), 1915. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21061915.
Belyaev I, (2005): Non-thermal biological effects of microwaves. Microwave Review, 11(2), 13–29.
Bertagna F, Lewis R, Silva SRP, McFadden J, Jeevaratnam K, (2021): Effects of electromagnetic elds on
neuronal ion channels: A systematic review. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences May 4. https://
do i.o rg/ 10.1111/nya s.14597.
Betskii OV, Lebedeva NN, (2004): Low-intensity millimeter waves in biology and medicine. In Clinical
Application of Bioelectromagnetic Medicine (Vol. 2004). Marcel Decker, New York, 30–61.
Betti L, Trebbi G, Lazzarato L, Brizzi M, Calzoni GL, et al, (2004): Nonthermal microwave radiations
affect the hypersensitive response of tobacco to tobacco mosaic virus. Journal of Alternative and
Complementary Medicine, 10(6), 947–957.
Blackman CF, Benane SG, Kinney LS, Joines WT, House DE, (1982): Effects of ELF elds on calcium-ion
efux from brain tissue in vitro. Radiation Research, 92(3), 510–520.
Bolshakov MA, Alekseev SI, (1992): Bursting responses of Lymnea neurons to microwave radiation.
Bioelectromagnetics, 13(2), 119–129.
Burlaka A, Tsybulin O, Sidorik E, Lukin S, Polishuk V, et al, (2013): Overproduction of free radical species
in embryonic cells exposed to low intensity radiofrequency radiation. Experimental Oncology, 35(3),
219–225.
Campisi A, Gulino M, Acquaviva R, Bellia P, Raciti G, et al, (2010): Reactive oxygen species levels and DNA
fragmentation on astrocytes in primary culture after acute exposure to low intensity microwave electro-
magnetic eld. Neuroscience Letters, 473(1), 52–55.
Cecchetto C, Maschietto M, Boccaccio P, Vassanelli S, (2020): Electromagnetic eld affects the voltage-
dependent potassium channel Kv1.3. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 39(4), 316–322.
Cherry NJ, (2002): Schumann Resonances, a Plausible Biophysical Mechanism for the Human Health Effects
of Solar/Geomagnetic Activity. https://researcharchive.lincoln.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10182/3935/90
_n1_EMR_Schumann_Resonance_paper_1.pdf?sequence=1.
Cherry NJ, (2003): Human intelligence: The brain, an electromagnetic system synchronised by the Schumann
Resonance signal. Medical Hypotheses, 60(6), 843–844.
Cleary SF, Liu LM, Graham R, Diegelmann RF, (1988): Modulation of tendon broplasia by exogenous elec-
tric currents. Bioelectromagnetics, 9(2), 183–194.
Coghill RW, Steward J, Philips A, (1996): Extra low frequency electric and magnetic elds in the bed place
of children diagnosed with leukaemia: A case-control study. European Journal of Cancer Prevention,
5(3), 153–158.
Creasey WA, Goldberg RB, (2001): A new twist on an old mechanism for EMF bioeffects? EMF Health
Report, 9(2), 1–11. https://mdsafetech.les.wordpress.com/2021/07/creasey-wa-goldberg-rb-2001-a-new
-twist-on-an-old-mechanism-for-emf-bioeffects.pdf.
Dahlman E, Parkvall S, Skoeld J, (2018): 5G NR: The Next Generation Wireless Access Technology. Academic
Press, Elsevier, London.
11 Introduction
De Iuliis GN, Newey RJ, King BV, Aitken RJ, (2009): Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen species
production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLOS ONE, 4(7), e6446.
Dubrov AP, (1978): The Geomagnetic Field and Life. Plenum Press, New York.
EPRS, (2020): Effects of 5G Wireless Communication on Human Health, European Parliamentary Research
Service. Scientic Foresight Unit (STOA), PE 646.172, March 2020.
EPRS, (2021): Environmental Impacts of 5G. A Literature Review of Effects of Radio-Frequency
Electromagnetic Field Exposure of Non-human Vertebrates, Invertebrates and Plants, Scientic
Foresight Unit (STOA), PE 690.021, June 2021.
Falcioni L, Bua L, Tibaldi E, Lauriola M, De Angelis L, et al, (2018): Report of nal results regarding brain
and heart tumors in Sprague-Dawley rats exposed from prenatal life until natural death to mobile
phone radiofrequency eld representative of a 1.8 GHz GSM base station environmental emission.
Environmental Research, 165, 496–503.
Feychting M, Ahlbom A, (1994): Magnetic elds, leukemia and central nervous system tumors in Swedish
adults residing near high - voltage power lines. Epidemiology, 5(5), 501–509.
Frank JW, (2021): Electromagnetic elds, 5G and health: What about the precautionary principle? Journal of
Epidemiology and Community Health, 75(6), 562–566.
Franzellitti S, Valbonesi P, Ciancaglini N, Biondi C, Contin A, et al, (2010): Transient DNA damage induced
by high-frequency electromagnetic elds (GSM 1.8 GHz) in the human trophoblast HTR-8/SVneo cell
line evaluated with the alkaline comet assay. Mutation Research, 683(1–2), 35–42.
Frei M, Jauchem J, Heinmets F, (1988): Physiological effects of 2.8 GHz radio-frequency radiation: A com-
parison of pulsed and continuous-wave radiation. Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic
Energy, 23(2), 2.
Gandhi Om P, Morgan LL, De Salles AA, Han Y-Y, Herberman RB, Davis DL, (2012): Exposure limits: The
underestimation of absorbed cell phone radiation, especially in children. Electromagnetic Biology and
Medicine, 31(1), 34 –51.
Goldsworthy A, (2006): Effects of electrical and electromagnetic elds on plants and related topics. In
AG Volkov (Ed.), Plant Electrophysiology–Theory & Methods. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg,
2 47– 267.
Goodman EM, Greenebaum B, Marron MT, (1995): Effects of electro-magnetic elds on molecules and cells.
International Review of Cytology, 158, 279–338.
Gulati S, Yadav A, Kumar N, Kanupriya, Aggarwal NK, et al, (2016): Effect of GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymor-
phisms on genetic damage in humans populations exposed to radiation From mobile towers. Archives of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70(3), 615–625.
Hardell L, Carlberg M, (2009): Mobile phones, cordless phones and the risk for brain tumours. International
Journal of Oncology, 35(1), 5–17.
Hardell L, Nyberg R, (2020): Appeals that matter or not on a moratorium on the deployment of the fth gen-
eration, 5G, for microwave radiation. Molecular and Clinical Oncology. https://doi.org/10.3892/mco
.2020.1984.
Hardell L, Carlberg M, (2021): Lost opportunities for cancer prevention: Historical evidence on early warn-
ings with emphasis on radiofrequency radiation. Reviews on Environmental Health. https://doi.org/10
.1515/reveh-2020-0168.
Harremoes P, Gee D, MacGarvin M, Stirling A, Keys J, et al. (Eds.), (2013): The Precautionary Principle in
the 20th Century: Late Lessons from Early Warnings. Routledge, London.
He Y, Yi C, Zhang X, Zhao W, Yu D, (2021): Magnetic graphene oxide: Synthesis approaches, physicochemi-
cal characteristics, and biomedical applications. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 136, 116191.
Houston BJ, Nixon B, King BV, De Iuliis GN, Aitken RJ, (2016): The effects of radiofrequency electromag-
netic radiation on sperm function. Reproduction, 152(6), R263–R276.
Höytö A, Luukkonen J, Juutilainen J, Naarala J, (2008): Proliferation, oxidative stress and cell death in cells
exposed to 872 MHz radiofrequency radiation and oxidants. Radiation Research, 170(2), 235–243.
Huber R, Treyer V, Borbely AA, Schuderer J, Gottselig JM, et al, (2002): Electromagnetic elds, such as those
from mobile phones, alter regional cerebral blood ow and sleep and waking EEG. Journal of Sleep
Research, 11(4), 289–295.
IARC, (2002): Non-ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-frequency (ELF) Electric and
Magnetic Fields (Vol. 80). International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France.
IARC, (2013): Non-ionizing Radiation, Part 2: Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (Vol. 102).
International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France.
ICNIRP, (1998): Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic and electromagnetic
elds (up to 300 GHz). Health Physics, 74, 494–522.
12 Biological and Heath Effects of WC EMFs
ICNIRP, (2010): Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric and magnetic elds (1 Hz to 100
kHz). Health Physics, 99(6), 818–836.
ICNIRP, (2020): Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic elds (100 kHz to 300 GHz). Health
Physics, 118(5), 483–524.
Irigaray P, Caccamo D, Belpomme D, (2018): Oxidative stress in electrohypersensitivity self-reporting patients:
Results of a prospective in vivo investigation with comprehensive molecular analysis. International
Journal of Molecular Medicine, 42(4), 1885–1898.
Jackson JD, (1975): Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Johansson O, (2009): Disturbance of the immune system by electromagnetic elds-A potentially underly-
ing cause for cellular damage and tissue repair reduction which could lead to disease and impairment.
Pathophysiology, 16(2–3), 157–177.
Karipidis K, Mate R, Urban D, Tinker R, Wood A, (2021): 5G mobile networks and health—A state-of-the-
science review of the research into low-level RF elds above 6 GHz. Journal of Exposure Science and
Environmental Epidemiology. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00307-7.
Khurana VG, Teo C, Kundi M, Hardell L, Carlberg M, (2009): Cell phones and brain tumors: A review includ-
ing the long-term epidemiologic data. Surgical Neurology, 72(3), 205–214.
Kostoff RN, Heroux P, Aschner M, Tsatsakis A, (2020): Adverse health effects of 5G mobile networking
technology under real-life conditions. Toxicology Letters, 323, 35–40.
Kundi M, Hutter HP, (2009): Mobile phone base stations-effects on wellbeing and health. Pathophysiology,
16(2–3), 123 –135.
Leach V, Weller S, Redmayne M, (2018): A novel database of bio-effects from non-ionizing radiation. Reviews
on Environmental Health, 33(3), 1–8.
Levitt BB, Lai HC, Manville AM, (2021): Effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic elds on ora and fauna,
part 1. Rising ambient EMF levels in the environment. Reviews on Environmental Health. https://doi
.org/10.1515/reveh-2021-0026.
Liburdy RP, (1992): Calcium signalling in lymphocytes and ELF elds: Evidence for an electric eld metric
and a site of interaction involving the calcium ion channel. FEBS Letters, 301(1), 53–59.
López I, Félix N, Rivera M, Alonso A, Maestú C, (2021): What is the radiation before 5G? A correlation study
between measurements in situ and in real time and epidemiological indicators in Vallecas, Madrid.
Environmental Research, 194, 110734.
Manna D, Ghosh R, (2016): Effect of radiofrequency radiation in cultured mammalian cells: A review.
Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 35(3), 265 –301.
Marino AA, Becker RO, (1977): Biological effects of extremely low frequency electric and magnetic elds: A
re vie w. Physiological Chemistry and Physics, 9(2), 131–147.
McCaig CD, Zhao M, (1997): Physiological electric elds modify cell behaviour. BioEssays, 19(9), 819–826.
McLeod KJ, Lee RC, Ehrlich HP, (1987): Frequency dependence of electric eld modulation of broblast
protein synthesis. Science, 236(4807), 1465–1469.
Metaxas AC, (1991): Microwave heating. Power Engineering Journal, 5(5), 237–247.
Miller AB, Morgan LL, Udasin I, Davis DL, (2018): Cancer epidemiology update, following the 2011 IARC
evaluation of radiofrequency electromagnetic elds (Monograph 102). Environmental Research, 167,
673– 683.
Miller AB, Sears ME, Morgan LL, Davis DL, Hardell L, et al, (2019): Risks to health and well-being from
radio-frequency radiation emitted by cell phones and other wireless devices. Frontiers in Public Health,
7, 223. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00223.
Mohammed HS, Fahmy HM, Radwan NM, Elsayed AA, (2013): Non-thermal continuous and modulated elec-
tromagnetic radiation elds effects on sleep EEG of rats. Journal of Advanced Research, 4(2), 181–187.
Monzel C, Vicario C, Piehler J, Coppey M, Dahan M, (2017): Magnetic control of cellular processes using
biofunctional nanoparticles. Chemical Science, 8(11), 7330.
NTP (National Toxicology Program), (2018): Toxicology and Carcinogenesis studies in Hsd: Sprague Dawley
SD rats exposed to whole-body radio frequency radiation at a frequency (900 MHz) and modulations
(GSM and CDMA) used by cell phones. NTP TR 595, Department of Health and Human Services, USA.
Nuccitelli R, (2003): Endogenous electric elds in embryos during development, regeneration and wound
healing. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 106(4), 375–383.
Pakhomov AG, Akyel Y, Pakhomova ON, Stuck BE, Murphy MR, (1998): Current state and implications
of research on biological effects of millimeter waves: A review of the literature. Bioelectromagnetics,
19(7), 393 –413.
Pall ML, (2013): Electromagnetic elds act via activation of voltage-gated calcium channels to produce ben-
ecial or adverse effects. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, 17(8), 958–965.
13 Introduction
Panagopoulos DJ, Karabarbounis A, Margaritis LH, (2002): Mechanism for action of electromagnetic elds
on cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 298(1), 95–102.
Panagopoulos DJ, Chavdoula ED, Margaritis LH, (2010): Bioeffects of mobile telephony radiation in relation
to its intensity or distance from the antenna. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 86(5), 345–357.
Panagopoulos DJ, Johansson O, Carlo GL, (2013): Evaluation of specic absorption rate as a dosimetric quan-
tity for electromagnetic elds bioeffects. PLOS ONE, 8(6), e62663. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone
.0062663.
Panagopoulos DJ, Johansson O, Carlo GL, (2015a): Polarization: A key difference between man-made and
natural electromagnetic elds, in regard to biological activity. Scientic Reports, 5, 14914. https://doi
.org /10.10 38/s rep14 914.
Panagopoulos DJ, Johansson O, Carlo GL, (2015b): Real versus simulated mobile phone exposures in experi-
mental studies. BioMed Research International, 2015, 607053.
Panagopoulos DJ, Chrousos GP, (2019): Shielding methods and products against man-made electromagnetic
elds: Protection versus risk. Science of the Total Environment, 667C, 255–262.
Panagopoulos DJ, (2019): Comparing DNA damage induced by mobile telephony and other types of man-
made electromagnetic elds. Mutation Research Reviews, 781, 53–62.
Panagopoulos DJ, (2020): Comparing chromosome damage induced by mobile telephony radiation and a high
caffeine dose: Effect of combination and exposure duration. General Physiology and Biophysics, 39(6),
531–54 4.
Panagopoulos DJ, Karabarbounis A, (2020): Comments on “diverse radiofrequency sensitivity and radiofre-
quency effects of mobile or cordless phone near elds exposure in Drosophila melanogaster”. Advances
in Environmental Studies, 4(1), 271–276.
Panagopoulos DJ, (2021): Comments on Pall’s “Millimeter (MM) wave and microwave frequency radiation
produce deeply penetrating effects: the biology and the physics”. Reviews on Environmental Health
37(2), 295–297.
Panagopoulos DJ, Karabarbounis A, Yakymenko I, Ch rousos GP, (2021): Mechanism of DNA damage induced
by human-made electromagnetic elds. International Journal of Oncology, 59: 92.
Penael LM, Litovitz T, Krause D, Desta A, Mullins JM, (1997): Role of modulation on the effects of micro-
waves on ornithine decarboxylase activity in L929 cells. Bioelectromagnetics, 18(2), 132–141.
Persinger MA, (1974): ELF and VLF Electromagnetic Fields. Plenum Press, New York.
Persinger MA, (2014): Schumann Resonance frequencies found within quantitative electroencephalographic
activity: Implications for earth-brain interactions. International Letters of Chemistry, Physics and
Astronomy, 11(1), 24–32.
Phillips JL, Singh NP, Lai H, (2009): Electromagnetic elds and DNA damage. Pathophysiology, 16(2–3),
79–88.
Piacentini R, Ripoli C, Mezzogori D, Azzena GB, Grassi C, (2008): Extremely low-frequency electromag-
netic elds promote in vitro neurogenesis via upregulation of Cav1-channel activity. Journal of Cellular
Physiology, 215(1), 129–139.
Presman AS, (1977): Electromagnetic Fields and Life. Plenum Press, New York.
Puranen L, Jokela K, (1996): Radiation hazard assessment of pulsed microwave radars. Journal of Microwave
Power and Electromagnetic Energy, 31(3), 165–177.
Rappaport TS, Sun S, Mayzus R, Zhao H, Azar Y, et al, (2013): Millimeter wave mobile communications
for 5G cellular: It will work! IEEE Access, 1, 335–349. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2013.2260813.
Read R, O’Riordan T, (2017): The precautionary principle under re. Environment: Science and Policy for
Sustainable Development, 59(5), 4–15.
Santini MT, Ferrante A, Rainaldi G, Indovina P, Indovina PL, (2005): Extremely low frequency (ELF) mag-
netic elds and apoptosis: A review. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 81(1), 1–11.
Szmigielski S, (2013): Reaction of the immune system to low-level RF/MW exposures. Science of the Total
Environment, 454–455, 393400.
Tesla N, (1905): The transmission of electrical energy without wires as a means of furthering world peace.
Electrical World and Engineer, 7, 21–24.
Walleczek J, (1992): Electromagnetic eld effects on cells of the immune system: The role of calcium signal-
ing. FASEB Journal, 6(13), 3177–3185.
Wever R, (1979): The Circadian System of Man: Results of Experiments under Temporal Isolation. Springer-
Verlag, New York.
Yakymenko I, Sidorik E, Kyrylenko S, Chekhun V, (2011): Long-term exposure to microwave radiation
provokes cancer growth: Evidences from radars and mobile communication systems. Experimental
Oncology, 33(2), 62–70.
14 Biological and Heath Effects of WC EMFs
Yakymenko I, Tsybulin O, Sidorik E, Henshel D, Kyrylenko O, et al, (2016): Oxidative mechanisms of biologi-
cal activity of low-intensity radiofrequency radiation. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 35(2),
186 –202 .
Yakymenko I, Burlaka A, Tsybulin I, Brieieva I, Buchynska L, et al, (2018): Oxidative and mutagenic effects
of low intensity GSM 1800 MHz microwave radiation. Experimental Oncology, 40(4), 282–287.
Zheng Y, Xia P, Dong L, Tian L, Xiong C, (2021): Effects of modulation on sodium and potassium channel
currents by extremely low frequency electromagnetic elds stimulation on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal
cells. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 17, 1–12.
Zothansiama, Zosangzuali M, Lalramdinpuii M, Jagetia GC, (2017): Impact of radiofrequency radiation on
DNA damage and antioxidants in peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans residing in the vicinity of
mobile phone base stations. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 36(3), 295–305.
Introduction
Adey W.R. , (1981): Tissue interactions with non-ionizing electromagnetic fields. Physiological Reviews, 61(2),
435–514.
Adey W.R. , (1993): Biological effects of electromagnetic fields. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 51(4),
410–416.
Alberts B. , Bray D. , Lewis J. , Raff M. , Roberts K. , Watson J.D. , (1994): Molecular Biology of the Cell.
Garland Publishing, Inc., New York.
Alonso M. , Finn E.J. , (1967): Fundamental University Physics (Vol. 2). Fields and Waves, Addison-Wesley.
Balmori A. , (2015): Anthropogenic radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as an emerging threat to wildlife
orientation. Science of the Total Environment, 518–519, 58–60.
Balmori A. , (2021): Electromagnetic radiation as an emerging driver factor for the decline of insects. Science of
the Total Environment, 767, 144913.
Bawin S.M. , Kaczmarek L.K. , Adey W.R. , (1975): Effects of modulated VHF fields, on the central nervous
system. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 247, 74–81.
Bawin S.M. , Adey W.R. , Sabbot I.M. , (1978): Ionic factors in release of 45Ca2+ from chick cerebral tissue by
electromagnetic fields. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
75(12), 6314–6318.
Belpomme D. , Irigaray P. , (2020): Electrohypersensitivity as a newly identified and characterized neurologic
pathological disorder: How to diagnose, treat, and prevent it. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(6),
1915. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21061915.
Belyaev I. , (2005): Non-thermal biological effects of microwaves. Microwave Review, 11(2), 13–29.
Bertagna F. , Lewis R. , Silva S.R.P. , McFadden J. , Jeevaratnam K. , (2021): Effects of electromagnetic fields
on neuronal ion channels: A systematic review. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences May 4.
https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14597.
Betskii O.V. , Lebedeva N.N. , (2004): Low-intensity millimeter waves in biology and medicine. In Clinical
Application of Bioelectromagnetic Medicine (Vol. 2004). Marcel Decker, New York, 30–61.
Betti L. , Trebbi G. , Lazzarato L. , Brizzi M. , Calzoni G.L. , et al, (2004): Nonthermal microwave radiations
affect the hypersensitive response of tobacco to tobacco mosaic virus. Journal of Alternative and
Complementary Medicine, 10(6), 947–957.
Blackman C.F. , Benane S.G. , Kinney L.S. , Joines W.T. , House D.E. , (1982): Effects of ELF fields on
calcium-ion efflux from brain tissue in vitro. Radiation Research, 92(3), 510–520.
Bolshakov M.A. , Alekseev S.I. , (1992): Bursting responses of Lymnea neurons to microwave radiation.
Bioelectromagnetics, 13(2), 119–129.
Burlaka A. , Tsybulin O. , Sidorik E. , Lukin S. , Polishuk V. , et al, (2013): Overproduction of free radical
species in embryonic cells exposed to low intensity radiofrequency radiation. Experimental Oncology, 35(3),
219–225.
Campisi A. , Gulino M. , Acquaviva R. , Bellia P. , Raciti G. , et al, (2010): Reactive oxygen species levels and
DNA fragmentation on astrocytes in primary culture after acute exposure to low intensity microwave
electromagnetic field. Neuroscience Letters, 473(1), 52–55.
Cecchetto C. , Maschietto M. , Boccaccio P. , Vassanelli S. , (2020): Electromagnetic field affects the voltage-
dependent potassium channel Kv1.3. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 39(4), 316–322.
Cherry N.J. , (2002): Schumann Resonances, a Plausible Biophysical Mechanism for the Human Health Effects
of Solar/Geomagnetic Activity.
https://researcharchive.lincoln.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10182/3935/90_n1_EMR_Schumann_Resonance_paper
_1.pdf?sequence=1.
Cherry N.J. , (2003): Human intelligence: The brain, an electromagnetic system synchronised by the Schumann
Resonance signal. Medical Hypotheses, 60(6), 843–844.
Cleary S.F. , Liu L.M. , Graham R. , Diegelmann R.F. , (1988): Modulation of tendon fibroplasia by exogenous
electric currents. Bioelectromagnetics, 9(2), 183–194.
Coghill R.W. , Steward J. , Philips A. , (1996): Extra low frequency electric and magnetic fields in the bed place
of children diagnosed with leukaemia: A case-control study. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 5(3),
153–158.
Creasey W.A. , Goldberg R.B. , (2001): A new twist on an old mechanism for EMF bioeffects? EMF Health
Report, 9(2), 1–11. https://mdsafetech.files.wordpress.com/2021/07/creasey-wa-goldberg-rb-2001-a-new-twist-
on-an-old-mechanism-for-emf-bioeffects.pdf.
Dahlman E. , Parkvall S. , Skoeld J. , (2018): 5G NR: The Next Generation Wireless Access Technology.
Academic Press, Elsevier, London.
De Iuliis G.N. , Newey R.J. , King B.V. , Aitken R.J. , (2009): Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen
species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLOS ONE, 4(7), e6446.
Dubrov A.P. , (1978): The Geomagnetic Field and Life. Plenum Press, New York.
EPRS , (2020): Effects of 5G Wireless Communication on Human Health, European Parliamentary Research
Service. Scientific Foresight Unit (STOA), PE 646.172, March 2020.
EPRS , (2021): Environmental Impacts of 5G. A Literature Review of Effects of Radio-Frequency
Electromagnetic Field Exposure of Non-human Vertebrates, Invertebrates and Plants, Scientific Foresight Unit
(STOA), PE 690.021, June 2021.
Falcioni L. , Bua L. , Tibaldi E. , Lauriola M. , De Angelis L. , et al, (2018): Report of final results regarding brain
and heart tumors in Sprague-Dawley rats exposed from prenatal life until natural death to mobile phone
radiofrequency field representative of a 1.8 GHz GSM base station environmental emission. Environmental
Research, 165, 496–503.
Feychting M. , Ahlbom A. , (1994): Magnetic fields, leukemia and central nervous system tumors in Swedish
adults residing near high - voltage power lines. Epidemiology, 5(5), 501–509.
Frank J.W. , (2021): Electromagnetic fields, 5G and health: What about the precautionary principle? Journal of
Epidemiology and Community Health, 75(6), 562–566.
Franzellitti S. , Valbonesi P. , Ciancaglini N. , Biondi C. , Contin A. , et al, (2010): Transient DNA damage
induced by high-frequency electromagnetic fields (GSM 1.8 GHz) in the human trophoblast HTR-8/SVneo cell
line evaluated with the alkaline comet assay. Mutation Research, 683(1–2), 35–42.
Frei M. , Jauchem J. , Heinmets F. , (1988): Physiological effects of 2.8 GHz radio-frequency radiation: A
comparison of pulsed and continuous-wave radiation. Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic
Energy, 23(2), 2.
Gandhi Om P. , Morgan L.L. , De Salles A.A. , Han Y-Y. , Herberman R.B. , Davis D.L. , (2012): Exposure
limits: The underestimation of absorbed cell phone radiation, especially in children. Electromagnetic Biology
and Medicine, 31(1), 34–51.
Goldsworthy A. , (2006): Effects of electrical and electromagnetic fields on plants and related topics. In A.G.
Volkov (Ed.), Plant Electrophysiology–Theory & Methods. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 247–267.
Goodman E.M. , Greenebaum B. , Marron M.T. , (1995): Effects of electro-magnetic fields on molecules and
cells. International Review of Cytology, 158, 279–338.
Gulati S. , Yadav A. , Kumar N. , Kanupriya, Aggarwal N.K. , et al, (2016): Effect of GSTM1 and GSTT1
polymorphisms on genetic damage in humans populations exposed to radiation From mobile towers. Archives
of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70(3), 615–625.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , (2009): Mobile phones, cordless phones and the risk for brain tumours. International
Journal of Oncology, 35(1), 5–17.
Hardell L. , Nyberg R. , (2020): Appeals that matter or not on a moratorium on the deployment of the fifth
generation, 5G, for microwave radiation. Molecular and Clinical Oncology.
https://doi.org/10.3892/mco.2020.1984.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , (2021): Lost opportunities for cancer prevention: Historical evidence on early warnings
with emphasis on radiofrequency radiation. Reviews on Environmental Health. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-
2020-0168.
Harremoes P. , Gee D. , MacGarvin M. , Stirling A. , Keys J. , et al. (Eds.), (2013): The Precautionary Principle
in the 20th Century: Late Lessons from Early Warnings. Routledge, London.
He Y. , Yi C. , Zhang X. , Zhao W. , Yu D. , (2021): Magnetic graphene oxide: Synthesis approaches,
physicochemical characteristics, and biomedical applications. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 136,
116191.
Houston B.J. , Nixon B. , King B.V. , De Iuliis G.N. , Aitken R.J. , (2016): The effects of radiofrequency
electromagnetic radiation on sperm function. Reproduction, 152(6), R263–R276.
Höytö A. , Luukkonen J. , Juutilainen J. , Naarala J. , (2008): Proliferation, oxidative stress and cell death in
cells exposed to 872 MHz radiofrequency radiation and oxidants. Radiation Research, 170(2), 235–243.
Huber R. , Treyer V. , Borbely A.A. , Schuderer J. , Gottselig J.M. , et al, (2002): Electromagnetic fields, such as
those from mobile phones, alter regional cerebral blood flow and sleep and waking EEG. Journal of Sleep
Research, 11(4), 289–295.
IARC , (2002): Non-ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic
Fields (Vol. 80). International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France.
IARC , (2013): Non-ionizing Radiation, Part 2: Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (Vol. 102). International
Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France.
ICNIRP , (1998): Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields
(up to 300 GHz). Health Physics, 74, 494–522.
ICNIRP , (2010): Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric and magnetic fields (1 Hz to 100 kHz).
Health Physics, 99(6), 818–836.
ICNIRP , (2020): Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz to 300 GHz). Health
Physics, 118(5), 483–524.
Irigaray P. , Caccamo D. , Belpomme D. , (2018): Oxidative stress in electrohypersensitivity self-reporting
patients: Results of a prospective in vivo investigation with comprehensive molecular analysis. International
Journal of Molecular Medicine, 42(4), 1885–1898.
Jackson J.D. , (1975): Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Johansson O. , (2009): Disturbance of the immune system by electromagnetic fields-A potentially underlying
cause for cellular damage and tissue repair reduction which could lead to disease and impairment.
Pathophysiology, 16(2–3), 157–177.
Karipidis K. , Mate R. , Urban D. , Tinker R. , Wood A. , (2021): 5G mobile networks and health—A state-of-the-
science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz. Journal of Exposure Science and
Environmental Epidemiology. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00307-7.
Khurana V.G. , Teo C. , Kundi M. , Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , (2009): Cell phones and brain tumors: A review
including the long-term epidemiologic data. Surgical Neurology, 72(3), 205–214.
Kostoff R.N. , Heroux P. , Aschner M. , Tsatsakis A. , (2020): Adverse health effects of 5G mobile networking
technology under real-life conditions. Toxicology Letters, 323, 35–40.
Kundi M. , Hutter H.P. , (2009): Mobile phone base stations-effects on wellbeing and health. Pathophysiology,
16(2–3), 123–135.
Leach V. , Weller S. , Redmayne M. , (2018): A novel database of bio-effects from non-ionizing radiation.
Reviews on Environmental Health, 33(3), 1–8.
Levitt B.B. , Lai H.C. , Manville A.M. , (2021): Effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields on flora and fauna,
part 1. Rising ambient EMF levels in the environment. Reviews on Environmental Health.
https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2021-0026.
Liburdy R.P. , (1992): Calcium signalling in lymphocytes and ELF fields: Evidence for an electric field metric
and a site of interaction involving the calcium ion channel. FEBS Letters, 301(1), 53–59.
López I. , Félix N. , Rivera M. , Alonso A. , Maestú C. , (2021): What is the radiation before 5G? A correlation
study between measurements in situ and in real time and epidemiological indicators in Vallecas, Madrid.
Environmental Research, 194, 110734.
Manna D. , Ghosh R. , (2016): Effect of radiofrequency radiation in cultured mammalian cells: A review.
Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 35(3), 265–301.
Marino A.A. , Becker R.O. , (1977): Biological effects of extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields: A
review. Physiological Chemistry and Physics, 9(2), 131–147.
McCaig C.D. , Zhao M. , (1997): Physiological electric fields modify cell behaviour. BioEssays, 19(9), 819–826.
McLeod K.J. , Lee R.C. , Ehrlich H.P. , (1987): Frequency dependence of electric field modulation of fibroblast
protein synthesis. Science, 236(4807), 1465–1469.
Metaxas A.C. , (1991): Microwave heating. Power Engineering Journal, 5(5), 237–247.
Miller A.B. , Morgan L.L. , Udasin I. , Davis D.L. , (2018): Cancer epidemiology update, following the 2011 IARC
evaluation of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (Monograph 102). Environmental Research, 167, 673–683.
Miller A.B. , Sears M.E. , Morgan L.L. , Davis D.L. , Hardell L. , et al, (2019): Risks to health and well-being from
radio-frequency radiation emitted by cell phones and other wireless devices. Frontiers in Public Health, 7, 223.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00223.
Mohammed H.S. , Fahmy H.M. , Radwan N.M. , Elsayed A.A. , (2013): Non-thermal continuous and modulated
electromagnetic radiation fields effects on sleep EEG of rats. Journal of Advanced Research, 4(2), 181–187.
Monzel C. , Vicario C. , Piehler J. , Coppey M. , Dahan M. , (2017): Magnetic control of cellular processes using
biofunctional nanoparticles. Chemical Science, 8(11), 7330.
NTP (National Toxicology Program) , (2018): Toxicology and Carcinogenesis studies in Hsd: Sprague Dawley
SD rats exposed to whole-body radio frequency radiation at a frequency (900 MHz) and modulations (GSM and
CDMA) used by cell phones. NTP TR 595, Department of Health and Human Services, USA.
Nuccitelli R. , (2003): Endogenous electric fields in embryos during development, regeneration and wound
healing. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 106(4), 375–383.
Pakhomov A.G. , Akyel Y. , Pakhomova O.N. , Stuck B.E. , Murphy M.R. , (1998): Current state and
implications of research on biological effects of millimeter waves: A review of the literature.
Bioelectromagnetics, 19(7), 393–413.
Pall M.L. , (2013): Electromagnetic fields act via activation of voltage-gated calcium channels to produce
beneficial or adverse effects. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, 17(8), 958–965.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Karabarbounis A. , Margaritis L.H. , (2002): Mechanism for action of electromagnetic fields
on cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 298(1), 95–102.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Chavdoula E.D. , Margaritis L.H. , (2010): Bioeffects of mobile telephony radiation in
relation to its intensity or distance from the antenna. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 86(5), 345–357.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Johansson O. , Carlo G.L. , (2013): Evaluation of specific absorption rate as a dosimetric
quantity for electromagnetic fields bioeffects. PLOS ONE, 8(6), e62663.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062663.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Johansson O. , Carlo G.L. , (2015a): Polarization: A key difference between man-made
and natural electromagnetic fields, in regard to biological activity. Scientific Reports, 5, 14914.
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14914.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Johansson O. , Carlo G.L. , (2015b): Real versus simulated mobile phone exposures in
experimental studies. BioMed Research International, 2015, 607053.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Chrousos G.P. , (2019): Shielding methods and products against man-made
electromagnetic fields: Protection versus risk. Science of the Total Environment, 667C, 255–262.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2019): Comparing DNA damage induced by mobile telephony and other types of man-
made electromagnetic fields. Mutation Research Reviews, 781, 53–62.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2020): Comparing chromosome damage induced by mobile telephony radiation and a
high caffeine dose: Effect of combination and exposure duration. General Physiology and Biophysics, 39(6),
531–544.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Karabarbounis A. , (2020): Comments on “diverse radiofrequency sensitivity and
radiofrequency effects of mobile or cordless phone near fields exposure in Drosophila melanogaster”.
Advances in Environmental Studies, 4(1), 271–276.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2021): Comments on Pall's “Millimeter (MM) wave and microwave frequency radiation
produce deeply penetrating effects: the biology and the physics”. Reviews on Environmental Health 37(2),
295–297.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Karabarbounis A. , Yakymenko I. , Chrousos G.P. , (2021): Mechanism of DNA damage
induced by human-made electromagnetic fields. International Journal of Oncology, 59: 92.
Penafiel L.M. , Litovitz T. , Krause D. , Desta A. , Mullins J.M. , (1997): Role of modulation on the effects of
microwaves on ornithine decarboxylase activity in L929 cells. Bioelectromagnetics, 18(2), 132–141.
Persinger M.A. , (1974): ELF and VLF Electromagnetic Fields. Plenum Press, New York.
Persinger M.A. , (2014): Schumann Resonance frequencies found within quantitative electroencephalographic
activity: Implications for earth-brain interactions. International Letters of Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy,
11(1), 24–32.
Phillips J.L. , Singh N.P. , Lai H. , (2009): Electromagnetic fields and DNA damage. Pathophysiology, 16(2–3),
79–88.
Piacentini R. , Ripoli C. , Mezzogori D. , Azzena G.B. , Grassi C. , (2008): Extremely low-frequency
electromagnetic fields promote in vitro neurogenesis via upregulation of Cav1-channel activity. Journal of
Cellular Physiology, 215(1), 129–139.
Presman A.S. , (1977): Electromagnetic Fields and Life. Plenum Press, New York.
Puranen L. , Jokela K. , (1996): Radiation hazard assessment of pulsed microwave radars. Journal of
Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, 31(3), 165–177.
Rappaport T.S. , Sun S. , Mayzus R. , Zhao H. , Azar Y. , et al, (2013): Millimeter wave mobile communications
for 5G cellular: It will work! IEEE Access, 1, 335–349. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2013.2260813.
Read R. , O'Riordan T. , (2017): The precautionary principle under fire. Environment: Science and Policy for
Sustainable Development, 59(5), 4–15.
Santini M.T. , Ferrante A. , Rainaldi G. , Indovina P. , Indovina P.L. , (2005): Extremely low frequency (ELF)
magnetic fields and apoptosis: A review. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 81(1), 1–11.
Szmigielski S. , (2013): Reaction of the immune system to low-level RF/MW exposures. Science of the Total
Environment, 454–455, 393–400.
Tesla N. , (1905): The transmission of electrical energy without wires as a means of furthering world peace.
Electrical World and Engineer, 7, 21–24.
Walleczek J. , (1992): Electromagnetic field effects on cells of the immune system: The role of calcium
signaling. FASEB Journal, 6(13), 3177–3185.
Wever R. , (1979): The Circadian System of Man: Results of Experiments under Temporal Isolation. Springer-
Verlag, New York.
Yakymenko I. , Sidorik E. , Kyrylenko S. , Chekhun V. , (2011): Long-term exposure to microwave radiation
provokes cancer growth: Evidences from radars and mobile communication systems. Experimental Oncology,
33(2), 62–70.
Yakymenko I. , Tsybulin O. , Sidorik E. , Henshel D. , Kyrylenko O. , et al, (2016): Oxidative mechanisms of
biological activity of low-intensity radiofrequency radiation. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 35(2),
186–202.
Yakymenko I. , Burlaka A. , Tsybulin I. , Brieieva I. , Buchynska L. , et al, (2018): Oxidative and mutagenic
effects of low intensity GSM 1800 MHz microwave radiation. Experimental Oncology, 40(4), 282–287.
Zheng Y. , Xia P. , Dong L. , Tian L. , Xiong C. , (2021): Effects of modulation on sodium and potassium
channel currents by extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields stimulation on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal
cells. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 17, 1–12.
Zothansiama, Zosangzuali M. , Lalramdinpuii M. , Jagetia G.C. , (2017): Impact of radiofrequency radiation on
DNA damage and antioxidants in peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans residing in the vicinity of mobile
phone base stations. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 36(3), 295–305.
Defining Wireless Communication (WC) Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs):
Adey W.R. , (1981). Tissue interactions with non-ionizing electromagnetic fields. Physiol Rev. 61: 435–514.
Adey W.R. , (1993). Biological effects of electromagnetic fields. J Cell Biochem. 51:410–416.
Alberts B. , Bray D. , Lewis J. , Raff M. , Roberts K. , Watson J.D. , (1994). Molecular Biology of the Cell.
Garland Publishing, Inc., New York.
Alexopoulos C.D. , (1962). Heat. Papazisis Publ., Athens [Αλεξόπουλος ΚΔ, Θερμότης, Εκδ. Παπαζήση, Αθήνα
1962].
Alexopoulos C.D. , (1963). Atomic and Nuclear Physics. Papazisis Publ., Athens [Αλεξόπουλος ΚΔ, Ατομική και
Πυρηνική φυσική, Εκδ. Παπαζήση, Αθήνα 1963].
Alexopoulos C.D. , (1966). Optics. Papazisis Publ., Athens [Αλεξόπουλος ΚΔ, Οπτική, Εκδ. Παπαζήση, Αθήνα
1966].
Alexopoulos C.D. , (1973). Electricity. Papazisis Publ., Athens [Αλεξόπουλος ΚΔ, Ηλεκτρισμός, Εκδ.
Παπαζήση, Αθήνα 1973].
Alonso M. , Finn E.J. , (1967). Fundamental University Physics, Vol. 2: Fields and Waves. Addison-Wesley,
USA.
Andersen J.B. , Pedersen G.F. , (1997). The technology of mobile telephone systems relevant for risk
assessment. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 3–4(72):249–257.
Arago D.F.J. , Fresnel A.J. , (1819). On the action of rays of polarized light upon each other. Ann Chim Phys.
2:288–304.
Azanza M.J. , Perez Bruzon R.N. , Lederer D. , et al, (2002). Reversibility of the effects induced on the
spontaneous bioelectric activity of neurons under exposure to 8.3 and 217.0 Hz low intensity magnetic fields.
2nd Int. Workshop Biol. Effects of EMFs, Rhodes, Grece, 651–659.
Baker K.B. , Tkach J.A. , Nyenhuis J.A. , Phillips M. , Shellock F.G. , et al, (2004). Evaluation of specific
absorption rate as a dosimeter of MRI-related implant heating. J Magn Reson Imaging. 20:315–320.
Balzano Q. , Sheppard A. , (2003). RF nonlinear interactions in living cells I: nonequilibrium thermodynamic
theory. Bioelectromagnetics. 24:473–482.
Bassett C.A.L. , Pawluk R.J. , Becker R.O. , (1964). Effect of electric currents on bone in vivo. Nature.
204:652–654.
Bawin S.M. , Kaczmarek L.K. , Adey W.R. , (1975). Effects of modulated VMF fields, on the central nervous
system. Ann NY Acad Sci. 247:74–81.
Bawin S.M. , Adey W.R. , Sabbot I.M. , (1978). Ionic factors in release of 45Ca 2+ from chick cerebral tissue by
electromagnetic fields. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 75:6314–6318.
Bawin S.M. , Adey W.R. , (1976). Sensitivity of calcium binding in cerebral tissue to weak environmental electric
fields oscillating at low frequency. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 73:1999–2003.
Behari J. , (2010). Biological responses of mobile phone frequency exposure. Ind J Exp Biol. 48:959–981.
Beiser A. , (1987). Concepts of Modern Physics. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.
Belpomme D. , Irigaray P. , (2020). Electrohypersensitivity as a newly identified and characterized neurologic
pathological disorder: how to diagnose, treat, and prevent it. Int J Mol Sci. 21:1915; doi:10.3390/ijms21061915
Belyaev I. , (2005). Non-thermal biological effects of microwaves. Microwave Rev. 11(2):13–29.
Berger H. , (1929). Ueber das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen (On the human electroencephalogram).
Archiv f. Psychiatrie u. Nervenkrankheiten. 87:527–570.
Bertagna F. , Lewis R. , Silva S.R.P. , McFadden J. , Jeevaratnam K. , (2021). Effects of electromagnetic fields
on neuronal ion channels: a systematic review. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1499(1):82–103.
Betskii O.V. , Lebedeva N.N. , (2004). Low-intensity millimeter waves in biology and medicine. In Clinical
Application of Bioelectromagnetic Medicine. Marcel Decker, New York, 30–61.
Blackman C.F. , Benane S.G. , Elder J.A. , House D.E. , Lampe J.A. , Faulk J.M. , (1980). Induction of calcium -
ion efflux from brain tissue by radiofrequency radiation: effect of sample number and modulation frequency on
the power - density window. Bioelectromagnetics. 1:35–43.
Blackman C.F. , Benane S.G. , Kinney L.S. , Joines W.T. , House D.E. , (1982). Effects of ELF fields on
calcium-ion efflux from brain tissue in vitro. Radiat Res. 92(3):510–520.
Blackman C. , (2009). Cell phone radiation: evidence from ELF and RF studies supporting more inclusive risk
identification and assessment. Pathophysiology. 16:205–216.
Bohr N. , (1913a). On the constitution of atoms and molecules, part I. Philos Mag.26:1–24.
Bohr N. , (1913b). On the constitution of atoms and molecules, part II systems containing only a single nucleus.
Philos Mag.26:476–502.
Bohr N. , (1914). The spectra of helium and hydrogen. Nature. 92:231–232.
Bohr N. , (1928). The quantum postulate and the recent development of atomic theory. Nature 121:580–590.
Bolshakov M.A. , Alekseev S.I. , (1992). Bursting responses of Lymnea neurons to microwave radiation.
Bioelectromagnetics. 13(2):119–129.
Borgens R.B. , (1988). Stimulation of neuronal regeneration and development by steady electrical fields.
Advances in Neurology. 47; Functional Recovery in Neurological Disease, S.G. Waxman (Ed), Raven Press,
New York.
Brighton C.T. , Friedenberg Z.B. , Black J. , (1979). Evaluation of the use of constant direct current in the
treatment of non-union. In C.T. Brighton (Ed), Electrical Properties of Bone and Cartilage. Plenum Press, New
York, 519–545.
Brighton C.T. , McClusky W.P. , (1987). Response of cultured bone cells to capacitively coupled electrical field:
inhibition of cAMP response to parathyroid hormone. J Orthop Res. 6:567–571.
Brighton C.T. , Jensen L. , Pollack S.R. , Tolin B.S. , Clark C.C. , (1989). Proliferative and synthetic response of
bovine growth plate chondrocytes to various capacitively coupled electrical fields. J Orthop Res. 7:759–765.
Burcham W.E. , Jobes M. , (1995). Nuclear and Particle Physics. Prentice Hall, England.
Bush L.G. , Hill D.W. , Riazi A. , Stensaas L.J. , Partlow L.M. , Gandhi O.P. , (1981). Effects of millimeter wave
radiation on monolayer cell cultures III: a search for frequency-specific effects on protein synthesis.
Bioelectromagnetics. 2:151–160.
Byus C.V. , Lundak R.L. , Fletcher R.M. , Adey W.R. , (1984). Alterations in protein Kinase activity following
exposure of cultured lymphocytes to modulated microwave fields. Bioelectromagnetics (N.Y.). 5:341–351.
Byus C.V. , Kartum K. , Pieper S.E. , Adey W.R. , (1988). Ornithine decarboxylase activity in liver cells is
enhanced by low-level amplitude modulated microwave fields. Cancer Res. 48:4222–4226.
Campisi A. , Gulino M. , Acquaviva R. , Bellia P. , Raciti G. , et al., (2010). Reactive oxygen species levels and
DNA fragmentation on astrocytes in primary culture after acute exposure to low intensity microwave
electromagnetic field. Neurosci Lett. 473(1):52–55.
Carpenter R.L. , Livstone E.M. , (1968). Evidence for nonthermal effects of microwave radiation: abnormal
development of irradiated insect pupae. IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech.19(2):173–178.
Cecchetto C. , Maschietto M. , Boccaccio P. , Vassanelli S. , (2020). Electromagnetic field affects the voltage-
dependent potassium channel Kv1.3. Electromagn Biol Med. 39(4):316–322.
Chandra A. , Bagchi B. , (2000). Frequency dependence of ionic conductivity of electrolyte solutions. J Chem
Phys. 112:1876–1886.
Chavdoula E.D. , Panagopoulos D.J. , Margaritis L.H. , (2010). Comparison of biological effects between
continuous and intermittent exposure to GSM-900 MHz mobile phone radiation. Detection of apoptotic cell
death features. Mut Res. 700:51–61.
Chen H.S. , Rao C.R.N. , (1968). Polarization of light on reflection by some natural surfaces. Brit J Appl Phys.
1:1191–1200.
Christ A. , Gosselin M-C. , Christopoulou M. , et al. (2010). Age-dependent tissue-specific exposure of cell
phone users. Phys Med Biol. 55:1767–1783.
Clark D.E. , Folz D.C. , West J.K. , (2000). Processing materials with microwave energy. Adv Mater Sci Eng.
287:153–158.
Clarke J. , Wilhelm F.K. , (2008). Superconducting quantum bits. Nature. 453:1031–1042.
Coggle J.E. , (1983). Biological Effects of Radiation. Taylor & Francis.
Creasey W.A. , Goldberg R.B. , (2001). A new twist on an old mechanism for EMF bioeffects?, EMF Health
Rep. 9(2):1–11. https://www.emfsa.co.za/research-and-studies/creasey-wa-goldberg-rb-2001-a-new-twist-on-
an-old-mechanism-for-emf/
Cronin T.W. , Warrant E.J. , Greiner B. , (2006). Celestial polarization patterns during twilight. Applied Optics.
22:5582–5589.
Curwen P. , Whalley J. , (2008). Mobile Communications in the 21st century, In A.C. Harper , R.V. Buress
(Eds), Mobile Telephones: Networks, Applications and Performance. Nova Science Publishers, New York,
29–75.
Dahlman E. , Parkvall S. , Skoeld J. , (2018). 5G NR: The Next Generation Wireless Access Technology.
Academic Press, Elsevier, London.
Davisson C. , Germer L. , (1927). Reflection of electrons by a crystal of nickel. Nature. 119:558–560.
Dawe A.S. , Smith B. , Thomas D.W. , Greedy S. , Vasic N. , et al., (2006). A small temperature rise may
contribute towards the apparent induction by microwaves of heat-shock gene expression in the nematode
Caenorhabditis elegans. Bioelectromagnetics. 27(2):88–97.
De Broglie L. , (1924). Recherches sur la théorie des quanta, Doctoral thesis, Paris.
De Iuliis G.N. , Newey R.J. , King B.V. , Aitken R.J. , (2009). Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen
species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLoS One. 4(7):e6446.
Diem E. , Schwarz C. , Adlkofer F. , Jahn O. , Rudiger H. , (2005). Non-thermal DNA breakage by mobile-
phone radiation (1800 MHz) in human fibroblasts and in transformed GFSH-R17 rat granulosa cells in vitro.
Mutat Res. 583(2):178–183.
Dirac P.A.M. . (1927). The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation. Proc R Soc London.
114:243–256.
Dubrov A.P. , (1978). The Geomagnetic Field and Life. Plenum Press, New York.
Durrer R. , (2008). The Cosmic Microwave Background. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
EPRS , (2021). Environmental impacts of 5G. A literature review of effects of radio-frequency electromagnetic
field exposure of non-human vertebrates, invertebrates and plants. Scientific Foresight Unit (STOA), PE
690.021, June 2021.
Falcioni L. , Bua L. , Tibaldi E. , et al. (2018). Report of final results regarding brain and heart tumors in
Sprague-Dawley rats exposed from prenatal life until natural death to mobile phone radiofrequency field
representative of a 1.8GHz GSM base station environmental emission. Environ Res. 165:496–503.
Fear E.C. , Stuchly M.A. , (1998). A novel equivalent circuit model for gap connected cells. Phys Med Biol.
43:1439–1448.
Feynman R.P. , (1950). Mathematical formulation of the quantum theory of electromagnetic interaction. Phys
Rev. 80:440–457.
Flyckt V.M. , Raaymakers B.W. , Kroeze H. , Lagendijk J.J. , (2007). Calculation of SAR and temperature rise in
a high-resolution vascularized model of the human eye and orbit when exposed to a dipole antenna at 900,
1500 and 1800 MHz. Phys Med Biol. 52(10):2691–2701.
Foster K.R. , Schwan H.P. , (1989). Dielectric properties of tissues and biological materials: a critical review,
Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 17(1):25–103.
Franzellitti S. , Valbonesi P. , Ciancaglini N. , Biondi C. , Contin A. , et al., (2010). Transient DNA damage
induced by high-frequency electromagnetic fields (GSM 1.8 GHz) in the human trophoblast HTR-8/SVneo cell
line evaluated with the alkaline comet assay. Mutat Res. 683(1–2):35–42.
Frei M. , Jauchem J. , Heinmets F. , (1988). Physiological effects of 2.8 GHz radio-frequency radiation: a
comparison of pulsed and continuous-wave radiation. J Microwave Power Electromagn. 23:2.
Furia L. , Hill D.W. , Gandhi O.P. , (1986). Effect of millimeter wave irradiation on growth of saccaromyces
cerevisiae. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 33:993–999.
Gabriel S. , Lau R.W. , Gabriel C. , (1996a). The dielectric properties of biological tissues: II. measurements in
the frequency range 10 Hz to 20 GHz. Phys Med Biol. 41:2251–2269.
Gabriel S. , Lau R.W. , Gabriel C. , (1996b). The dielectric properties of biological tissues: III. parametric
models for the dielectric spectrum of tissues. Phys Med Biol. 41:2271–2293.
Gandhi O.P. , (1983). Some basic properties of biological tissues for potential biomedical applications of
millimeter waves. J Microwave Power. 18:295–304.
Gandhi,O.P. , Morgan L.L. , de Salles A.A. , Han Y-Y. , Herberman R.B. , Davis D.L. , (2012). Exposure limits:
the underestimation of absorbed cell phone radiation, especially in children. Electromagn Biol Med.
31(1):34–51.
Gautreau R. , Savin W. , (1978). Theory and Problems of Modern Physics. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Goldsworthy A. , (2006). Effects of electrical and electromagnetic fields on plants and related topics, In Volkov
(Ed), Plant Electrophysiology–Theory & Methods. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.
Goodman E.M. , Greenebaum B. , Marron M.T. , (1995). Effects of electro- magnetic fields on molecules and
cells. Int Rev Cytol. 158:279–338.
Gründler W. , (1992). Intensity- and frequency-dependent effects of microwaves on cell growth rates.
Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 27:361–365,
Gulati S. , Yadav A. , Kumar N. , Kanupriya A.N.K. , et al, (2016). Effect of GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms
on genetic damage in humans populations exposed to radiation from mobile towers. Arch Environ Contam
Toxicol. 70(3):615–625.
Gulyaev YuV. , Markov A.G. , Koreneva L.G. , Zakharov P.V. . (1995). Dynamical infrared thermography in
humans. Eng Med Biol Mag IEEE. 14:766–771.
Haemmerich D. , Schutt D.J. , dos Santos I. , Webster J.G. , Mahvi D.M. , (2005). Measurement of
temperature-dependent specific heat of biological tissues. Physiol Meas. 26(1):59–67.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , Söderqvist F. , Mild K.H. , Morgan L.L. . (2007). Long-term use of cellular phones and
brain tumours: increased risk associated with use for > or =10 years. Occup Environ Med. 64(9):626–632.
Review.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , Hansson Mild K. , (2013). Use of mobile phones and cordless phones is associated
with increased risk for glioma and acoustic neuroma. Pathophysiology. 20:85–110.
Hardell L. , Nyberg R. , (2020). Appeals that matter or not on a moratorium on the deployment of the fifth
generation, 5G, for microwave radiation. Mol Clin Oncol. doi:10.3892/mco.2020.1984
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , (2021). Lost opportunities for cancer prevention: historical evidence on early warnings
with emphasis on radiofrequency radiation. Rev Environ Health. doi:10.1515/reveh-2020-0168. Online ahead of
print.
Herzberg G. , (1944). Atomic Spectra and Atomic Structure. Dover publications, USA.
Herzberg G. , (1950). Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure. D Van Nostrand company Inc, USA.
High performance solutions for peak and average power measurements. https://emin.com.mm/high-
performance-solutions-for-peak-and-average-power-measurements-myanmar-83633/pr.html.
Hinrikus H. , Bachmann M. , Lass J. , Tomson R. , Tuulik V. , (2008). Effect of 7, 14 and 21 Hz modulated 450
MHz microwave radiation on human electroencephalographic rhythms. Int J Radiat Biol. 84(1):69–79.
Holma H. , Toskala A. , (2004). WCDMA for UMTS, Radio Access for Third Generation Mobile
Communications. John Wiley & Sons Inc, Chichester, England.
Houck A.A. , Schuster D.I. , Gambetta J.M. , Schreier J.A. , Johnson B.R. , Chow J.M. , Frunzio L. , Majer J. ,
Devoret M.H. , Girvin S.M. , Schoelkopf R.J. , (2007). Generating single microwave photons in a circuit. Nature
449:328–331.
Houston B.J. , Nixon B. , King B.V. , De Iuliis G.N. , Aitken R.J. , (2016). The effects of radiofrequency
electromagnetic radiation on sperm function. Reproduction. 152(6):R263–R276.
Höytö A. , Luukkonen J. , Juutilainen J. , Naarala J. , (2008). Proliferation, oxidative stress and cell death in
cells exposed to 872 MHz radiofrequency radiation and oxidants. Radiat Res. 170(2):235–243.
Huber R. , Treyer V. , Borbely A.A. , Schuderer J. , Gottselig J.M. , Landolt H.P. , Werth E. , Berthold T. , Kuster
N. , Buck A. , Achermann P. , (2002). Electromagnetic fields, such as those from mobile phones, alter regional
cerebral blood flow and sleep and waking EEG. J Sleep Res. 11(4):289–295.
Hunter G. , Wadlinger R.L.P. , (1987). Physical photons: theory, experiment, interpretation. In Quantum
Uncertainties: Recent and Future Experiments and Interpretations: Proceedings of tile NATO Workshop,
University of Bridgeport, CT, 1986, NATO ASI Series B, Vol.162, Plenum Press.
Hyland G.J. , (2000). Physics and biology of mobile telephony. Lancet. 356:1833–1836.
Hyland G.J. , (2008). Physical basis of adverse and therapeutic effects of low intensity microwave radiation. Ind
J Exp Biol. 46:403–419.
IARC , (2002). Non-ionizing radiation, part 1: static and extremely low-frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic
fields. Vol. 80. World Health Organization.
IARC , (2013). Non-ionizing radiation, part 2: radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. Vol. 102. Lyon, France.
ICNIRP , (1998). Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields
(up to 300GHz). Health Phys. 74:494–522.
ICNIRP , (2020). Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz to 300GHz). Health Phys.
[Published ahead of print].
IEEE , (2002). IEEE recommended practice for measurements and computations of radio frequency
electromagnetic fields with respect to human exposure to such fields, 100 kHz–300 GHz, IEEE Std C95.3™-
2002 (R2008).
Inomata K. , Lin Z. , Koshino K. , Oliver W.D. , Tsai J.S. , Yamamoto T. , Nakamura Y. , (2016). Single
microwave-photon detector using an artificial [Lambda]-type three-level system. Nat Commun. 7.
Ivancsits S. , Diem E. , Pilger A. , Rüdiger H.W. , Jahn, (2002). Induction of DNA strand breaks by intermittent
exposure to extremely-low-frequency electromagnetic fields in human diploid fibroblasts. Mutat Res.
519(1–2):1–13.
Ivancsits S. , Diem E. , Jahn O. , Rüdiger H.W. , (2003). Intermittent extremely low frequency electromagnetic
fields cause DNA damage in a dose-dependent way. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 76(6):431–436.
Jackson J.D. , (1975). Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York .
Jaynes E.T. , (1966). Is QED necessary?. In L . Mandel , E. Wolf (Eds), Proceedings of the Second Rochester
Conference on Coherence and Quantum Optics. Plenum, New York, 21.
Jaynes E.T. , (1978). Electrodynamics today. In L. Mandel , E . Wolf (Eds), Coherence and Quantum Optics IV.
Plenum Press, New York, 495.
Jaynes E.T. , (1980). Quantum Beats. http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/articles/ quantum. beats.pdf.
Johansson O. , (2009). Disturbance of the immune system by electromagnetic fields-A potentially underlying
cause for cellular damage and tissue repair reduction which could lead to disease and impairment.
Pathophysiology. 16:157–177.
Karipidis K. , Mate R. , Urban D. , Tinker R. , Wood A. , (2021). 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-
science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz. J Exposure Sci Environ Epidemiol.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00307-7
Khurana V.G. , Teo C. , Kundi M. , Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , (2009). Cell phones and brain tumors: a review
including the long-term epidemiologic data. Surg Neurol. 72(3):205–214.
Klimov A. , (1975). Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Reactors. Mir Publishers, Moscow.
Kostoff R.N. , Heroux P. , Aschner M. , Tsatsakis A. , (2020). Adverse health effects of 5G mobile networking
technology under real-life conditions. Toxicol Lett. 323:35–40.
Kraus H. , Soltamov V.A. , Riedel D. , Väth S. , Fuchs F. , Sperlich A. , Baranov P.G. , Dyakonov V. , Astakhov
G.V. , (2014). Room-temperature quantum microwave emitters based on spin defects in silicon carbide. Nat
Phys.10:157–162.
Kwee S. , Raskmark P. , (1998). Changes in cell proliferation due to environmental non-ionizing radiation 2.
Microwave radiation. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 44:251–255.
Lamb W.E. , Scully M.O. , (1969). The photoelectric effect without photons. In Polarization, Matter and
Radiation. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 363–369.
Leach V. , Weller S. , Redmayne M. , (2018). A novel database of bio-effects from non-ionizing radiation. Rev
Environ Health. 33(3):1–8.
Leonard J. , Foster K. , Athey T.W. , (1984). Thermal properties of tissue equivalent phantom materials. IEEE
Trans Biomed Eng. 31:533–536.
Levitt B.B. ,. Lai H.C. , Manville A.M. , (2021). Effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields on flora and fauna,
part 1. Rising ambient EMF levels in the environment. Rev Environ Health. doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2021-0026
Liboff A.R. , (2003). Ion cyclotron resonance in biological systems: experimental evidence. In Stavroulakis P.
(Ed), Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields, Springer, Berlin, 76–113.
Liburdy R.P. , (1992). Calcium signalling in lymphocytes and ELF fields: Evidence for an electric field metric
and a site of interaction involving the calcium ion channel. FEBS Lett. 301: 53–59.
Liman E.R. , Hess P. , Weaver F. , Koren G. , (1991). Voltage sensing residues in the S4 region of a
mammalian K+ channel. Nature. 353:752–756.
Lin-Liu S. , Adey W.R. , (1982). Low frequency amplitude modulated microwave fields change calcium efflux
rates from synaptosomes. Bioelectromagnetics. 3(3):309–22.6.
Lioliousis C. , (1979). Microwaves, Athens. [Λιολιούσης Κ, Μικροκύματα, Αθήνα 1979]
Lioliousis C. , (1997). Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation. Diavlos, Athens. [Λιολιούσης Κ,
Βιολογικές επιδράσεις της ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ακτινοβολίας, Δίαυλος, Αθήνα 1997]
Lioliousis C. , (2009). Mobile Phone and Health. Diavlos, Athens. [Λιολιούσης Κ, Κινητό τηλέφωνο και υγεία,
Δίαυλος, Αθήνα 2009]
Litovitz T.A. , Krause D. , Penafiel M. , Elson E.C. , Mullins J.M. , (1993). The role of coherence time in the
effect of microwaves on ornithine decarboxylase activity. Bioelectromagnetics. 14:395–403.
Ma T.H. , Chu K.C. . (1993). Effect of the extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic field (EMF) on
developing embryos of the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster L.). Mutat Res, 303(1):35–39.
Major F.G. , (2014). The classical atomic clocks. In Quo Vadis: Evolution of Modern Navigation. Springer, New
York, NY, 151–180.
Manna D. , Ghosh R. , (2016). Effect of radiofrequency radiation in cultured mammalian cells: a review.
Electromagn Biol Med. 35(3):265–301.
Mandel L. , Wolf E. . (1995). Optical Coherence and Quantum Optics. Cambridge University Press.
Mandl F. , (1988). Statistical Physics. Wiley, Chichester, 2nd edition.
Marino A.A. , Becker R.O. , (1977). Biological effects of extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields: a
review. Physiol Chem Phys. 9:131–147.
Marino A.A. , Kim P.Y. , Frilot C. , (2016). Trigeminal neurons detect cellphone radiation: thermal or nonthermal
is not the question. Electromagn Biol Med. 36(2):123–131.
McCaig C.D. , Zhao M. , (1997). Physiological electric fields modify cell behaviour. Bioessays. 19(9):819–826.
Metaxas A.C. , (1991). Microwave heating. Power Eng. 5(5):237–2247.
Miller A.B. , Morgan L.L. , Udasin I. , Davis D.L. , (2018). Cancer epidemiology update, following the 2011 IARC
evaluation of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (Monograph 102). Environ Res. 167:673–683.
Miller A.B. , Sears M.E. , Morgan L.L. , Davis D.L. , Hardell L. , et al, (2019). Risks to health and well-being from
radio-frequency radiation emitted by cell phones and other wireless devices. Front Public Health. 7:223.
doi:10.3389/fpubh.2019.00223.
Mohammed H.S. , Fahmy H.M. , Radwan N.M. , Elsayed A.A. , (2013). Non-thermal continuous and modulated
electromagnetic radiation fields effects on sleep EEG of rats. J Adv Res. 4(2):181–187.
Moulder J.E. , Erdreich L.S. , Malyapa R.S. , Merritt J. , Pickard W.F. et al, (1999). Cell phones and cancer.
what is the evidence for a connection?. Radiat Res. 151:513–531. 60.
NCRP , (1986). Biological effects and exposure criteria for radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. Properties,
quantities and units, biophysical interaction and measurements. National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements, Report No 86, Bethesda, MD.
Neher E. , Sakmann B. , (1992). The patch clamp technique. Sci Am. 266: 28–35.
Neufeld E. , Kuster N. , (2018). Systematic derivation of safety limits for time-varying 5G radiofrequency
exposure based on analytical models and thermal dose. Health Phys. 115(6):705–711.
NTP (National Toxicology Program) , (2018) Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies in HSD: sprague dawley
SD rats exposed to whole-body radio frequency radiation at a frequency (900 MHz) and modulations (GSM and
CDMA) used by cell phones. NTP TR 595, Department of Health and Human Services, USA.
Nuccitelli R. , (1992). Endogenous ionic currents and DC electric fields in multicellular animal tissues.
Bioelectromagnetics. Suppl 1:147–157.
Nuccitelli R. , (2003). Endogenous electric fields in embryos during development, regeneration and wound
healing. Radiat Prot Dosimetry.106(4):375–383.
Olaniyi I.J. , (2017). Microwave heating in food processing. BAOJ Nutr.3:027.
Pakhomov A.G. , Akyel Y. , Pakhomova O.N. , Stuck B.E. , Murphy M.R. , (1998). Current state and
implications of research on biological effects of millimeter waves: a review of the literature.
Bioelectromagnetics. 19:393–413.
Pall M.L. , (2013). Electromagnetic fields act via activation of voltage-gated calcium channels to produce
beneficial or adverse effects. J Cell Mol Med. 17(8):958–965.
Pall M.L. , (2018). Wi-Fi is an important threat to human health. Environ Res.164:405–416.
Palmer L.G. , (1986) New Insights into Cell and Membrane Transport Processes. G . Poste , S.T. Crooke ,
Eds., Plenum, New York, 331.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Messini N. , Karabarbounis A. , Philippetis A.L. , Margaritis L.H. , (2000). A mechanism for
action of oscillating electric fields on cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 272:634–640.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Karabarbounis A. , Margaritis L.H. , (2002). Mechanism for action of electromagnetic fields
on cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 298(1):95–102.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Margaritis L.H. , (2003). Theoretical considerations for the biological effects of
electromagnetic fields. In P . Stavroulakis (Ed), Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields. Springer, Berlin,
5–33.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Karabarbounis A. , Margaritis L.H. , (2004). Effect of GSM 900-MHz mobile phone
radiation on the reproductive capacity of drosophila melanogaster. Electromagn Biol Med. 23(1):29–43.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Chavdoula E.D. , Nezis I.P. , Margaritis L.H. , (2007a). Cell death induced by GSM
900MHz and DCS 1800MHz mobile telephony radiation. Mutat Res. 626:69–78.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Chavdoula E.D. , Karabarbounis A. , Margaritis L.H. , (2007b). Comparison of bioactivity
between GSM 900 MHz and DCS 1800 MHz mobile telephony radiation. Electromagn Biol Med. 26(1):33–44.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Margaritis L.H. , (2009). Biological and health effects of mobile telephony radiations. Int J
Med Biol Front. 15(1/2):33–76.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Chavdoula E.D. , Margaritis L.H. , (2010). Bioeffects of mobile telephony radiation in
relation to its intensity or distance from the antenna. Int J Radiat Biol. 86(5):345–357.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Margaritis L.H. , (2010a). The effect of exposure duration on the biological activity of
mobile telephony radiation. Mutat Res. 699(1/2):17–22.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Margaritis L.H. , (2010b). The identification of an intensity “window” on the bioeffects of
mobile telephony radiation. Int J Rad Biol. 86(5):358–366.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2011). Biological impacts, action mechanisms, dosimetry and protection issues of mobile
telephony radiation. In M.C. Barnes , N.P. Meyers (Eds), Mobile Phones: Technology, Networks and User
Issues. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, 1–54.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2013). Electromagnetic interaction between environmental fields and living systems
determines health and well-being. In MH Kwang and SO Yoon (Eds), Electromagnetic Fields: Principles,
Engineering Applications and Biophysical Effects. Nova Science Publishers, New York, 87–130.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Karabarbounis A. , Lioliousis C. , (2013a). ELF alternating magnetic field decreases
reproduction by DNA damage induction. Cell Biochem Biophys. 67:703–716.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Johansson O. , Carlo G.L. , (2013b). Evaluation of specific absorption rate as a dosimetric
quantity for electromagnetic fields bioeffects. PLoS One. 8(6):e62663. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062663.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Johansson O. , Carlo G.L. , (2015a). Polarization: a key difference between man-made
and natural electromagnetic fields, in regard to biological activity. Sci Rep. 5:14914
Panagopoulos D.J. , Johansson O. , Carlo G.L. , (2015b). Real versus simulated mobile phone exposures in
experimental studies. BioMed Res Int. 2015:607053.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2015). Considering photons as spatially confined wave-packets. In A. Reimer (Ed),
Horizons in World Physics. Vol. 285, Nova Science Publishers, New York.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Cammaerts M.C. , Favre D. , Balmori A. , (2016). Comments on environmental impact of
radiofrequency fields from mobile phone base stations. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 46(9):885–903.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Balmori A. , (2017). On the biophysical mechanism of sensing atmospheric discharges by
living organisms. Sci Total Environ. 599–600(2017):2026–2034.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2017). Mobile telephony radiation effects on insect ovarian cells. the necessity for real
exposures bioactivity assessment. the key role of polarization, and the ion forced-oscillation mechanism. In
C.D. Geddes (Ed), Microwave Effects on DNA and Proteins. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 1–48.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2018). Man-made electromagnetic radiation is not quantized. In A. Reimer (Ed), Horizons
in World Physics. Vol. 296, Nova Science Publishers, New York.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Chrousos G.P. , (2019). Shielding methods and products against man-made
electromagnetic fields: protection versus risk. Sci Total Environ. 667C:255–262.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2019a). Comparing DNA damage induced by mobile telephony and other types of man-
made electromagnetic fields. Mutat Res Rev. 781:53–62.
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2019b). Chromosome damage in human cells induced by UMTS mobile telephony
radiation. Gen Physiol Biophys. 38:445–454
Panagopoulos D.J. , (2020). Comparing chromosome damage induced by mobile telephony radiation and a
high caffeine dose: effect of combination and exposure duration, Gen Physiol Biophys. 39:531–544.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Balmori A. , Chrousos G.P. , (2020). On the biophysical mechanism of sensing upcoming
earthquakes by animals. Sci Total Environ. 717(2020):136989.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Karabarbounis A. , (2020). Comments on “diverse radiofrequency sensitivity and
radiofrequency effects of mobile or cordless phone near fields exposure in drosophila melanogaster. Adv
Environ Stud. 4(1):271–276.
Panagopoulos D.J. , Karabarbounis A. , Yakymenko I. , Chrousos G.P. , (2021). Human-made electromagnetic
fields: ion forced-oscillation and voltage-gated ion channel dysfunction: oxidative stress and DNA damage. Int J
Oncol, 59: 92.
Panarella E. , (2008). Single photons have not been detected: the alternative photon clump model. In C.
Roychoudhuri , A.F. Kracklauer , K . Creath (Ed), The Nature of Light. What Is a Photon? CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis, USA.
Parsons K.C. , (1993). Human Thermal Environments. Taylor and Francis, London.
Pedersen G.F. , (1997). Amplitude modulated RF fields stemming from a GSM/DCS-1800 phone. Wireless
Networks. 3:489–498.
Penafiel L.M. , Litovitz T. , Krause D. , Desta A. , Mullins M.J. , (1997). Role of modulation on the effect of
microwaves on ornithine decarboxylase activity in L929 cells. Bioelectromagnetics. 18(2):132–141.
Peyman A. , Rezazadeh A.A. , Gabriel C. , (2001). Changes in the dielectric properties of rat tissue as a
function of age at microwave frequencies. Phys Med Biol. 46(6):1617–1629.
Phillips J.L. , Singh N.P. , Lai H. , (2009). Electromagnetic fields and DNA damage. Pathophysiology.
16(2–3):79–88.
Pirard W. , Vatovez B. . Study of pulsed character of radiation emitted by wireless telecommunication systems.
Institut scientifique de service public, Liège, Belgium. https://www.issep.be/wp-
content/uploads/7IWSBEEMF_B-Vatovez_W-Pirard.pdf.
Pohl R. , (1960). Discovery of interference by Thomas Young. Am J Phys. 28:530.
Prasad K.N. , (1995). Handbook of Radiobiology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA, 2nd edition.
Presman A.S. , (1977). Electromagnetic Fields and Life. Plenum Press, New York.
Puranen L. , Jokela K. , (1996). Radiation hazard assessment of pulsed microwave radars. J Microwave Power
Electromagn Energy. 31(3):165–177.
Radebaugh R. , (2009). Cryocoolers: the state of the art and recent developments. J Phys Conden Matt.
21(16):164219.
Rappaport, T.S. , Sun, S. , Mayzus, R. , et al. (2013). Millimeter wave mobile communications for 5G cellular: it
will work! IEEE Access. 1:335–349.
Reitz J.R. , Milford F.J. , (1967). Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
Inc,Boston, MA.
Roller W.L. , Goldman R.F. , (1968). Prediction of solar heat load on man. J Appl Physiol. 25:717–721.
Roychoudhuri C. , Kracklauer A.F. , Creath K. , (2008). The Nature of Light. What Is a Photon? CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis, USA.
Roychoudhuri C. , Tirfessa N. , (2008). Do we count indivisible photons or discrete quantum events
experienced by detectors?. In Roychoudhuri , Kracklauer , Creath (Eds), The Nature of Light. What Is a
Photon?. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, USA.
Roychoudhuri C. , (2014). Causal Physics – Photon Model by Non-Interaction of Waves. CRC Press, Taylor
and Francis, Boca Raton, USA.
Sangeetha M. , Purushothaman B.M. , Suresh Babu S. , (2014). Estimating cell phone signal intensity and
identifying radiation hotspot area for tirunel veli taluk using RS and GIS. Int J Res Eng Technol. 3:412–418.
Santini M.T. , Ferrante A. , Rainaldi G. , Indovina P. , Indovina P.L. , (2005). Extremely low frequency (ELF)
magnetic fields and apoptosis: a review. Int J Radiat Biol. 81(1):1–11.
Sauter M. , (2011). From GSM to LTE: An Introduction to Mobile Networks and Mobile Broadband. John Wiley
& Sons, Chichester, UK.
Schimmelpfeng J. , Dertinger H. , (1993). The action of 50Hz magnetic and electric fields upon cell proliferation
and cyclic AMP content of cultured mammalian cells. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 30:143–150.
Schroedinger E. , (1926). An undulatory theory of the mechanics of atoms and molecules. Physical Review.
28(6):1049–1070.
Schumann W.O. , (1952). Uber die strahlunglosen eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von einer
Luftschicht und einer Ionospharenhulle umgeben ist (On the characteristic oscillations of a conducting sphere
which is surrounded by an air layer and an ionospheric shell). Zeitschrift Naturforschung. 7A:149–154.
Schuster D.I. , Houck A.A. , Schreier J.A. , Wallraff A. , Gambetta J.M. , Blais A. , Frunzio L. , Majer J. ,
Johnson B. , Devoret M.H. , Girvin S.M. , Schoelkopf R.J. , (2007). Resolving photon number states in a
superconducting circuit. Nature. 445:515–518.
Schwan H.P. , (1957). Electrical properties of tissues and cell suspensions. Adv Phys Med Biol. 5:147–209.
Schwan H.P. , (1963). Determination of biological impedances. In Nastuk W.L. (Ed), Physical Techniques in
Biological Research, Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press, 323–407.
Schwartz M. , (1990). Information Transmission, Modulation, and Noise, McGraw-Hill, New York, 4th edition.
Sesia S. , Toufik I. , Baker M. (Eds), (2011). LTE – The UMTS Long Term Evolution. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.,
West Sussex, UK.
Sheppard A.R. , Swicord M.L. , Balzano Q. , (2008). Quantitative evaluations of mechanisms of radiofrequency
interactions with biological molecules and processes. Health Phys. 93(4):365–396.
Shim Y. , Lee I. , Park S. , (2013). The impact of LTE UE on audio devices. ETRI J. 35(2):332–335.
Sommerfeld A. , (1916). Zur Quantentheorie der Spektrallinien. Ann D Phys. 51:1.
Somosy Z. , Thuroczy G. , Kubasova T. , Kovacs J. , Szabo L.D. , (1991). Effects of modulated and continuous
microwave irradiation on the morphology and cell surface negative charge of 3T3 fibroblasts. Scanning Microsc.
5(4):1145–1155.
Spiegel M.R. , (1974). Fourier Analysis with Applications to Boundary Value Problems. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Spottorno J. , Multigner M. , Rivero G. , Alvarez L. , de la Venta J. , Santos M. , (2008). Time dependence of
electrical bioimpedance on porcine liver and kidney under a 50 Hz ac current. Phys Med Biol. 53:1701–1713.
Spottorno J. , Multigner M. , Rivero G. , Alvarez L. , de la Venta J. , Santos M. , (2012). In vivo measurements
of electrical conductivity of porcine organs at low frequency: new method of measurement.
Bioelectromagnetics. 33(7):612–619.
Stensaas L.J. , Partlow L.M. , Bush L.G. , Iversen P.L. , Hill D.W. , Hagmann M.J. , Gandhi O.P. , (1981).
Effects of millimeter-wave radiation on monolayer cell cultures. II. Scanning and transmission electron
microscopy. Bioelecytromagnetics. 2(2):141–150.
Stephenson G. , (1973). Mathematical Methods for Science Students. Longman Group, London, 2nd edition.
Stryer L. , (1996). Biochemistry. W.H. Freeman and Co, New York, 4th edition.
Tarasov L.V. , (1980). Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics. Mir Publishers, Moscow.
Tesla N. , (1905). The transmission of electrical energy without wires as a means of furthering world peace.
Electrical World and Engineer. 7:21–24.
Thielens A. , Bell D. , Mortimore D.B. , Greco M.K. , Martens L. , Joseph W. , (2018). Exposure of insects to
radio-frequency electromagnetic fields from 2 to 120 GHz. Sci Rep. 8:3924. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22271-3.
Thielens A. , Greco M.K. , Verloock L. , Martens L. , Joseph W. , (2020). Radio-frequency electromagnetic field
exposure of western honey bees. Sci Rep. 10:461. doi:org/10.1038/s41598-019-56948-0.
Thuroczy G. , Kubinyi G. , Bodo M. , Bakos J. , Szabo L.D. , (1994). Simultaneous response of brain electrical
activity (EEG) and cerebral circulation (REG) to microwave exposure in rats. Rev Environ Health.
10(2):135–148.
Tisal J. , (1998). GSM Cellular Radio Telephony. J.Wiley & Sons, West Sussex, England.
Trachanas S.L. , (1981). Quantum Mechanics. Athens. [Τραχανάς Σ.Λ., «Κβαντομηχανική», Εκδ. Σύγχρονες
Επιστήμες, Αθήνα 1981].
Tuor M. , Ebert S. , Schuderer J. , Kuster N. , (2005). Assessment of ELF exposure from GSM handsets and
development of an optimized RF/ELF exposure setup for studies of human volunteers. BAG Reg. No. 2.23.02.-
18/02.001778, IT'IS Foundation.
Valberg P.A. , Kavet R. , Rafferty C.N. , (1997). Can low-level 50/60Hz electric and magnetic fields cause
biological effects? Rad Res. 148:2–21.
Velizarov S. , Raskmark P. , Kwee S. , (1999). The effects of radiofrequency fields on cell proliferation are non-
thermal. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 48:177–180.
Verschaeve L. , (2014). Environmental impact of radiofrequency fields from mobile phone base stations. Crit
Rev Environ Sci Technol. 44:1313–1369.
Verschaeve L. , (2017). Misleading scientific papers on health effects from wireless communication devices. In
C.D. Geddes (Ed), Microwave Effects on DNA and Proteins, Springer, Cham, Switzerland.
Veyret B. , Bouthet C. , Deschaux P. , de Seze R. , Geffard M. , et al., (1991). Antibody responses of mice
exposed to low-power microwaves under combined, pulse-and-amplitude modulation. Bioelectromagnetics.
2(1):47–56.
Vistnes A.I. , Gjoetterud K. , (2001). Why arguments based on photon energy may be highly misleading for
power line frequency electromagnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics. 22: 200–204.
Walleczek J. , (1992). Electromagnetic field effects on cells of the immune system: the role of calcium signaling.
FASEB J. 6: 3177–3185.
Walls D.F. , Milburn G.L. (2008). Quantum Optics, Springer.
Wang E.T. , Zhao M. , (2010). Regulation of tissue repair and regeneration by electric fields. Chin J Traumatol.
13(1):55–61.
Wang J. , Fujiwara O. , Kodera S. , Watanabe S. , (2006). FDTD calculation of whole-body average SAR in
adult and child models for frequencies from 30 MHz to 3 GHz. Phys Med Biol. 51(17):4119–4127.
Weisenseel M.H. , (1983). Control of differentiation and growth by endogenous electric currents. In W. Hoppe ,
W. Lohmann , H. Markl , H. Ziegler (Eds), Biophysics, Springer–Verlag, Berlin, 460–465.
Wertheimer N. , Leeper E. , (1979). Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 109.
Wever R. , (1974). ELF effects on human circadian rhythms. In M.A. Persinger (Ed), ELF and VLF
Electromagnetic Fields. Plenum Press, New York.
Wever R. , (1979). The Circadian System of Man: Results of Experiments under Temporal Isolation. Springer-
Verlag, New York.
Wilson W. , (1915). The quantum theory of radiation and line spectra. Phil Mag 29: 795–802.
Wongkasem N. , (2021). Electromagnetic pollution alert: microwave radiation and absorption in human organs
and tissues. Electromag Biol Med. Feb 10:1–18. doi:10.1080/15368378.2021.1874976. Online ahead of print.
Wood A. , Mate R. , Karipidis K. , (2021). Meta-analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies of the biological effects of
low-level millimetre waves. J Exposure Sci Environ Epidemiol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00307-7.
Wust P. , Kortüm B. , Strauss U. , et al, (2020). Non-thermal effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields.
Sci Rep. 10(1):13488. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69561-3.
Wust P. , Stein U. , Ghadjar P. , (2021). Non-thermal membrane effects of electromagnetic fields and
therapeutic applications in oncology. Int J Hyperthermia. 38(1):715–731.
Yakymenko I. , Sidorik E. , Kyrylenko S. , Chekhun V. , (2011). Long-term exposure to microwave radiation
provokes cancer growth: evidences from radars and mobile communication systems. Exp Oncol. 33(2):62–70.
Yakymenko I. , Tsybulin O. , Sidorik E. , Henshel D. , Kyrylenko O. , et al, (2016). Oxidative mechanisms of
biological activity of low-intensity radiofrequency radiation. Electromagn Biol Med. 35(2):186–202.
Yakymenko I. , Burlaka A. , Tsybulin I. , Brieieva I. , Buchynska L. , et al, (2018). Oxidative and mutagenic
effects of low intensity GSM 1800 MHz microwave radiation. Exp Oncol. 40(4):282–287.
Zheng Y. , Xia P. , Dong L. , Tian L. , Xiong C. , (2021). Effects of modulation on sodium and potassium
channel currents by extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields stimulation on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal
cells. Electromagn Biol Med. 17:1–12.
Zhou R. , Xiong Y. , Xing G. , Sun L. , Ma J. , (2010). ZiFi: wireless LAN Discovery via ZigBee Interference
Signatures MobiCom'10, September 20–24, Chicago, IL.
Zothansiama, Z.M. , Lalramdinpuii M. , Jagetia G.C. , (2017). Impact of radiofrequency radiation on DNA
damage and antioxidants in peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans residing in the vicinity of mobile phone
base stations. Electromagn Biol Med. 36(3):295–305.
Zwamborn A.P.M. , Vossen S.H.J.A. , van Leersum B.J.A.M. , Ouwens M.A. , Mäkel W.N. . (2003). Effects of
global communication system radio-frequency fields on well being and cognitive functions of human subjects
with and without subjective complaints. FEL-03-C148. TNO Physics and Electronics Laboratory, The Hague,
the Netherlands.
http://home.tiscali.be/milieugezondheid/dossiers/gsm/TNO_rapport_Nederland_sept_2003.pdf.
Public Health Implications of Exposure to Wireless Communication Electromagnetic
Fields
Adair, R.K. (2003). Biophysical limits on athermal effects of RF and microwave radiation. Bioelectromagnetics
24(1):39–48.
Adams, J.A. , Galloway, T.S. , Mondal, D. , Esteves, S.C. , Mathews, F. (2014). Effect of mobile telephones on
sperm quality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int. 70:106–112.
Agarwal, A. , Deepinder, F. , Sharma, R.K. , Ranga, G. , Li, J. (2008). Effect of cell phone usage on semen
analysis in men attending infertility clinic: An observational study. Fertil Steril. 89(1):124–128.
Ahlbom, A. , Day, N. , Feychting, M. , et al. (2000). A pooled analysis of magnetic fields and childhood
leukaemia. Br. J. Cancer 83(5):692–698.
Akdag, M. , Dasdag, S. , Canturk, F. , Akdag, M.Z. (2018). Exposure to non-ionizing electromagnetic fields
emitted from mobile phones induced DNA damage in human ear canal hair follicle cells. Electromagn Biol Med.
37(2):66–75.
Aldad, T.S. , Gan, G. , Gao, X.B. , Taylor, H.S. (2012). Fetal radiofrequency radiation exposure from 800–1900
MHz-rated cellular telephones affects neurodevelopment and behavior in mice. Sci Rep. 2:312.
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00312.
Alster, N. (2015). Captured agency: How the federal communications commission is dominated by the
industries it presumably regulates. Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics Harvard University, 124 Mount Auburn
Street, Suite 520 N. Cambridge, MA 02138 USA.
Anonymous . (2018). LTE achieves 39% market share worldwide. Microw J., June 25, 2018.
http://www.microwavejournal.com/articles/30603-lte-achieves (accessed September 29 2018).
Aydin, D. , Feychting, M. , Schüz, J. , et al. (2011). Mobile phone use and brain tumors in children and
adolescents: A multicenter case-control study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 103(16):1264–1276.
Balmori, A. (2009). Electromagnetic pollution from phone masts: Effects on wildlife. Pathophysiology
16(2–3):191–199.
Balmori, A. (2014). Electrosmog and species conservation. Sci Total Environ. 496:314–316.
Barnes, F. , Greenebaum, B. (2016). Some effects of weak magnetic fields on biological systems: RF fields can
change radical concentrations and cancer cell growth rates. IEEE Power Electron Mag. 3(1):60–68.
Belpomme, D. , Hardell, L. , Belyaev, I. , Burgio, E. , Carpenter, D.O. (2018). Thermal and non-thermal health
effects of low intensity non-ionizing radiation: An international perspective. Environ Pollut.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.019.
Beltzalel, N. , Ben Ishai, P. , Feldman, Y. (2018). The human skin as a sub-THz receiver - Does 5G pose a
danger to it or not? Environ Res. 163:208–216.
Belyaev, I. (2010). Dependence of non–thermal biological effects of microwaves on physical and biological
variables: Implications for reproducibility and safety standards. In L. Giuliani , M. Soffritti (Eds.), European J.
Oncol.—Library non–thermal effects and mechanisms of interaction between electromagnetic fields and living
matter, 5, Ramazzini Institute, Bologna, Italy, pp. 187–218 (An ICEMS Monograph).
Belyaev, I. , Dean, A. , Eger, H. , et al. (2016). EUROPAEM EMF guideline. 2016 for the prevention, diagnosis
and treatment of EMF-related health problems and illnesses. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2016-0011.
Benson, V.S. , Pirie, K. , Schüz, J. , et al.; Million Women Study Collaborators . (2013). Mobile phone use and
risk of brain neoplasms and other cancers: Prospective study. Int J Epidemiol. 42(3):792–802.
BioInitiative Working Group . (2012). A rationale for biologically-based exposure standards for low-intensity
electromagnetic radiation. BioInitiative. https://www.bioinitiative.org/.
Brzozek, C. , Benke, K.K. , Zeleke, B.M. , et al. (2018). Radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation and memory
performance: Sources of uncertainty in epidemiological cohort studies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health
15(4):592. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040592.
Byun, Y.H. , Ha, M. , Kwon, H.J. , et al. (2013). Mobile phone use, blood lead levels, and attention deficit
hyperactivity symptoms in children: A longitudinal study. PLOS ONE 8(3):e59742.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0059742.
Carlberg, M. , Hardell, L. (2014). Decreased survival of glioma patients with astrocytoma grade IV (glioblastoma
multiforme) associated with long-term use of mobile and cordless phones. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health
11(10):10790–10805.
Carlberg, M. , Hardell, L. (2017). Evaluation of mobile phone and cordless phone use and glioma risk using the
Bradford Hill viewpoints from 1965 on association or causation. BioMed Res Int. 2017:9218486.
Carlberg, M. , Hedendahl, L. , Koppel, T. , Hardell, L. (2019). High ambient radiofrequency radiation in
Stockholm city, Sweden. Oncol Lett. 17(2):1777–1783. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2018.9789.
CDPH . (2017a). Connecticut department of public health: Cell phones: Questions and answers about safety.
https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/Departments-and-Agencies/DPH/dph/
environmental_health/eoha/Toxicology_Risk_Assessment/050815CellPhonesFINALpdf.pdf?la=en.
CDPH . (2017b). Guidelines on how to reduce exposure to radio frequency energy from cell phones.
https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/OPA/Pages/NR17-086.aspx.
Choi, K.H. , Ha, M. , Ha, E.H. , et al. (2017). Neurodevelopment for the first three years following prenatal
mobile phone use, radio frequency radiation and lead exposure. Environ Res. 156:810–817.
Coghill, R.W. , Steward, J. , Philips, A. (1996). Extra low frequency electric and magnetic fields in the bed place
of children diagnosed with leukaemia: A case-control study. Eur J Cancer Prev. 5(3):153–158.
Coleman, M.P. , Bell, C.M. , Taylor, H.L. , Primic-Zakelj, M. (1989). Leukaemia and residence near electricity
transmission equipment: A case-control study. Br. J. Cancer 60(5):793–798.
Corvi, R. , Madia, F. (2017). In vitro genotoxicity testing – Can the performance be enhanced? Food Chem
Toxicol. 106(B):600–608.
Coureau, G. , Bouvier, G. , Lebailly, P. , et al. (2014). Mobile phone use and brain tumours in the CERENAT
case-control study. Occup Environ Med. 71(7):514–522.
Czerninski, R. , Zini, A. , Sgan-Cohen, H.D. (2011). Risk of parotid malignant tumors in Israel (1970–2006).
Epidemiology 22(1):130–131. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181feb9f0.
De Iuliis, G.N. , Newey, R.J. , King, B.V. , Aitken, R.J. (2009). Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen
species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLOS ONE 4(7):e6446.
Deniz, O.G. , Suleyman, K. , Mustafa, B.S. , et al. (2017). Effects of short and long term electromagnetic fields
exposure on the human hippocampus. J Microsc Ultrastruct. 5(4):191–197.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmau.2017.07.001.
De-Sola Gutiérrez, J. , Rodríguez de Fonseca, F. , Rubio, G. (2016). Cell-phone addiction: A review. Front.
Psychiatry 7:175. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00175; https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5076301/.
Divan, H.A. , Kheifets, L. , Obel, C. , Olsen, J. (2008). Prenatal and postnatal exposure to cell phone use and
behavioral problems in children. Epidemiology 19(4):523–529.
https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e318175dd47.
Eghlidospour, M. , Amir, G. , Seyyed, M.J.M. , Hassan, A. (2017). Effects of radiofrequency exposure emitted
from a GSM mobile phone on proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis of neural stem cells. Anat Cell Biol.
50(2):115–123.
EMF-Portal of the RWTH Aachen University . (2018). https://www.emf-portal.org/en.
Environmental Health Trust . (2018). Database of worldwide policies on cell phones, wireless and health.
https://ehtrust.org/policy/international-policy-actions-on-wireless/.
Falcioni, L. , Bua, L. , Tibaldi, E. , et al. (2018). Report of final results regarding brain and heart tumors in
Sprague-Dawley rats exposed from prenatal life until natural death to mobile phone radiofrequency field
representative of a 1.8 GHz GSM base station environmental emission. Environ Res. 17(1):50.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0394-x.
Federal Communication Commission . (2013). Radio frequency safety 13–39 section 112, page 37 first report
and order March 29, 2013. https://apps.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-13-39A1.pdf.
Fernández, C. , de Salles, A.A. , Sears, M.E. , Morris, R.D. , Davis, D.L. (2018). Absorption of wireless radiation
in the child versus adult brain and eye from cell phone conversation or virtual reality. Environ Res.
167:694–699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.05.013.
Feychting, M. , Ahlbom, A. (1993). Magnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Swedish high - Voltage
power lines. Am J Epidemiol. 138(7):467–481.
Feychting, M. , Ahlbom, A. (1994). Magnetic fields, leukemia and central nervous system tumors in Swedish
adults residing near high - Voltage power lines. Epidemiology 5(5):501–509.
Feychting, M. , Ahlbom, A. (1995). Childhood leukemia and residential exposure to weak extremely low
frequency magnetic fields. Environ Health Perspect. 103(suppl 2):59–62.
Foerster, M. , Thielens, A. , Joseph, W. , Eeftens, M. , Röösli, M. (2018). A prospective cohort study of
adolescents' memory performance and individual brain dose of microwave radiation from wireless
communication. Environ Health Perspect. 126(7):077007. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2427.
Gautam, R. , Singh, K.V. , Nirala, J. , et al. (2019). Oxidative stress-mediated alterations on sperm parameters
in male Wistar rats exposed to 3G mobile phone radiation. Andrologia 51(3):e13201.
https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13201.
Gittleman, H.R. , Ostrom, Q.T. , Rouse, C.D. , et al. (2015). Trends in central nervous system tumor incidence
relative to other common cancers in adults, adolescents, and children in the United States, 2000 to 2010.
Cancer 121(1):102–112. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.29015.
Goedhart, G. , van Wel, L. , Langer, C.E. , et al. (2018). Recall of mobile phone usage and laterality in young
people: The multinational mobi-expo study. Environ Res. 165:150–157.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.04.018.
Green, L.M. , Miller, A.B. , Villeneuve, P. , et al. (1999a). A case-control study of childhood leukemia in
Southern Ontario, Canada, and exposure to magnetic fields in residences. Int. J. Cancer 82(2):161–170.
Green, L.M. , Miller, A.B. , Agnew, D.A. , et al. (1999b). Childhood leukemia and personal monitoring of
residential exposures to electric and magnetic fields in Ontario Canada. Cancer Causes Control 10(3):233–243.
Greenland, S. , Sheppard, A.R. , Kaune, W.T. , Poole, C. , Kelsh, M.A. (2000). A pooled analysis of magnetic
fields, wire codes, and childhood leukemia: Childhood leukemia-EMF Study Group. Epidemiology
11(6):624–634.
Halgamuge, M.N. (2017). Review: Weak radiofrequency radiation exposure from mobile phone radiation on
plants. Electromagn Biol Med. 36(2):213–235.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. , Söderqvist, F. , Kjell, H.M. (2013a). Pooled analysis of case-control studies on
acoustic neuroma diagnosed 1997–2003 and 2007–2009 and use of mobile and cordless phones. Int J Oncol.
43(4):1036–1044.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. , Gee, D. (2013b). Mobile phone use and brain tumour risk: Early warnings, early
actions? Chapter 21. In Late lessons from early warnings, part 2. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen,
Denmark. https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/late-lessons-2/late-lessons-chapters/late-lessons-ii-chapter-
21/view.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. (2015). Mobile phone and cordless phone use and the risk for glioma - Analysis of
pooled case-control studies in Sweden, 1997–2003 and 2007–2009. Pathophysiology 22(1):1–13.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. , Hedendahl, L.K. (2018). Radiofrequency radiation from nearby base stations gives
high levels in an apartment in Stockholm, Sweden: A case report. Oncol Lett. 15(5):7871–7883.
https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2018.8285.
Hardell, L. , Nyberg, R. (2020). Appeals that matter or not on a moratorium on the deployment of the fifth
generation, 5G, for microwave radiation. Mol Clin Oncol. https://doi.org/10.3892/mco.2020.1984.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. (2020). Health risks from radiofrequency radiation, including 5G, should be assessed
by experts with no conflicts of interest. Oncol Lett. 20(4):15.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. (2021). Lost opportunities for cancer prevention: Historical evidence on early warnings
with emphasis on radiofrequency radiation. Rev. Environ. Health. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2020-0168.
Heuser, G. , Heuser, S.A. (2017). Functional brain MRI in patients complaining of electrohypersensitivity after
long term exposure to electromagnetic fields. Rev. Environ. Health 32(3):291–299.
https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2017-0014.
Houston, B.J. , Nixon, B. , King, B.V. , De Iuliis, G.N. , Aitken, R.J. (2016). The effects of radiofrequency
electromagnetic radiation on sperm function. Reproduction 152(6):R263–R276.
Huber, R. , Treyer, V. , Borbély, A.A. , et al. (2002). Electromagnetic fields, such as those from mobile phones,
alter regional cerebral blood flow and sleep and waking EEG. J Sleep Res. 11(4):289–295.
Huber, R. , Treyer, V. , Schuderer, J. , et al. (2005). Exposure to pulse-modulated radio frequency
electromagnetic fields affects regional cerebral blood flow. Eur J Neurosci. 21(4):1000–1006.
Huss, A. , Egger, M. , Hug, K. , Huwiler-Müntener, K. , Röösli, M. (2007). Source of funding and results of
studies of health effects of mobile phone use: Systematic review of experimental studies. Environ Health
Perspect. 115(1):1–4.
Hyland, G.J. (2000). Physics and biology of mobile telephony. Lancet 356(9244):1833–1836.
Hyland, G.J. (2008). Physical basis of adverse and therapeutic effects of low intensity microwave radiation.
Indian J Exp Biol. 46(5):403–419.
IARC . (2002). Non-ionizing radiation, Part 1: Static and extremely low-frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic
fields. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum.80:1–395 .
IARC . (2013). IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Non-ionizing radiation,
Part 2: Radiofrequency Electromagnetic fields. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum. 102(Pt 2):1–460.
IARC . (2021). Cancer incidence in five continents, Volume XI. International Agency for Research on Cancer,
Lyon, France.
ICNIRP . (1998). Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields
(up to 300 GHz). International commission on non-ionizing radiation protection. Health Phys. 74(4):494–522.
ICNIRP . (2018). ICNIRP note on recent animal carcinogenesis studies. Munich, Germany.
https:/www.icnirp.org/cms/upload/publications/ICNIRP note.pdf.
ICNIRP . (2020). Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz to 300GHz). Health Phys.
[Published ahead of print].
IEEE . (1991). IEEE c95.1 IEEE standard for safety levels with respect to human exposure to radio frequency
electromagnetic fields, 3 kHZ to 300 GHz. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1626482/.
Interphone Study Group . (2010). Brain tumour risk in relation to mobile telephone use: Results of the
INTERPHONE international case-control study. Int J Epidemiol. 39(3):675–694.
Karipidis, K. , Elwood, M. , Benke, G. , et al. (2018). Mobile phone use and incidence of brain tumour
histological types, grading or anatomical location: A population-based ecological study. BMJ Open
8(12):e024489. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024489.
Kesari, K.K. , Agarwal, A. , Henkel, R. (2018). Radiations and male fertility. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 16(1):118.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12958-018-0431-1.
Kostoff, R.N. , Lau, C.G.Y. (2013). Combined biological and health effects of electromagnetic fields and other
agents in the published literature. Technol. Forecast Soc. Change 80(7):1331–1349.
Leach, V. , Weller, S. , Redmayne, M. (2018). Database of bio-effects from non-ionizing radiation: A novel
database of bio-effects from non-ionizing radiation. Rev. Environ. Health 33(3):273–280.
https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2018-0017; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29874195.
Lerchl, A. , Klose, M. , Grote, K. , et al. (2015). Tumor promotion by exposure to radiofrequency
electromagnetic fields below exposure limits for humans. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 459(4):585–590.
Massachusetts, United States of America . (2017). Legislative update on bills on wireless and health.
https://ehtrust.org/massachusetts-2017-bills-wireless-health/.
Melnick, R.L. (2019). Commentary on the utility of the national toxicology program study on cellphone
radiofrequency radiation data for assessing human health risks despite unfounded criticisms aimed at
minimizing the findings of adverse health effects. Environ Res. 168:1–6.
Meo, S.A. , Almahmoud, M. , Alsultan, Q. , et al. (2018). Mobile phone base station tower settings adjacent to
school buildings: Impact on students' cognitive health. Am. J. Mens Health. 7:1557988318816914.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988318816914.
Miller, A.B. , To, T. , Agnew, D.A. , Wall, C. , Green, L.M. (1996). Leukemia following occupational exposure to
60-Hz electric and magnetic fields among Ontario electric utility workers. Am J Epidemiol. 144(2):150–160.
Miller, A.B. , Morgan, L.L. , Udasin, I. , Davis, D.L. (2018). Cancer epidemiology update, following the 2011
IARC evaluation of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (monograph 102). Environ Res. 167:673–683.
Miller, A.B. , Sears, M.E. , Morgan, L.L. , et al. (2019). Risks to health and well-being from radio-frequency
radiation emitted by cell phones and other wireless devices. Front. Public Health 7:223.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00223.
Moon, I.S. , Kim, B.G. , Kim, J. , Lee, J.D. , Lee, W.S. (2014). Association between vestibular schwannomas
and mobile phone use. Tumour Biol. 35(1):581–587. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13277-013-1081-8.
Moulder, J.E. , Erdreich, L.S. , Malyapa, R.S. , et al. (1999). Cell phones and cancer: What is the evidence for a
connection? Radiat Res. 151(5):513–531.
Moulder, J.E. , Foster, K.R. , Erdreich, L.S. , McNamee, J.P. (2005). Mobile phones mobile phone base stations
and cancer: A review. Int J Radiat Biol. 81(3):189–203.
National Toxicology Program . (2018a). NTP technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies in
Hsd:Sprague-Dawley SD rats exposed to whole-body radio frequency radiation at a frequency (900 MHz) and
modulations (GSM and CDMA) used by cell phones. NTP TR 595.
National Toxicology Program . (2018b). NTP technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies in
B6C3F1/N mice exposed to whole-body radio frequency radiation at a frequency (1800 MHz) and modulations
(GSM and CDMA) used by cell phones. NTP TR 596.
https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/about_ntp/trpanel/2018/march/tr596peerdraft.pdf.
Nilsson, J. , Järås, J. , Henriksson, R. , et al. (2019). No evidence for increased brain tumour incidence in the
Swedish national cancer register between years 1980–2012. Anticancer Res. 39(2):791–796.
https://doi.org/10.21873/anticanres.13176.
Odemer, R. , Odemer, F. (2019). Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMF) on honey bee
queen development and mating success. Sci Total Environ. 661:553–562.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.154.
Olsson, A. , Bouaoun, L. , Auvinen, A. , et al. (2019). Survival of glioma patients in relation to mobile phone use
in Denmark, Finland and Sweden. J Neurooncol. 141(1):139–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-018-03019-5.
Ostrom, Q.T. , Gittleman, H. , de Blank, P.M. , et al. (2016). Adolescent and young adult primary brain and
central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2008–2012. Neuro-Oncology
18(suppl_1):1–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nov297.
Ostrom, Q.T. , Gittleman, H. , Truitt, G. , et al. (2018). CBTRUS statistical report: Primary brain and other
central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2011–2015. Neuro-Oncology 20(suppl
4):1–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noy131.
Ostrom, Q.T. , Patil, N. , Cioffi, G. , et al. (2020). CBTRUS statistical report. Primary brain and other central
nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2013–2017. Neuro-Oncology 22(12 suppl 2):iv1–iv96.
https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noaa200.
Pall, M.L. (2016). Microwave frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs) produce widespread neuropsychiatric
effects including depression. J Chem Neuroanat. 75(Pt B):43–51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchemneu.2015.08.001.
Panagopoulos, D.J. , Karabarbounis, A. , Margaritis, L.H. (2004). Effect of GSM 900-MHz mobile phone
radiation on the reproductive capacity of Drosophila melanogaster. Electromagn Biol Med. 23(1):29–43.
Panagopoulos, D.J. , Johansson, O. , Carlo, G.L. (2013). Evaluation of specific absorption rate as a dosimetric
quantity for electromagnetic fields bioeffects. PLOS ONE 8(6):e62663.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062663.
Panagopoulos, D.J. , Johansson, O. , Carlo, G.L. (2015). Polarization: A key difference between man-made
and natural electromagnetic fields, in regard to biological activity. Sci Rep. 5:14914.
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14914.
Panagopoulos, D.J. (2019). Comparing DNA damage induced by mobile telephony and other types of man-
made electromagnetic fields. Mutat Res Rev Mutat Res. 781:53–62.
Philips, A. , Henshaw, D.L. , Lamburn, G. , O'Carrol, L.M.J. (2018). Brain tumours: Rise in Glioblastoma
multiforme incidence in England 1995–2015 suggests an adverse environmental or lifestyle factor. J Public
Health Environ.:7910754. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7910754.
Rago, R. , Salacone, P. , Caponecchia, L. , et al. (2013). The semen quality of the mobile phone users. J
Endocrinol Invest. 36(11):970–974. https://doi.org/10.3275/8996.
Rappaport, T.S. , Sun, S. , Mayzus, R. , et al. (2013). Millimeter wave mobile communications for 5G cellular: It
will work! IEEE Access 1:335–349. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2013.2260813.
Redmayne, M. , Smith, E. , Abramson, M.J. (2013). The relationship between adolescents' well-being and their
wireless phone use: A cross-sectional study. Environ. Health 12:90. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-12-90.
Röösli, M. , Lagorio, S. , Schoemaker, M.J. , Schüz, J. , Feychting, M. (2019). Brain and salivary gland tumors
and mobile phone use: Evaluating the evidence from various epidemiological study designs. Annu. Rev. Public
Health; January 11. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044037.
Russell, C.L. (2018). 5G wireless telecommunications expansion: Public health and environmental implications.
Environ Res. 165:484–495.
Sage, C. , Burgio, E. (2018). Electromagnetic fields, pulsed radiofrequency radiation, and epigenetics: How
wireless technologies may affect childhood development. Child Dev. 89(1):129–136.
https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12824.
Salford, L.G. , Brun, A.E. , Eberhardt, J.L. , Marmgren, L. , Persson, B.R. (2003). Nerve cell damage in
mammalian brain after exposure to microwaves from GSM mobile phones. Environ Health Perspect.
111(7):881–883.
Samuel, H. (2018). The telegraph. France to impose total ban on mobile phones in schools.
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/11/france-impose-total-ban-mobile-phones-schools/.
Savitz, D.A. , Wachtel, H. , Barnes, F. , John, E.M. , Tvrdik, J.G. (1988). Case-control study of childhood cancer
and exposure to 60Hz magnetic fields. Am J Epidemiol. 128(1):21–38.
Sharma, V.P. , Kumar, N.R. (2010). Changes in honeybee behaviour and biology under the influence of
cellphone radiations. Curr Sci. 98:1376–1378.
Szmigielski, S. (2013). Reaction of the immune system to low-level RF/MW exposures. Sci Total Environ.
454–455:393–400.
Söderqvist, F. , Carlberg, M. , Hardell, L. (2012). Review of four publications on the Danish cohort study on
mobile phone subscribers and risk of brain tumours. Rev. Environ. Health 27(1):51–58.
Soffritti, M. , Giuliani, L. (2019). The carcinogenic potential of non-ionizing radiations: The cases of S-50 Hz MF
and 1.8 GHz GSM radiofrequency radiation. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. February 24.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bcpt.13215.
Sudan, M. , Olsen, J. , Arah, O.A. , Obel, C. , Kheifets, L. (2016). Prospective cohort analysis of cellphone use
and emotional and behavioural difficulties in children. J. Epidemiol. Community Health.
https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2016-207419.
Tuor, M. , Ebert, S. , Schuderer, J. , Kuster, N. (2005). Assessment of ELF exposure from GSM handsets and
development of an optimized RF/ELF exposure setup for studies of human volunteers, BAG Reg. No. 2.23.02.-
18/02.001778, IT'IS Foundation.
Vijayalaxmi, Prihoda, T.J. (2019). Comprehensive review of quality of publications and meta-analysis of genetic
damage in mammalian cells exposed to non-ionizing radiofrequency fields. Radiat Res. 191(1):20–30.
https://doi.org/10.1667/RR15117.1.
Villeneuve, P.J. , Agnew, D.A. , Miller, A.B. , Corey, P.N. (2000a). Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among electric
utility workers in Ontario: The evaluation of alternate indices of exposure to 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields.
Occup Environ Med. 57(4):249–257.
Villeneuve, P.J. , Agnew, D.A. , Miller, A.B. , Corey, P.N. , Purdham, J.T. (2000b). Leukemia in electric utility
workers: The evaluation of alternative indices of exposure to 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields. Am J Ind Med.
37(6):607–617.
Volkow, N.D. , Tomasi, D. , Wang, G.-J. , et al. (2011). Effects of cell phone radiofrequency signal exposure on
brain glucose metabolism. JAMA 305(8):808–813.
Vrijheid, M. , Deltour, I. , Krewski, D. , Sanchez, M. , Cardis, E. (2006). The effects of recall errors and of
selection bias in epidemiologic studies of mobile phone use and cancer risk. J Expo Sci Environ
Epidemiol.:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jes.7500509.
Waldmann-Selsam, C. , Balmori-de la Plante, A., Breunig, H. , Balmori, A. (2016). Radiofrequency radiation
injures trees around mobile phone base stations. Sci Total Environ. 572:554–569.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.045.
Walsh, J.J. , Barnes, J.D. , Cameron, J.D. , et al. (2018). Associations between 24 hour movement behaviours
and global cognition in US children: A cross-sectional observational study. The Lancet Child Adolesc. Health,
September 27, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(18)30278-5 (accessed September 29, 2018).
Wdowiak, A. , Wdowiak, L. , Wiktor, H. (2007). Evaluation of the effect of using mobile phones on male fertility.
Ann Agric Environ Med. 14(1):169–172.
Wertheimer, N. , Leeper, E. (1979). Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. Am J Epidemiol.
109(3):273–284.
West, J.G. , Kapoor, N.S. , Liao, S.-Y. , et al. (2013). Multifocal breast cancer in young women with prolonged
contact between their breasts and their cellular phones. Case Rep Med. 2013:354682.
Worcester Massachusetts Public Schools . (2017). Worcester school committee precautionary option on
radiofrequency exposure. http://wpsweb.com/sites/default/files/www/school_safety/radio_ frequency.pdf.
Ying, L. , Héroux, P. (2014). Extra-low-frequency magnetic fields alter cancer cells through metabolic
restriction. Electromagn Biol Med. 33(4):264–275. https://doi.org/10.3109/15368378.2013.817334.
Yakymenko, I. , Tsybulin, O. , Sidorik, E. , et al. (2016). Oxidative mechanisms of biological activity of low-
intensity radiofrequency radiation. Electromagn Biol Med. 35(2):186–202.
Zhang, G. , Yan, H. , Chen, Q. , et al. (2016). Effects of cell phone use on semen parameters: Results from the
MARHCS cohort study in Chongqing, China. Environ Int. 91:116–121.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.02.028.
Zwamborn, A.P.M. , Vossen, S.H.J.A. , van Leersum, B.J.A.M. , et al. (2003). Effects of global communication
system radio-frequency fields on well being and cognitive functions of human subjects with and without
subjective complaints. FEL-03-C148. The Hague, the Netherlands: TNO Physics and Electronics Laboratory.
http://home.tiscali.be/milieugezondheid/dossiers/gsm/TNO_rapport_Nederland_sept_2003.pdf.
Oxidative Stress Induced by Wireless Communication Electromagnetic Fields
Abdel-Rassoul, G. , El-Fateh, O. A. , Salem, M. A. , et al. (2007). Neurobehavioral effects among inhabitants
around mobile phone base stations. Neurotoxicology 28(2):434–440.
Abu Khadra, K. M. , Khalil, A. M. , Abu Samak, M. , et al. (2014). Evaluation of selected biochemical
parameters in the saliva of young males using mobile phones. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine,
34(1):1–5.
Abyaneh, E. B. (2018). Low frequency electromagnetic field induced oxidative stress in Lepidium sativum L.
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions A: Science 42(3):1419–1426.
Agarwal, A. , Desai, N. R. , Makker, K. , et al. (2009). Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-
EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: An in vitro pilot study. Fertility and Sterility
92(4):1318–1325.
Ahmed, N. A. , Radwan, N. M. , Aboul Ezz, H. S. , Salama, N. A. (2017). The antioxidant effect of green tea
mega EGCG against electromagnetic radiation-induced oxidative stress in the hippocampus and striatum of
rats. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 36(1):63–73.
Akbari, A. , Jelodar, G. , Nazifi, S. (2014). Vitamin C protects rat cerebellum and encephalon from oxidative
stress following exposure to radiofrequency wave generated by BTS antenna mobile. Toxicology Mechanisms
and Methods , 24(5):347–352.
Akdag, M. Z. , Dasdag, S. , Ulukaya, E. , et al. (2010). Effects of extremely low-frequency magnetic field on
caspase activities and oxidative stress values in rat brain. Biological Trace Element Research 138(1):238–249.
Akdag, M. Z. , Dasdag, S. , Uzunlar, A. K. , et al. (2013). Can safe and long-term exposure to extremely low
frequency (50 Hz) magnetic fields affect apoptosis, reproduction, and oxidative stress? International Journal of
Radiation Biology 89(12):1053–1060.
Akefe, I. O. , Yusuf, I. L. , Adegoke, V. A. (2019). C-glycosyl flavonoid orientin alleviates learning and memory
impairment by radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation in mice via improving antioxidant defence mechanism.
Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine 9(12):518.
Akkam, Y. , A Al-Taani, A. , Ayasreh, S. , Akkam, N. (2020). Correlation of blood oxidative stress parameters to
indoor radiofrequency radiation: A cross sectional study in Jordan. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health 17(13):4673.
Al-Damegh, M. A. (2012). Rat testicular impairment induced by electromagnetic radiation from a conventional
cellular telephone and the protective effects of the antioxidants vitamins C and E. Clinics 67(7):785–792.
Alkis, M. E. , Bilgin, H. M. , Akpolat, V. , et al. (2019). Effect of 900-, 1800-, and 2100-MHz radiofrequency
radiation on DNA and oxidative stress in brain. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 38(1):32–47.
Asl, J. F. , Goudarzi, M. , Shoghi, H. (2020). The radio-protective effect of rosmarinic acid against mobile phone
and wi-fi radiation-induced oxidative stress in the brains of rats. Pharmacological Reports 72(4):857–866.
Avci, B. , Akar, A. , Bilgici, B. , et al. (2012). Oxidative stress induced by 1.8 GHz radio frequency
electromagnetic radiation and effects of garlic extract in rats. International Journal of Radiation Biology
88(11):799–805.
Ayata, A. , Mollaoglu, H. , Yilmaz, H. R. , et al. (2004). Oxidative stress-mediated skin damage in an
experimental mobile phone model can be prevented by melatonin. Journal of Dermatology 31(11):878–883.
Aynali, G. , Naziroglu, M. , Celik, O. , et al. (2013). Modulation of wireless (2.45 GHz)-induced oxidative toxicity
in laryngotracheal mucosa of rat by melatonin. European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology: Official Journal of
the European Federation of Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Societies 270(5):1695–1700.
Bagheri Hosseinabadi, M. , Khanjani, N. , Ebrahimi, M. H. , Haji, B. , Abdolahfard, M. (2019). The effect of
chronic exposure to extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields on sleep quality, stress, depression and
anxiety. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 38(1):96–101.
Bagheri Hosseinabadi, M. , Khanjani, N. , Norouzi, P. , et al. (2021). Oxidative stress associated with long term
occupational exposure to extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields. Work 68(2), 379–386.
Bahreyni Toossi, M. H. , Sadeghnia, H. R. , Mohammad Mahdizadeh Feyzabadi, M. , et al. (2018). Exposure to
mobile phone (900–1800 MHz) during pregnancy: Tissue oxidative stress after childbirth. The Journal of
Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine 31(10):1298–1303.
Balci, M. , Devrim, E. , Durak, I. (2007). Effects of mobile phones on oxidant/antioxidant balance in cornea and
lens of rats. Current Eye Research 32(1):21–25.
Baohong, W. , Jiliang, H. , Lifen, J. , et al. (2005). Studying the synergistic damage effects induced by 1.8 GHz
radiofrequency field radiation (RFR) with four chemical mutagens on human lymphocyte DNA using comet
assay in vitro. Mutation Research 578(1–2):149–157.
Belpomme, D. , Irigaray, P. (2020). Electrohypersensitivity as a newly identified and characterized neurologic
pathological disorder: How to diagnose, treat, and prevent it. International Journal of Molecular Sciences
21(6):1915.
Belyaev, I. (2010). Dependence of non-thermal biological effects of microwaves on physical and biological
variables: Implications for reproducibility and safety standards. European Journal of Oncology Library
5:187–217.
Belyaev, I. Y. , Koch, C. B. , Terenius, O. , et al. (2006). Exposure of rat brain to 915 MHz GSM microwaves
induces changes in gene expression but not double stranded DNA breaks or effects on chromatin
conformation. Bioelectromagnetics 27(4):295–306.
Bilgici, B. , Akar, A. , Avci, B. , et al. (2013). Effect of 900 MHz radiofrequency radiation on oxidative stress in
rat brain and serum. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 32(1):20–29.
Blank, M. , Soo, L. (2001). Electromagnetic acceleration of electron transfer reactions. Journal of Cellular
Biochemistry 81(2):278–283.
Blank, M. , Soo, L. (2003). Electromagnetic acceleration of the Belousov-Zhabotinski reaction.
Bioelectrochemistry 61(1–2):93–97.
Bodera, P. , Stankiewicz, W. , Zawada, K. , et al. (2013). Changes in antioxidant capacity of blood due to
mutual action of electromagnetic field (1800 MHz) and opioid drug (tramadol) in animal model of persistent
inflammatory state. Pharmacological Reports: PR 65(2):421–428.
Bohr, H. , Bohr, J. (2000a). Microwave-enhanced folding and denaturation of globular proteins. Physical
Review: Part E 61(4):4310–4314.
Bohr, H. , Bohr, J. (2000b). Microwave enhanced kinetics observed in ORD studies of a protein.
Bioelectromagnetics 21(1):68–72.
Boldogh, I. , Bacsi, A. , Choudhury, B. K. , et al. (2005). ROS generated by pollen NADPH oxidase provide a
signal that augments antigen-induced allergic airway inflammation. The Journal of Clinical Investigation
115(8):2169–2179.
Brocklehurst, B. , McLauchlan, K. A. (1996). Free radical mechanism for the effects of environmental
electromagnetic fields on biological systems. International Journal of Radiation Biology 69(1):3–24.
Buchner, K. , Eger, H. (2011). Changes of clinically important neurotransmitters under the influence of
modulated RF fields—A long-term study under real-life conditions. Umwelt - Medizin-Gesellschaft 24(1):44–57.
Budi, A. , Legge, F. S. , Treutlein, H. , Yarovsky, I. (2007). Effect of frequency on insulin response to electric
field stress. The Journal of Physical Chemistry: Part B 111(20):5748–5756.
Budziosz, J. , Stanek, A. , Sieroń, A. , et al. (2018). Effects of low-frequency electromagnetic field on oxidative
stress in selected structures of the central nervous system. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2018,
1427412.
Burlaka, A. , Tsybulin, O. , Sidorik, E. , et al. (2013). Overproduction of free radical species in embryonic cells
exposed to low intensity radiofrequency radiation. Experimental Oncology 35(3):219–225.
Burlaka, A. , Selyuk, M. , Gafurov, M. , et al. (2014). Changes in mitochondrial functioning with electromagnetic
radiation of ultra high frequency as revealed by electron paramagnetic resonance methods. International
Journal of Radiation Biology 90(5):357–362.
Byus, C. V. , Kartun, K. , Pieper, S. , Adey, W. R. (1988). Increased ornithine decarboxylase activity in cultured
cells exposed to low energy modulated microwave fields and phorbol ester tumor promoters. Cancer Research
48(15):4222–4226.
Calabrese, E. J. (2008). Hormesis: Why it is important to toxicology and toxicologists. Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry 27(7):1451–1474.
Campisi, A. , Gulino, M. , Acquaviva, R. , et al. (2010). Reactive oxygen species levels and DNA fragmentation
on astrocytes in primary culture after acute exposure to low intensity microwave electromagnetic field.
Neuroscience Letters 473(1):52–55.
Canseven, A. G. , Coskun, S. , Seyhan, N. (2008). Effects of various extremely low frequency magnetic fields
on the free radical processes, natural antioxidant system and respiratory burst system activities in the heart and
liver tissues, Indian Journal of Biochemistry & Biophysics, 45:326–331.
Caraglia, M. , Marra, M. , Mancinelli, F. , et al. (2005). Electromagnetic fields at mobile phone frequency induce
apoptosis and inactivation of the multi-chaperone complex in human epidermoid cancer cells. Journal of
Cellular Physiology 204(2):539–548.
Cardis, E. , Deltour, I. , Vrijheid, M. , et al. (2010). Brain tumour risk in relation to mobile telephone use: Results
of the INTERPHONE international case-control study. International Journal of Epidemiology 39(3):675–694.
Carpenter, D. O. (2013). Human disease resulting from exposure to electromagnetic fields. Reviews on
Environmental Health 28(4):159–172.
Çenesiz, M. , Atakişi, O. , Akar, A. , et al. (2011). Effects of 900 and 1800 MHz electromagnetic field application
on electrocardiogram, nitric oxide, total antioxidant capacity, total oxidant capacity, total protein, albumin and
globulin levels in guinea pigs. Kafkas Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi 17(3):357–362.
Céspedes, O. , Ueno, S. (2009). Effects of radio frequency magnetic fields on iron release from cage proteins.
Bioelectromagnetics 30(5):336–342.
Çetin, H. , Naziroglu, M. , Çelik, Ö. , et al. (2014). Liver antioxidant stores protect the brain from
electromagnetic radiation (900 and 1800 MHz)-induced oxidative stress in rats during pregnancy and the
development of offspring. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine (Publised online):1–6.
Chavdoula, E. D. , Panagopoulos, D. J. , Margaritis, L. H. (2010). Comparison of biological effects between
continuous and intermittent exposure to GSM-900 MHz mobile phone radiation: Detection of apoptotic cell
death features. Mutation Research 700(1–2):51–61.
Chekhun, V. , Yakymenko, I. , Sidorik, E. , et al. (2014). Current state of international and national public safety
limits for radiofrequency radiation. Scientific Journal of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine 1:57–64.
Cho, S. I. , Nam, Y. S. , Chu, L. Y. , et al. (2012). Extremely low-frequency magnetic fields modulate nitric oxide
signaling in rat brain. Bioelectromagnetics 33(7):568–574.
Chou, C. K. , Guy, A. W. , Kunz, L. L. , et al. (1992). Long-term, low-level microwave irradiation of rats.
Bioelectromagnetics 13(6):469–496.
Christ, A. , Gosselin, M. C. , Christopoulou, M. , Kühn, S. , Kuster, N. (2010). Age-dependent tissue-specific
exposure of cell phone users. Physics in Medicine and Biology 55(7):1767–1783.
Chu, L. Y. , Lee, J. H. , Nam, Y. S. , et al. (2011). Extremely low frequency magnetic field induces oxidative
stress in mouse cerebellum. General Physiology and Biophysics 30(4):415–421.
Chu, M. K. , Song, H. G. , Kim, C. , Lee, B. C. (2011). Clinical features of headache associated with mobile
phone use: A cross-sectional study in university students. BMC Neurology 11:115.
Ciejka, E. , Kleniewska, P. , Skibska, B. , Goraca, A. (2011). Effects of extremely low frequency magnetic field
on oxidative balance in brain of rats. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 62(6):657.
Clifford, A. , Morgan, D. , Yuspa, S. H. , Soler, A. P. , Gilmour, S. (1995). Role of ornithine decarboxylase in
epidermal tumorigenesis. Cancer Research 55(8):1680–1686.
Consales, C. , Merla, C. , Marino, C. , Benassi, B. (2012). Electromagnetic fields, oxidative stress, and
neurodegeneration. International Journal of Cell Biology 2012:683897.
Cui, Y. , Ge, Z. , Rizak, J. D. , et al. (2012). Deficits in water maze performance and oxidative stress in the
hippocampus and striatum induced by extremely low frequency magnetic field exposure. PLOS ONE
7(5):e32196.
Dasdag, S. , Zulkuf Akdag, M. , Aksen, F. , et al. (2003). Whole body exposure of rats to microwaves emitted
from a cell phone does not affect the testes. Bioelectromagnetics 24(3):182–188.
Dasdag, S. , Bilgin, H. , Akdag, M. Z. , Celik, H. , Aksen, F. (2008). Effect of long term mobile phone exposure
on oxidative-antioxidative processes and nitric oxide in rats. Biotechnology and Biotechnological Equipment
22(4):992–997.
Dasdag, S. , Akdag, M. Z. , Ulukaya, E. , Uzunlar, A. K. , Ocak, A. R. (2009). Effect of mobile phone exposure
on apoptotic glial cells and status of oxidative stress in rat brain. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine
28(4):342–354.
Dasdag, S. , Akdag, M. Z. , Kizil, G. , et al. (2012). Effect of 900 MHz radio frequency radiation on beta amyloid
protein, protein carbonyl, and malondialdehyde in the brain. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine
31(1):67–74.
De Iuliis, G. N. , Newey, R. J. , King, B. V. , Aitken, R. J. (2009). Mobile phone radiation induces reactive
oxygen species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLOS ONE 4(7):e6446.
De Salles, A. A. , Bulla, G. , Rodriguez, C. E. (2006). Electromagnetic absorption in the head of adults and
children due to mobile phone operation close to the head. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine
25(4):349–360.
De Souza, F. T. , Silva, J. F. , Ferreira, E. F. , et al. (2014). Cell phone use and parotid salivary gland
alterations: No molecular evidence. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention (Published online):1357.
Demirel, S. , Doganay, S. , Turkoz, Y. , et al. (2012). Effects of third generation mobile phone-emitted
electromagnetic radiation on oxidative stress parameters in eye tissue and blood of rats. Cutaneous and Ocular
Toxicology 31(2):89–94.
Deng, Y. , Zhang, Y. , Jia, S. , et al. (2013). Effects of aluminum and extremely low frequency electromagnetic
radiation on oxidative stress and memory in brain of mice. Biological Trace Element Research 156(1):243–252.
Desai, N. R. , Kesari, K. K. , Agarwal, A. (2009). Pathophysiology of cell phone radiation: Oxidative stress and
carcinogenesis with focus on male reproductive system. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology: RB and E
7:114.
Deshmukh, P. S. , Banerjee, B. D. , Abegaonkar, M. P. , et al. (2013). Effect of low level microwave radiation
exposure on cognitive function and oxidative stress in rats. Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics
50(2):114–119.
Diem, E. , Schwarz, C. , Adlkofer, F. , Jahn, O. , Rüdiger, H. (2005). Non-thermal DNA breakage by mobile-
phone radiation (1800MHz) in human fibroblasts and in transformed GFSH-R17 rat granulosa cells in vitro.
Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis 583(2):178–183.
Ding, S.-S. , Sun, P. , Zhang, Z. , et al. (2018). Moderate dose of trolox preventing the deleterious effects of wi-
fi radiation on spermatozoa in vitro through reduction of oxidative stress damage. Chinese Medical Journal
(English Edition) 131(4):402.
Duan, Y. , Wang, Z. , Zhang, H. , et al. (2013). The preventive effect of lotus seedpod procyanidins on cognitive
impairment and oxidative damage induced by extremely low frequency electromagnetic field exposure. Food
and Function 4(8):1252–1262. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3FO60116A.
Dutta, S. K. , Ghosh, B. , Blackman, C. F. (1989). Radiofrequency radiation-induced calcium ion efflux
enhancement from human and other neuroblastoma cells in culture. Bioelectromagnetics 10(2):197–202.
Eger, H. , Hagen, K. , Lucas, B. , et al. (2004). Influence of the proximity of mobile phone base stations on the
incidence of cancer. Environmental Medicine Society 17:273–356.
Emre, M. , Cetiner, S. , Zencir, S. , et al. (2011). Oxidative stress and apoptosis in relation to exposure to
magnetic field. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics 59(2):71–77.
Enyedi, B. , Niethammer, P. (2013). H2O2: A chemoattractant? Methods in Enzymology 528:237–255.
Erdal, N. , Gürgül, S. , Tamer, L. , Ayaz, L. (2008). Effects of long-term exposure of extremely low frequency
magnetic field on oxidative/nitrosative stress in rat liver. Journal of Radiation Research 49(2):181–187.
Ericsson , (2009). LTE – an introduction. White Paper. 2009.
Ertilav, K. , Uslusoy, F. , Ataizi, S. , Nazıroğlu, M. (2018). Long term exposure to cell phone frequencies (900
and 1800 MHz) induces apoptosis, mitochondrial oxidative stress and TRPV1 channel activation in the
hippocampus and dorsal root ganglion of rats. Metabolic Brain Disease 33(3):753–763.
Esmekaya, M. A. , Ozer, C. , Seyhan, N. (2011). 900 MHz pulse-modulated radiofrequency radiation induces
oxidative stress on heart, lung, testis and liver tissues. General Physiology and Biophysics 30(1):84–89.
Falone, S. , Grossi, M. R. , Cinque, B. , et al. (2007). Fifty hertz extremely low-frequency electromagnetic field
causes changes in redox and differentiative status in neuroblastoma cells. The International Journal of
Biochemistry and Cell Biology 39(11):2093–2106.
Ferreira, A. R. , Bonatto, F. , de Bittencourt Pasquali, M. A. , et al. (2006). Oxidative stress effects on the
central nervous system of rats after acute exposure to ultra high frequency electromagnetic fields.
Bioelectromagnetics 27(6):487–493.
Forman, H. J. , Ursini, F. , Maiorino, M. (2014). An overview of mechanisms of redox signaling. Journal of
Molecular and Cellular Cardiology, 73:2–9.
Frank, J. W. (2021). Electromagnetic fields, 5G and health: What about the precautionary principle? Journal of
Epidemiology and Community Health 75(6):562–566.
Friedman, J. , Kraus, S. , Hauptman, Y. , Schiff, Y. , Seger, R. (2007). Mechanism of short-term ERK activation
by electromagnetic fields at mobile phone frequencies. Biochemical Journal 405(3):559–568.
Gandhi, O. , Lazzi, G. , Furse, C. (1996). Electromagnetic absorption in the human head and neck for mobile
telephones at 835 and 1900 MHz. IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques
44(10):1884–1897.
Gao, Q.-H. , Cai, Q. , Fan, Y. (2017). Beneficial effect of catechin and epicatechin on cognitive impairment and
oxidative stress induced by extremely low frequency electromagnetic field. Journal of Food Biochemistry
41(6):e12416.
Garaj-Vrhovac, V. , Fucic, A. , Horvat, D. (1992). The correlation between the frequency of micronuclei and
specific chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes exposed to microwave radiation in vitro. Mutation
Research 281(3):181–186.
Garaj-Vrhovac, V. , Gajski, G. , Pažanin, S. , et al. (2011). Assessment of cytogenetic damage and oxidative
stress in personnel occupationally exposed to the pulsed microwave radiation of marine radar equipment.
International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 214(1):59–65.
Garson, O. M. , McRobert, T. L. , Campbell, L. J. , Hocking, B. A. , Gordon, I. (1991). A chromosomal study of
workers with long-term exposure to radio-frequency radiation. The Medical Journal of Australia 155(5):289–292.
Gautam, R. , Singh, K. V. , Nirala, J. , et al. (2019). Oxidative stressmediated alterations on sperm parameters
in male Wistar rats exposed to 3G mobile phone radiation. Andrologia 51(3):e13201.
Georgiou, C. D. (2010). Oxidative stress-induced biological damage by low-level EMFs: Mechanism of free
radical pair electron spin-polarization and biochemical amplification. European Journal of Oncology - Library
5:63–113.
Goodman, E. M. , Greenebaum, B. , Marron, M. T. (1995). Effects of electro-magnetic fields on molecules and
cells. International Review of Cytology 158:279–338.
Goodman, R. , Blank, M. (2002). Insights into electromagnetic interaction mechanisms. Journal of Cellular
Physiology 192(1):16–22.
Goraca, A. , Ciejka, E. , Piechota, A. (2010). Effects of extremely low frequency magnetic field on the
parameters of oxidative stress in heart. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 61(3):333.
Griendling, K. K. , Sorescu, D. , Ushio-Fukai, M. (2000). NAD(P)H oxidase: Role in cardiovascular biology and
disease. Circulation Research 86(5):494–501.
Guleken, Z. (2021). Chronic low-frequency electromagnetic field exposure before and after neonatal life
induces changes on blood oxidative parameters of rat offspring. Annals of Medical Research 28(2):361–365.
Guler, G. , Tomruk, A. , Ozgur, E. , et al. (2012). The effect of radiofrequency radiation on DNA and lipid
damage in female and male infant rabbits. International Journal of Radiation Biology 88(4):367–373.
Gunes, M. , Ates, K. , Yalcin, B. , et al. (2021). An evaluation of the genotoxic effects of electromagnetic
radiation at 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 2100 MHz frequencies with a SMART assay in Drosophila melanogaster.
Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 40(2):254-263.
Guney, M. , Ozguner, F. , Oral, B. , Karahan, N. , Mungan, T. (2007). 900 MHz radiofrequency-induced
histopathologic changes and oxidative stress in rat endometrium: Protection by vitamins E and C. Toxicology
and Industrial Health 23(7):411–420.
Gürler, H. Ş. , Bilgici, B. , Akar, A. K. , et al. (2014). Increased DNA oxidation (8-OHdG) and protein oxidation
(AOPP) by low level electromagnetic field (2.45 GHz) in rat brain and protective effect of garlic. International
Journal of Radiation Biology, 90(10):892-896. .
Guzy, R. D. , Schumacker, P. T. (2006). Oxygen sensing by mitochondria at complex III: The paradox of
increased reactive oxygen species during hypoxia. Experimental Physiology 91(5):807–819.
Hallberg, O. , Oberfeld, G. (2006). Letter to the editor: Will we all become electrosensitive? [Letter].
Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 25(3):189–191.
Halliwell, B. (1991). Reactive oxygen species in living systems: Source, biochemistry, and role in human
disease [Review]. American Journal of Medicine 91(3C):14S–22S.
Halliwell, B. , Whiteman, M. (2004). Measuring reactive species and oxidative damage in vivo and in cell
culture: How should you do it and what do the results mean? British Journal of Pharmacology 142(2):231–255.
Halliwell, B. (2007). Biochemistry of oxidative stress [Review]. Biochemical Society Transactions 35(Pt
5):1147–1150.
Hamzany, Y. , Feinmesser, R. , Shpitzer, T. , et al. (2013). Is human saliva an indicator of the adverse health
effects of using mobile phones? Antioxidants and Redox Signaling 18(6):622–627.
Hancı, H. , Kerimoğlu, G. , Mercantepe, T. , Odacı, E. (2018). Changes in testicular morphology and oxidative
stress biomarkers in 60-day-old Sprague Dawley rats following exposure to continuous 900-MHz
electromagnetic field for 1 ha day throughout adolescence. Reproductive Toxicology 81:71–78.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. , Hansson Mild, K. (2005). Case-control study on cellular and cordless telephones and
the risk for acoustic neuroma or meningioma in patients diagnosed 2000–2003. Neuroepidemiology
25(3):120–128.
Hardell, L. , Eriksson, M. , Carlberg, M. , Sundström, C. , Mild, K. H. (2005). Use of cellular or cordless
telephones and the risk for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental
Health 78(8):625–632.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. , Ohlson, C. G. , et al. (2007). Use of cellular and cordless telephones and risk of
testicular cancer. International Journal of Andrology 30(2):115–122.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. , Soderqvist, F. , Mild, K. H. , Morgan, L. L. (2007). Long-term use of cellular phones
and brain tumours: Increased risk associated with use for > or =10 years. Occupational and Environmental
Medicine 64(9):626–632.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. (2009). Mobile phones, cordless phones and the risk for brain tumours. International
Journal of Oncology 35(1):5–17.
Hardell, L. , Carlberg, M. , Hansson Mild, K. , Eriksson, M. (2011). Case-control study on the use of mobile and
cordless phones and the risk for malignant melanoma in the head and neck region. Pathophysiology
18(4):325–333.
Hashish, A. H. , El-Missiry, M. A. , Abdelkader, H. I. , Abou-Saleh, R. H. (2008). Assessment of biological
changes of continuous whole body exposure to static magnetic field and extremely low frequency
electromagnetic fields in mice. Ecotoxicology and Environment Safety 71(3):895–902.
Hayden, M. S. , Ghosh, S. (2011). NF-kappa B in immunobiology. Cell Research 21(2):223–244.
Hedendahl, L. , Carlberg, M. , Hardell, L. (2015). Electromagnetic hypersensitivity–an increasing challenge to
the medical profession. Reviews on Environmental Health 30(4):209–215.
Hong, M.-N. , Han, N.-K. , Lee, H.-C. , et al. (2012). Extremely low frequency magnetic fields do not elicit
oxidative stress in MCF10A cells. Journal of Radiation Research 53(1):79–86.
Hong, M. N. , Kim, B. C. , Ko, Y. G. , et al. (2012). Effects of 837 and 1950 MHz radiofrequency radiation
exposure alone or combined on oxidative stress in MCF10A cells. Bioelectromagnetics 33(7):604–611.
Hook, G. J. , Spitz, D. R. , Sim, J. E. , et al. (2004). Evaluation of parameters of oxidative stress after in vitro
exposure to FMCW- and CDMA-modulated radiofrequency radiation fields. Radiation Research
162(5):497–504.
Hosseinabadi, M. B. , Khanjani, N. , Ebrahimi, M. H. , Mousavi, S. H. , Nazarkhani, F. (2020). Investigating the
effects of exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields on job burnout syndrome and the severity
of depression; the role of oxidative stress. Journal of Occupational Health 62(1):e12136.
Hou, Q. , Wang, M. , Wu, S. , et al. (2014). Oxidative changes and apoptosis induced by 1800-MHz
electromagnetic radiation in NIH/3T3 cells. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine (Published online):1–8.
Houston, B. J. , Nixon, B. , King, B. V. , Aitken, R. J. , De Iuliis, G. N. (2018). Probing the origins of 1,800 MHz
radio frequency electromagnetic radiation induced damage in mouse immortalized germ cells and spermatozoa
in vitro. Frontiers in Public Health 6:270.
Hoyto, A. , Juutilainen, J. , Naarala, J. (2007). Ornithine decarboxylase activity is affected in primary astrocytes
but not in secondary cell lines exposed to 872 MHz RF radiation. International Journal of Radiation Biology
83(6):367–374.
Hyland, G. J. (2000). Physics and biology of mobile telephony. Lancet 356(9244):1833–1836.
Hyland, G. J. (2008). Physical basis of adverse and therapeutic effects of low intensity microwave radiation.
Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 46(5):403–419.
ICNIRP . (1998). Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying elecrtic, magnetic and electromagnetic fields
(up to 300 GHz). Health Physics 74(4):494–522.
ICNIRP . (2010). Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric and magnetic fields (1 Hz to 100 kHz).
Health Physics 99(6):818–836.
ICNIRP . (2020). Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz to 300 GHz). Health
Physics 118(5):483–524.
Ilhan, A. , Gurel, A. , Armutcu, F. , et al. (2004). Ginkgo biloba prevents mobile phone-induced oxidative stress
in rat brain. Clinica Chimica Acta 340(1–2):153–162.
Inoue, M. , Sato, E. F. , Nishikawa, M. , et al. (2003). Mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species and
its role in aerobic life. Current Medicinal Chemistry 10(23):2495–2505.
Irigaray, P. , Caccamo, D. , Belpomme, D. (2018). Oxidative stress in electrohypersensitivity selfreporting
patients: Results of a prospective in vivo investigation with comprehensive molecular analysis. International
Journal of Molecular Medicine 42(4):1885–1898.
Ismaiil, L. A. , Joumaa, W. H. , Moustafa, M. E. (2019). The impact of exposure of diabetic rats to 900 MHz
electromagnetic radiation emitted from mobile phone antenna on hepatic oxidative stress. Electromagnetic
Biology and Medicine 38(4):287–296.
Jelenković, A. , Janać, B. , Pešić, V. , et al. (2006). Effects of extremely low-frequency magnetic field in the
brain of rats. Brain Research Bulletin 68(5):355–360.
Jelodar, G. , Akbari, A. , Nazifi, S. (2013a). The prophylactic effect of vitamin C on oxidative stress indexes in
rat eyes following exposure to radiofrequency wave generated by a BTS antenna model. International Journal
of Radiation Biology 89(2):128–131.
Jelodar, G. , Nazifi, S. , Akbari, A. (2013b). The prophylactic effect of vitamin C on induced oxidative stress in
rat testis following exposure to 900 MHz radio frequency wave generated by a BTS antenna model.
Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 32(3):409–416.
Jeong, Y. J. , Son, Y. , Han, N.-K. , et al. (2018). Impact of long-term RF-EMF on oxidative stress and
neuroinflammation in aging brains of C57BL/6 mice. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 19(7):2103.
Jing, J. , Yuhua, Z. , Xiao-qian, Y., et al. (2012). The influence of microwave radiation from cellular phone on
fetal rat brain. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 31(1):57–66.
Johansson, O. (2006). Electrohypersensitivity: State-of-the-art of a functional impairment. Electromagnetic
Biology and Medicine 25(4):245–258.
Johansson, O. , Gangi, S. , Liang, Y. , et al. (2001). Cutaneous mast cells are altered in normal healthy
volunteers sitting in front of ordinary TVs/PCs – Results from open-field provocation experiments. Journal of
Cutaneous Pathology 28(10):513–519.
Kahya, M. C. , Nazıroğlu, M. , Çiğ, B. (2014). Selenium reduces mobile phone (900 MHz)-induced oxidative
stress, mitochondrial function, and apoptosis in breast cancer cells. Biological Trace Element Research
160(2):285–293.
Kamali, K. , Taravati, A. , Sayyadi, S. , Gharib, F. Z. , Maftoon, H. (2018). Evidence of oxidative stress after
continuous exposure to wi-fi radiation in rat model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International
25(35):35396–35403.
Kang, K. A. , Lee, H. C. , Lee, J. J. , et al. (2013). Effects of combined radiofrequency radiation exposure on
levels of reactive oxygen species in neuronal cells. Journal of Radiation Research, 55(2):265–276.
Karimi, S. A. , Salehi, I. , Shykhi, T. , Zare, S. , Komaki, A. (2019). Effects of exposure to extremely low-
frequency electromagnetic fields on spatial and passive avoidance learning and memory, anxiety-like behavior
and oxidative stress in male rats. Behavioural Brain Research 359:630–638.
Kerbacher, J. J. , Meltz, M. L. , Erwin, D. N. (1990). Influence of radiofrequency radiation on chromosome
aberrations in CHO cells and its interaction with DNA-damaging agents. Radiation Research 123(3):311–319.
Kerman, M. , Senol, N. (2012). Oxidative stress in hippocampus induced by 900 MHz electromagnetic field
emitting mobile phone: Protection by melatonin. Biomedical Research 23(1):147–151.
Kesari, K. K. , Kumar, S. , Behari, J. (2010). Mobile phone usage and male infertility in Wistar rats. Indian
Journal of Experimental Biology 48(10):987–992.
Kesari, K. K. , Kumar, S. , Behari, J. (2011). 900-MHz microwave radiation promotes oxidation in rat brain.
Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 30(4):219–234.
Kesari, K. K. , Meena, R. , Nirala, J. , Kumar, J. , Verma, H. N. (2014). Effect of 3G cell phone exposure with
computer controlled 2-D stepper motor on non-thermal activation of the hsp27/p38MAPK stress pathway in rat
brain. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics 68(2):347–358.
Khalil, A. M. , Gagaa, M. H. , Alshamali, A. M. (2012). 8-Oxo-7, 8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine as a biomarker of
DNA damage by mobile phone radiation. Human and Experimental Toxicology 31(7):734–740.
Khalil, A. M. , Abu Khadra, K. M. , Aljaberi, A. M. , Gagaa, M. H. , Issa, H. S. (2013). Assessment of
oxidant/antioxidant status in saliva of cell phone users. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 33(2):92–97.
Kim, J. Y. , Hong, S. Y. , Lee, Y. M. , et al. (2008). In vitro assessment of clastogenicity of mobile-phone
radiation (835 MHz) using the alkaline comet assay and chromosomal aberration test. Environmental
Toxicology 23(3):319–327.
Kismali, G. , Ozgur, E. , Guler, G. , et al. (2012). The influence of 1800 MHz GSM-like signals on blood
chemistry and oxidative stress in non-pregnant and pregnant rabbits. International Journal of Radiation Biology
88(5):414–419.
Koc, A. , Unal, D. , Cimentepe, E. (2013). The effects of antioxidants on testicular apoptosis and oxidative
stress produced by cell phones. Turkish Journal of Medical Sciences 43:131–137.
Koohestani, N. V. , Zavareh, S. , Lashkarbolouki, T. , Azimipour, F. (2019). Exposure to cell phone induce
oxidative stress in mice preantral follicles during in vitro cultivation: An experimental study. International Journal
of Reproductive Biomedicine 17(9):637.
Koylu, H. , Mollaoglu, H. , Ozguner, F. , Naziroglu, M. , Delibas, N. (2006). Melatonin modulates 900 MHz
microwave-induced lipid peroxidation changes in rat brain. Toxicology and Industryial Health 22(5):211–216.
Koyu, A. , Ozguner, F. , Yilmaz, H. , et al. (2009). The protective effect of caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE)
on oxidative stress in rat liver exposed to the 900 MHz electromagnetic field. Toxicology and Industryial Health
25(6):429–434.
Kumar, S. , Nirala, J. P. , Behari, J. , Paulraj, R. (2014). Effect of electromagnetic irradiation produced by 3G
mobile phone on male rat reproductive system in a simulated scenario. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology
52(9):890–897.
Kunt, H. , Şentürk, İ. , Gönül, Y. , et al. (2016). Effects of electromagnetic radiation exposure on bone mineral
density, thyroid, and oxidative stress index in electrical workers. OncoTargets and Therapy 9:745.
Lai, H. , Singh, N. P. (1996). Single- and double-strand DNA breaks in rat brain cells after acute exposure to
radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation. International Journal of Radiation Biology 69(4):513–521.
Lai, H. , Singh, N. P. (1997). Melatonin and a spin-trap compound block radiofrequency electromagnetic
radiation-induced DNA strand breaks in rat brain cells. Bioelectromagnetics 18(6):446–454.
Lantow, M. , Lupke, M. , Frahm, J. , et al. (2006). ROS release and Hsp70 expression after exposure to 1,800
MHz radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in primary human monocytes and lymphocytes. Radiation and
Environmental Biophysics 45(1):55–62.
Lantow, M. , Schuderer, J. , Hartwig, C. , Simkó, M. (2006). Free radical release and HSP70 expression in two
human immune-relevant cell lines after exposure to 1800 MHz radiofrequency radiation. Radiation Research
165(1):88–94.
Lee, B.-C. , Johng, H.-M. , Lim, J.-K. , et al. (2004). Effects of extremely low frequency magnetic field on the
antioxidant defense system in mouse brain: A chemiluminescence study. Journal of Photochemistry and
Photobiology, Part B: Biology 73(1):43–48.
Litovitz, T. A. , Krause, D. , Penafiel, M. , Elson, E. C. , Mullins, J. M. (1993). The role of coherence time in the
effect of microwaves on ornithine decarboxylase activity. Bioelectromagnetics 14(5):395–403.
Litovitz, T. A. , Penafiel, L. M. , Farrel, J. M. , et al. (1997). Bioeffects induced by exposure to microwaves are
mitigated by superposition of ELF noise. Bioelectromagnetics 18(6):422–430.
Liu, C. , Duan, W. , Xu, S. , et al. (2013a). Exposure to 1800 MHz radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation
induces oxidative DNA base damage in a mouse spermatocyte-derived cell line. Toxicology Letters 218(1):2–9.
Liu, C. , Gao, P. , Xu, S.-C. , et al. (2013b). Mobile phone radiation induces mode-dependent DNA damage in a
mouse spermatocyte-derived cell line: A protective role of melatonin. International Journal of Radiation Biology
89(11):993–1001.
Liu, Y. , Fiskum, G. , Schubert, D. (2002). Generation of reactive oxygen species by the mitochondrial electron
transport chain. Journal of Neurochemistry 80(5):780–787.
Low, H. , Crane, F. L. , Morre, D. J. (2012). Putting together a plasma membrane NADH oxidase: A tale of three
laboratories. International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology 44(11):1834–1838.
Luo, X. , Chen, M. , Duan, Y. , et al. (2016). Chemoprotective action of lotus seedpod procyanidins on oxidative
stress in mice induced by extremely low-frequency electromagnetic field exposure. Biomedicine and
Pharmacotherapy 82:640–648.
Lu, Y. S. , Huang, B. T. , Huang, Y. X. (2012). Reactive oxygen species formation and apoptosis in human
peripheral blood mononuclear cell induced by 900 MHz mobile phone radiation. Oxidative Medicine and
Cellular Longevity 2012:740280.
Luo, Y.-P. , Ma, H.-R. , Chen, J.-W. , Li, J. J. , Li, C. X. (2014). Effect of American ginseng Capsule on the liver
oxidative injury and the Nrf2 protein expression in rats exposed by electromagnetic radiation of frequency of cell
phone. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi Zhongguo Zhongxiyi Jiehe Zazhi = Chinese Journal of Integrated
Traditional and Western Medicine / Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Xue Hui, Zhongguo Zhong Yi Yan Jiu Yuan
Zhu Ban 34(5):575–580.
Luukkonen, J. , Hakulinen, P. , Maki-Paakkanen, J. , Juutilainen, J. , Naarala, J. (2009). Enhancement of
chemically induced reactive oxygen species production and DNA damage in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma
cells by 872 MHz radiofrequency radiation. Mutation Research 662(1–2):54–58.
Maes, A. , Collier, M. , Verschaeve, L. (2000). Cytogenetic investigations on microwaves emitted by a 455.7
MHz car phone. Folia Biologica 46(5):175–180.
Mailankot, M. , Kunnath, A. P. , Jayalekshmi, H. , Koduru, B. , Valsalan, R. (2009). Radio frequency
electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) from GSM (0.9/1.8GHz) mobile phones induces oxidative stress and
reduces sperm motility in rats. Clinics 64(6):561–565.
Manikonda, P. K. , Rajendra, P. , Devendranath, D. , et al. (2014). Extremely low frequency magnetic fields
induce oxidative stress in rat brain. General Physiology and Biophysics 33(1):81–90.
Manta, A. K. , Stravopodis, D. J. , Papassideri, I. S. , Margaritis, L. H. (2013). Reactive oxygen species
elevation and recovery in Drosophila bodies and ovaries following short-term and long-term exposure to DECT
base EMF. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 33(2):118–131.
Marino, A. A. , Carrubba, S. , Frilot, C. , Chesson, A. L. (2009). Evidence that transduction of electromagnetic
field is mediated by a force receptor. Neuroscience Letters 452(2):119–123.
Marjanovic, A. M. , Pavicic, I. , Trosic, I. (2014). Cell oxidation–reduction imbalance after modulated
radiofrequency radiation. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine (Published online):1–6.
Marjanovic, A. M. , Pavicic, I. , Trosic, I. (2018). Oxidative stress response in SH-SY5Y cells exposed to short-
term 1800 MHz radiofrequency radiation. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A 53(2):132–138.
Martínez-Sámano, J. , Torres-Durán, P. V. , Juárez-Oropeza, M. A. , Verdugo-Díaz, L. (2012). Effect of acute
extremely low frequency electromagnetic field exposure on the antioxidant status and lipid levels in rat brain.
Archives of Medical Research 43(3):183–189.
Marzook, E. A. , Abd El Moneim, A. E. , Elhadary, A. A. (2014). Protective role of sesame oil against mobile
base station-induced oxidative stress. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences 7(1):1–6.
Masoumi, A. , Karbalaei, N. , Mortazavi, S. , Shabani, M. (2018). Radiofrequency radiation emitted from wi-fi
(2.4 GHz) causes impaired insulin secretion and increased oxidative stress in rat pancreatic islets. International
Journal of Radiation Biology 94(9):850–857.
Meena, R. , Kumari, K. , Kumar, J. , et al. (2013). Therapeutic approaches of melatonin in microwave
radiations-induced oxidative stress-mediated toxicity on male fertility pattern of Wistar rats. Electromagnetic
Biology and Medicine 33(2):81–91.
Megha, K. , Deshmukh, P. S. , Banerjee, B. D. , Tripathi, A. K. , Abegaonkar, M. P. (2012). Microwave radiation
induced oxidative stress, cognitive impairment and inflammation in brain of Fischer rats. Indian Journal of
Experimental Biology 50(12):889–896.
Meral, I. , Mert, H. , Mert, N. , et al. (2007). Effects of 900-MHz electromagnetic field emitted from cellular
phone on brain oxidative stress and some vitamin levels of guinea pigs. Brain Research 1169:120–124.
Miller, A. B. , Sears, M. , Hardell, L. , et al. (2019). Risks to health and well-being from radio-frequency radiation
emitted by cell phones and other wireless devices. Frontiers in Public Health 7:223.
Moloney, J. N. , Cotter, T. G. (2018). ROS signalling in the biology of cancer. Seminars in cell & developmental
biology 80:50–64.
Morabito, C. , Rovetta, F. , Bizzarri, M. , et al. (2010). Modulation of redox status and calcium handling by
extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields in C2C12 muscle cells: A real-time, single-cell approach. Free
Radical Biology and Medicine 48(4):579–589.
Motawi, T. , Darwish, H. , Moustafa, Y. , Labib, M. M. (2014). Biochemical modifications and neuronal damage
in brain of young and adult rats after long-term exposure to mobile phone radiations. Cell Biochemistry and
Biophysics 70(2):845–855.
Moustafa, Y. M. , Moustafa, R. M. , Belacy, A. , Abou-El-Ela, S. H. , Ali, F. M. (2001). Effects of acute exposure
to the radiofrequency fields of cellular phones on plasma lipid peroxide and antioxidase activities in human
erythrocytes. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 26(4):605–608.
Nagata, M. (2005). Inflammatory cells and oxygen radicals. Current Drug Targets: Inflammation and Allergy
4(4):503–504.
Naziroglu, M. , Celik, O. , Ozgul, C. , et al. (2012). Melatonin modulates wireless (2.45 GHz)-induced oxidative
injury through TRPM2 and voltage gated Ca(2+) channels in brain and dorsal root ganglion in rat. Physiology
and Behavior 105(3):683–692.
Naziroglu, M. , Cig, B. , Dogan, S. , et al. (2012). 2.45-Gz wireless devices induce oxidative stress and
proliferation through cytosolic Ca(2)(+) influx in human leukemia cancer cells. International Journal of Radiation
Biology 88(6):449–456.
Nguyen, H. L. , Zucker, S. , Zarrabi, K. , et al. (2011). Oxidative stress and prostate cancer progression are
elicited by membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase. Molecular Cancer Research 9(10):1305–1318.
Ni, S. , Yu, Y. , Zhang, Y. , et al. (2013). Study of oxidative stress in human lens epithelial cells exposed to 1.8
GHz radiofrequency fields. PLOS ONE 8(8):e72370.
Okayama, Y. (2005). Oxidative stress in allergic and inflammatory skin diseases. Current Drug Targets:
Inflammation and Allergy 4(4):517–519.
Oksay, T. , Naziroğlu, M. , Doğan, S. , et al. (2014). Protective effects of melatonin against oxidative injury in rat
testis induced by wireless (2.45 GHz) devices. Andrologia 46(1):65–72.
Oktem, F. , Ozguner, F. , Mollaoglu, H. , Koyu, A. , Uz, E. (2005). Oxidative damage in the kidney induced by
900-MHz-emitted mobile phone: Protection by melatonin. Archives of Medical Research 36(4):350–355.
Oral, B. , Guney, M. , Ozguner, F. , et al. (2006). Endometrial apoptosis induced by a 900-MHz mobile phone:
Preventive effects of vitamins E and C. Advances in Therapy 23(6):957–973.
Oshino, N. , Jamieson, D. , Sugano, T. , Chance, B. (1975). Optical measurement of catalase-hydrogen
peroxide intermediate (Compound-I) in liver of anesthetized rats and its implication to hydrogen-peroxide
production insitu. Biochemical Journal 146(1):67–77.
Ott, M. , Gogvadze, V. , Orrenius, S. , Zhivotovsky, B. (2007). Mitochondria, oxidative stress and cell death.
Apoptosis 12(5):913–922.
Oyewopo, A. , Olaniyi, S. , Oyewopo, C. , Jimoh, A. T. (2017). Radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation from
cell phone causes defective testicular function in male Wistar rats. Andrologia 49(10):e12772.
Ozel, H. B. , Cetin, M. , Sevik, H. , et al. (2021). The effects of base station as an electromagnetic radiation
source on flower and cone yield and germination percentage in Pinus brutia Ten. Biologia Futura, 72(3):359-
365.
Ozguner, F. , Altinbas, A. , Ozaydin, M. , et al. (2005a). Mobile phone-induced myocardial oxidative stress:
Protection by a novel antioxidant agent caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Toxicology and Industryial Health
21(9):223–230.
Ozguner, F. , Oktem, F. , Ayata, A. , Koyu, A. , Yilmaz, H. R. (2005b). A novel antioxidant agent caffeic acid
phenethyl ester prevents long-term mobile phone exposure-induced renal impairment in rat. Prognostic value of
malondialdehyde, N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase and nitric oxide determination. Molecular and Cellular
Biochemistry 277(1–2):73–80.
Ozguner, F. , Bardak, Y. , Comlekci, S. (2006). Protective effects of melatonin and caffeic acid phenethyl ester
against retinal oxidative stress in long-term use of mobile phone: A comparative study. Molecular and Cellular
Biochemistry 282(1–2):83–88.
Ozgur, E. , Kismali, G. , Guler, G. , et al. (2013). Effects of prenatal and postnatal exposure to GSM-like
radiofrequency on blood chemistry and oxidative stress in infant rabbits, an experimental study. Cell
Biochemistry and Biophysics 67(2):743–751.
Özorak, A. , Nazıroğlu, M. , Çelik, Ö. , et al. (2013). Wi-fi (2.45 GHz)- and mobile phone (900 and 1800 MHz)-
induced risks on oxidative stress and elements in kidney and testis of rats during pregnancy and the
development of offspring. Biological Trace Element Research 156(1–3):221–229.
Özsobacı, N. P. , Ergün, D. D. , Durmuş, S. , et al. (2018). Selenium supplementation ameliorates
electromagnetic field-induced oxidative stress in the HEK293 cells. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and
Biology: Organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements 50:572–579.
Özsobacı, N. P. , Ergün, D. D. , Tunçdemir, M. , Özçelik, D. (2020). Protective effects of zinc on 2.45 GHz
electromagnetic radiation-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in HEK293 cells. Biological Trace Element
Research 194(2):368–378.
Panagopoulos, D. J. , Messini, N. , Karabarbounis, A. , Philippetis, A. L. , Margaritis, L. H. (2000). A mechanism
for action of oscillating electric fields on cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
272(3):634–640.
Panagopoulos, D. J. , Karabarbounis, A. , Margaritis, L. H. (2002). Mechanism for action of electromagnetic
fields on cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 298(1):95–102.
Panagopoulos, D. J. , Chavdoula, E. D. , Nezis, I. P. , Margaritis, L. H. (2007). Cell death induced by GSM 900-
MHz and DCS 1800-MHz mobile telephony radiation. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and
Environmental Mutagenesis 626(1–2):69–78.
Panagopoulos, D. J. , Chavdoula, E. D. , Margaritis, L. H. (2010). Bioeffects of mobile telephony radiation in
relation to its intensity or distance from the antenna. International Journal of Radiation Biology 86(5):345–357.
Panagopoulos, D. J. (2012). Effect of microwave exposure on the ovarian development of Drosophila
melanogaster. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics 63(2):121–132.
Panagopoulos, D. , Johansson, O. , Carlo, G. (2013). Evaluation of specific absorption rate as a dosimetric
quantity for electromagnetic fields bioeffects. PLOS ONE 8(6):e62663.
Panagopoulos, D. , Johansson, O. , Carlo, G. (2015). Polarization: A key difference between man-made and
natural electromagnetic fields, in regard to biological activity. Scientific Reports 5(1):1–10.
Panagopoulos, D. J. (2019). Comparing DNA damage induced by mobile telephony and other types of man-
made electromagnetic fields. Mutation Research Reviews 781:53–62.
Panagopoulos, D. J. (2020). Comparing chromosome damage induced by mobile telephony radiation and a
high caffeine dose: Effect of combination and exposure Duration. General Physiology and Biophysics
39(6):531–544.
Panagopoulos, D. J. , Karabarbounis, A. , Yakymenko, I. , Chrousos, G. P. (2021). Mechanism of DNA damage
induced by human-made electromagnetic fields. International Journal of Oncology 59(5):92.
Pandey, N. , Giri, S. (2018). Melatonin attenuates radiofrequency radiation (900 MHz)-induced oxidative stress,
DNA damage and cell cycle arrest in germ cells of male Swiss albino mice. Toxicology and Industrial Health
34(5):315–327.
Patruno, A. , Amerio, P. , Pesce, M. , et al. (2010). Extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields modulate
expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase, endothelial nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 in the
human keratinocyte cell line HaCat: Potential therapeutic effects in wound healing. British Journal of
Dermatology 162(2):258–266.
Paulraj, R. , Behari, J. , Rao, A. R. (1999). Effect of amplitude modulated RF radiation on calcium ion efflux and
ODC activity in chronically exposed rat brain. Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics 36(5):337–340.
Pavicic, I. , Trosic, I. (2010). Interaction of GSM modulated RF radiation and macromolecular cytoskeleton
structures. Paper presented at the 6th International Workshop on Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields.
Pedersen, G. F. (1997). Amplitude modulated RF fields stemming from a GSM/DCS1800 phone. Wireless
Networks 3(6):489–498.
Penafiel, L. M. , Litovitz, T. , Krause, D. , et al. (1997). Role of modulation on the effect of microwaves on
ornithine decarboxylase activity in L929 cells. Bioelectromagnetics: Journal of the Bioelectromagnetics Society,
The Society for Physical Regulation in Biology and Medicine, The European Bioelectromagnetics Association
18(2):132–141.
Phillips, J. L. , Singh, N. P. , Lai, H. (2009). Electromagnetic fields and DNA damage. Pathophysiology
16(2–3):79–88.
Pilla, A. A. (2012). Electromagnetic fields instantaneously modulate nitric oxide signaling in challenged
biological systems. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 426(3):330–333.
Pourabdian, S. , Golshiri, P. , Habibi, E. (2009). Anxiety disorder in exposed employment to extremely low
frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMF) in steel industry. Journal of Military Medicine 10(4):299–302.
Qin, F. , Yuan, H. , Nie, J. , Cao, Y. , Tong, J. (2014). Effects of nano-selenium on cognition performance of
mice exposed in 1800 MHz radiofrequency fields. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu = Journal of Hygiene Research
43(1):16–21.
Ragy, M. M. (2014). Effect of exposure and withdrawal of 900-MHz-electromagnetic waves on brain, kidney and
liver oxidative stress and some biochemical parameters in male rats. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine
(Published online):1–6.
Ralph, S. J. , Rodríguez-Enríquez, S. , Neuzil, J. , Saavedra, E. , Moreno-Sánchez, R. (2010). The causes of
cancer revisited: “mitochondrial malignancy” and ROS-induced oncogenic transformation – Why mitochondria
are targets for cancer therapy. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 31(2):145–170.
Rao, V. S. , Titushkin, I. A. , Moros, E. G. , et al. (2008). Nonthermal effects of radiofrequency-field exposure on
calcium dynamics in stem cell-derived neuronal cells: Elucidation of calcium pathways. Radiation Research
169(3):319–329.
Rauš Balind, S. , Selaković, V. , Radenović, L. , Prolić, Z. , Janać, B. (2014). Extremely low frequency magnetic
field (50 Hz, 0.5 mT) reduces oxidative stress in the brain of gerbils submitted to global cerebral ischemia.
PLOS ONE 9(2):e88921.
Read, R. , O'Riordan, T. (2017). The precautionary principle under fire. Environment: Science and Policy for
Sustainable Development 59(5):4–15.
Reale, M. , Kamal, M. A. , Patruno, A. , et al. (2014). Neuronal cellular responses to extremely low frequency
electromagnetic field exposure: Implications regarding oxidative stress and neurodegeneration. PLOS ONE
9(8):e104973.
Regoli, F. , Gorbi, S. , Machella, N. , et al. (2005). Pro-oxidant effects of extremely low frequency
electromagnetic fields in the land snail Helix aspersa. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 39(12):1620–1628.
Repacholi, M. H. , Basten, A. , Gebski, V. , et al. (1997). Lymphomas in E mu-Pim1 transgenic mice exposed to
pulsed 900 MHz electromagnetic fields. Radiation Research 147(5):631–640.
Ruediger, H. W. (2009). Genotoxic effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. Pathophysiology
16(2–3):89–102.
Sadetzki, S. , Chetrit, A. , Jarus-Hakak, A. , et al. (2008). Cellular phone use and risk of benign and malignant
parotid gland tumors–A nationwide case-control study. American Journal of Epidemiology 167(4):457–467.
Saikhedkar, N. , Bhatnagar, M. , Jain, A. , et al. (2014). Effects of mobile phone radiation (900 MHz
radiofrequency) on structure and functions of rat brain. Neurological Research 36(12):1072–1079.
Santini, R. , Santini, P. , Danze, J. M. , Le Ruz, P. , Seigne, M. (2002). Study of the health of people living in the
vicinity of mobile phone base stations: 1. Influences of distance and sex. Pathologie biologie 50(6):369–373.
Sato, Y. , Akiba, S. , Kubo, O. , Yamaguchi, N. (2011). A case-case study of mobile phone use and acoustic
neuroma risk in Japan. Bioelectromagnetics 32(2):85–93.
Saygin, M. , Ozmen, O. , Erol, O. , et al. (2018). The impact of electromagnetic radiation (2.45 GHz, wi-fi) on
the female reproductive system: The role of vitamin C. Toxicology and Industrial Health 34(9):620–630.
Sefidbakht, Y. , Moosavi-Movahedi, A. A. , Hosseinkhani, S. , et al. (2014). Effects of 940 MHz EMF on
bioluminescence and oxidative response of stable luciferase producing HEK cells. Photochemical and
Photobiological Sciences 13(7):1082–1092. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3PP50451D.
Seif, F. , Reza Bayatiani, M. , Ansarihadipour, H. , Habibi, G. , Sadelaji, S. (2019). Protective properties of
Myrtus communis extract against oxidative effects of extremely low-frequency magnetic fields on rat plasma
and hemoglobin. International Journal of Radiation Biology 95(2):215–224.
Selaković, V. , Rauš Balind, S. , Radenović, L. , Prolić, Z. , Janać, B. (2013). Age-dependent effects of ELF-MF
on oxidative stress in the brain of Mongolian gerbils. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics 66(3):513–521.
Seomun, G. , Lee, J. , Park, J. (2021). Exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic fields and childhood
cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE 16(5):e0251628.
Sert, C. , Deniz, M. (2011). Total antioxidant capacity, total oxidant status and oxidative stress index in rats
exposed to extremely low frequency magnetic field. Asian Journal of Chemistry 23(5):1925.
Shaheen, W. , Amer, N. M. , Hafez, S. F. , et al. (2021). Effect of antioxidants intake on oxidative stress among
mobile phone users. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry 64(7):3903–3912.
Shahin, S. , Singh, V. P. , Shukla, R. K. , et al. (2013). 2.45 GHz microwave irradiation-induced oxidative stress
affects implantation or pregnancy in mice, Mus musculus. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology
169(5):1727–1751.
Sharma, A. , Shrivastava, S. , Shukla, S. (2020). Exposure of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation on
biochemical and pathological alterations. Neurology India 68(5):1092.
Sharma, S. , Shukla, S. (2020). Effect of electromagnetic radiation on redox status, acetylcholine esterase
activity and cellular damage contributing to the diminution of the brain working memory in rats. Journal of
Chemical Neuroanatomy 106:101784.
Sharma, V. P. , Singh, H. P. , Kohli, R. K. , Batish, D. R. (2009). Mobile phone radiation inhibits Vigna radiata
(mung bean) root growth by inducing oxidative stress. The Science of the Total Environment
407(21):5543–5547.
Shedid, S. M. , El-Tawill, G. A. , Algeda, F. R. , El-Fatih, N. , Eltahawy, N. (2019). The impact of 950 MHz
electromagnetic radiation on the brain and liver of rats and the role of garlic treatment. Egyptian Journal of
Radiation Sciences and Applications 32(1):51–60.
Shim, Y. , Lee, I. , Park, S. (2013). The impact of LTE UE on audio devices. ETRI Journal 35(2):332–335.
Sies, H. (2014). Role of metabolic H2O2 generation: Redox signalling and oxidative stress. Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 289(13):8735–8741.
Sies, H. , Jones, D. P. (2020). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) as pleiotropic physiological signalling agents.
Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology 21(7):363–383.
Singh, H. P. , Sharma, V. P. , Batish, D. R. , Kohli, R. K. (2012). Cell phone electromagnetic field radiations
affect rhizogenesis through impairment of biochemical processes. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
184(4):1813–1821.
Sokolovic, D. , Djindjic, B. , Nikolic, J. , et al. (2008). Melatonin reduces oxidative stress induced by chronic
exposure of microwave radiation from mobile phones in rat brain. Journal of Radiation Research (Tokyo)
49(6):579–586.
Sokolovic, D. , Djordjevic, B. , Kocic, G. , et al. (2013). Melatonin protects rat thymus against oxidative stress
caused by exposure to microwaves and modulates proliferation/apoptosis of thymocytes. General Physiology
and Biophysics 32(1):79–90.
Suleyman, D. , Zulkuf, M. , A., Feyzan, A. , Buyukbayram, H. (2004). Does 900 MHz GSM mobile phone
exposure affect rat brain? Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 23(3):201–214.
Sun, Y.-Y. , Wang, Y.-H. , Li, Z.-H. , et al. (2019). Extremely low frequency electromagnetic radiation enhanced
energy metabolism and induced oxidative stress in Caenorhabditis elegans. Sheng Li Xue Bao: [Acta
Physiologica Sinica] 71(3):388–394.
Sun, Y. , Shi, Z. , Wang, Y. , et al. (2018). Coupling of oxidative stress responses to tricarboxylic acid cycle and
prostaglandin E2 alterations in Caenorhabditis elegans under extremely low-frequency electromagnetic field.
International Journal of Radiation Biology 94(12):1159–1166.
Szmigielski, S. , Szudzinski, A. , Pietraszek, A. , et al. (1982). Accelerated development of spontaneous and
benzopyrene-induced skin cancer in mice exposed to 2450-MHz microwave radiation. Bioelectromagnetics
3(2):179–191.
Tice, R. R. , Hook, G. G. , Donner, M. , McRee, D. I. , Guy, A. W. (2002). Genotoxicity of radiofrequency
signals. I. Investigation of DNA damage and micronuclei induction in cultured human blood cells.
Bioelectromagnetics 23(2):113–126.
Tiwari, R. , Lakshmi, N. , Bhargava, S. , Ahuja, Y. R. (2015). Epinephrine, DNA integrity and oxidative stress in
workers exposed to extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMFs) at 132 kV substations.
Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 34(1):56–62.
Tkalec, M. , Malaric, K. , Pevalek-Kozlina, B. (2007). Exposure to radiofrequency radiation induces oxidative
stress in duckweed Lemna minor L. Science of the Total Environment 388(1–3):78–89.
Tkalec, M. , Stambuk, A. , Srut, M. , et al. (2013). Oxidative and genotoxic effects of 900 MHz electromagnetic
fields in the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicology and Environment Safety 90:7–12.
Tök, L. , Nazıroğlu, M. , Doğan, S. , Kahya, M. C. , Tök, O. (2014). Effects of melatonin on wi-fi-induced
oxidative stress in lens of rats. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 62(1):12–15.
Toler, J. C. , Shelton, W. W. , Frei, M. R. , Merritt, J. H. , Stedham, M. A. (1997). Long-term, low-level exposure
of mice prone to mammary tumors to 435 MHz radiofrequency radiation. Radiation Research 148(3):227–234.
Tomruk, A. , Guler, G. , Dincel, A. S. (2010). The influence of 1800 MHz GSM-like signals on hepatic oxidative
DNA and lipid damage in nonpregnant, pregnant, and newly born rabbits. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics
56(1):39–47.
Topsakal, S. , Ozmen, O. , Cicek, E. , Comlekci, S. (2017). The ameliorative effect of gallic acid on pancreas
lesions induced by 2.45 GHz electromagnetic radiation (wi-fi) in young rats. Journal of Radiation Research and
Applied Sciences 10(3):233–240.
Torrieri, D. (2018). Principles of spread-spectrum communication systems, 4th ed. Springer.
Tsybulin, O. , Sidorik, E. , Kyrylenko, S. , Henshel, D. , Yakymenko, I. (2012). GSM 900 MHz microwave
radiation affects embryo development of Japanese quails. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 31(1):75–86.
Tsybulin, O. , Sidorik, E. , Brieieva, O. , et al. (2013). GSM 900 MHz cellular phone radiation can either
stimulate or depress early embryogenesis in Japanese quails depending on the duration of exposure.
International Journal of Radiation Biology 89(9):756–763.
Tsybulin, O. , Sidorik, E. , Kyrylenko, S. , Yakymenko, I. (2016). Monochromatic red light of LED protects
embryonic cells from oxidative stress caused by radiofrequency radiation. Oxidants and Antioxidants in Medical
Science 5(1):21–27.
Türedi, S. , Hancı, H. , Topal, Z. , et al. (2014). The effects of prenatal exposure to a 900-MHz electromagnetic
field on the 21-day-old male rat heart. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine (Published online):1–8.
Turker, Y. , Naziroglu, M. , Gumral, N. , et al. (2011). Selenium and L-carnitine reduce oxidative stress in the
heart of rat induced by 2.45-GHz radiation from wireless devices. Biological Trace Element Research
143(3):1640–1650.
Usman, J. D. , Isyaku, U. M. , Magaji, R. A. , et al. (2020). Assessment of electromagnetic fields, vibration and
sound exposure effects from multiple transceiver mobile phones on oxidative stress levels in serum, brain and
heart tissue. Scientific African 7:e00271.
Vaks, V. L. , Domrachev, G. A. , Rodygin, Y. L. , Selivanovskii, D. A. , Spivak, E. I. (1994). Dissociation of water
by microwave radiation. Radiophysics and Quantum Electronics 37(1):85–88.
Valko, M. , Rhodes, C. J. , Moncol, J. , Izakovic, M. , Mazur, M. (2006). Free radicals, metals and antioxidants
in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chemico-Biological Interactions 160(1):1–40.
Valko, M. , Leibfritz, D. , Moncol, J. , et al. (2007). Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological
functions and human disease. International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology 39(1):44–84.
Wang, C. , Liu, Y. , Wang, Y. , et al. (2019). Lowfrequency pulsed electromagnetic field promotes functional
recovery, reduces inflammation and oxidative stress, and enhances HSP70 expression following spinal cord
injury. Molecular Medicine Reports 19(3):1687–1693.
Wang, M. , Yang, G. , Li, Y. , et al. (2020). Protective role of vitamin C in wi-fi induced oxidative stress in
MC3T3-E1 cells in vitro. Applied Computational Electromagnetics Society Journal, 35(5):587–94.
Wang, X. , Sharma, R. K. , Gupta, A. , et al. (2003). Alterations in mitochondria membrane potential and
oxidative stress in infertile men: A prospective observational study. Fertility and Sterility 80:844–850.
Wertheimer, N. , Leeper, E. (1979). Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. American Journal of
Epidemiology 109(3):273–284.
Wertheimer, N. , Leeper, E. (1982). Adult cancer related to electrical wires near the home. International Journal
of Epidemiology 11(4):345–355.
WHO . (2007). Electromagnetic fields and public health. https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-
change-and-health/radiation-and-health/non-ionizing/elff.
Wolf, R. , Wolf, D. (2007). Increased incidence of cancer near a cell-phone transmitted station. In F. Columbus
(Ed.), Trends in cancer prevention (pp. 1–8). Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, USA.
Xu, S. , Zhou, Z. , Zhang, L. , et al. (2010). Exposure to 1800 MHz radiofrequency radiation induces oxidative
damage to mitochondrial DNA in primary cultured neurons. Brain Research 1311:189–196.
Yakymenko, I. , Sidorik, E. , Kyrylenko, S. , Chekhun, V. (2011). Long-term exposure to microwave radiation
provokes cancer growth: Evidences from radars and mobile communication systems. Experimental Oncology
33(2):62–70.
Yakymenko, I. , Sidorik, E. , Tsybulin, O. , et al. (2011). Potential risks of microwaves from mobile phones for
youth health. Environmental and Health 56(1):48–51.
Yakymenko, I. , Tsybulin, O. , Sidorik, E. , et al. (2016). Oxidative mechanisms of biological activity of low-
intensity radiofrequency radiation. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 35(2):186–202.
Yakymenko, I. , Burlaka, A. , Tsybulin, I. , et al. (2018). Oxidative and mutagenic effects of low intensity GSM
1800 MHz microwave radiation. Experimental Oncology 40(4):282–287.
Yang, M. L. , Ye, Z. M. (2015). Extremely low frequency electromagnetic field induces apoptosis of
osteosarcoma cells via oxidative stress. Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences) 44(3):323–328.
Yokus, B. , Cakir, D. U. , Akdag, M. Z. , Sert, C. , Mete, N. (2005). Oxidative DNA damage in rats exposed to
extremely low frequency electro magnetic fields. Free Radical Research 39(3):317–323.
Yokus, B. , Akdag, M. Z. , Dasdag, S. , Cakir, D. U. , Kizil, M. (2008). Extremely low frequency magnetic fields
cause oxidative DNA damage in rats. International Journal of Radiation Biology 84(10):789–795.
Yurekli, A. I. , Ozkan, M. , Kalkan, T. , et al. (2006). GSM base station electromagnetic radiation and oxidative
stress in rats. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 25(3):177–188.
Zhao, T. Y. , Zou, S. P. , Knapp, P. E. (2007). Exposure to cell phone radiation up-regulates apoptosis genes in
primary cultures of neurons and astrocytes. Neuroscience Letters 412(1):34–38.
Zmyślony, M. , Politanski, P. , Rajkowska, E. , Szymczak, W. , Jajte, J. (2004). Acute exposure to 930 MHz CW
electromagnetic radiation in vitro affects reactive oxygen species level in rat lymphocytes treated by iron ions.
Bioelectromagnetics 25(5):324–328.
Zosangzuali, M. , Lalremruati, M. , Lalmuansangi, C. , et al. (2021). Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic
radiation emitted from a mobile phone base station on the redox homeostasis in different organs of Swiss
albino mice. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 40(3): 393–407.
Zotti-Martelli, L. , Peccatori, M. , Maggini, V. , Ballardin, M. , Barale, R. (2005). Individual responsiveness to
induction of micronuclei in human lymphocytes after exposure in vitro to 1800-MHz microwave radiation.
Mutation Research 582(1–2):42–52.
Genotoxic Effects of Wireless Communication Electromagnetic Fields
Abdel-Rassoul G. , El-Fateh O.A. , Salem M.A. , et al (2007) Neurobehavioral effects among inhabitants around
mobile phone base stations. Neurotoxicology 28(2):434–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2006.07.012.
Agarwal A. , Desai N.R. , Makker K. , et al (2009) Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW)
from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: An in vitro pilot study. Fertil Steril 92(4):1318–1325.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.08.022.
Ahuja Y.R. , Bhargava A. , Sircar S. , et al (1997) Comet assay to evaluate DNA damage caused by magnetic
fields. Proc Int Conf Electromagn Interf Compat 273–276. https://doi.org/10.1109/icemic.1997.669812.
Ahuja Y.R. , Vijayashree B. , Saran R. , et al (1999) In vitro effects of low-level, low-frequency electromagnetic
fields on DNA damage in human leucocytes by comet assay. Indian J Biochem Biophys 36(5):318–322.
Aitken R.J. , Bennetts L.E. , Sawyer D. , Wiklendt A.M. , King B.V. (2005) Impact of radio frequency
electromagnetic radiation on DNA integrity in the male germline. Int J Androl 28(3):171–179.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2605.2005.00531.x.
Akbarnejad Z. , Eskandary H. , Vergallo C. , et al (2017) Effects of extremely low-frequency pulsed
electromagnetic fields (ELF-PEMFs) on glioblastoma cells (U87). Electromagn Biol Med 36(3):238–247.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15368378.2016.1251452.
Akdag M. , Dasdag S. , Canturk F. , Akdag M.Z. (2018) Exposure to non-ionizing electromagnetic fields emitted
from mobile phones induced DNA damage in human ear canal hair follicle cells. Electromagn Biol Med
37(2):66–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/15368378.2018.1463246.
Al-Khlaiwi T.M. , Habib S.S. , Meo S.A. , Alqhtani M.S. , Ogailan A.A. (2020) The association of smart mobile
phone usage with cognitive function impairment in Saudi adult population. Pak J Med Sci 36(7):1628–1633.
https://doi.org/10.12669/PJMS.36.7.2826.
Al-Serori H. , Ferk F. , Kundi M. , et al (2018) Mobile phone specific electromagnetic fields induce transient
DNA damage and nucleotide excision repair in serum-deprived human glioblastoma cells. PLOS ONE
13(4):e0193677. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193677.
Alcaraz M. , Olmos E. , Alcaraz-Saura M. , Achel D.G. , Castillo J. (2014) Effect of long-term 50 Hz magnetic
field exposure on the micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes of mice. Electromagn Biol Med 33(1):51–57.
https://doi.org/10.3109/15368378.2013.783851.
Alchalabi A.S.H. , Aklilu E. , Aziz A.R. , et al (2016) Different periods of intrauterine exposure to electromagnetic
field: Influence on female rats' fertility, prenatal and postnatal development. Asian Pac J Reprod 5(1):14–23.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APJR.2015.12.003.
Alchalabi A.S.H. , Rahim H. , AbdulMalek M.F. , et al (2017) Micronuclei formation and 8-hydroxy-2-
deoxyguanosine enzyme detection in ovarian tissues after radiofrequency exposure at 1800 MHz in adult
Sprague–Dawley Rats. HAYATI J Biosci 24:79–79. https://doi.org/10.4308/ hjb.24.2.79.
Alekperov S. , Suetov A. , Efremov V. , Kimstach A.N. , Lavrenenok L.V. (2019) The effect of electromagnetic
fields of extremely low frequency 30 Hz on rat ovaries. Bull Exp Biol Med 166(5):704–707.
https://doi.org/10.1007/S10517-019-04422-2.
Alkis M.E. , Bilgin H.M. , Akpolat V. , et al (2019) Effect of 900-, 1800-, and 2100-MHz radiofrequency radiation
on DNA and oxidative stress in brain. Electromagn Biol Med 38(1):32–47.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15368378.2019.1567526.
Alkis M.E. , Akdag M.Z. , Dasdag S. (2021) Effects of low-intensity microwave radiation on oxidant-antioxidant
parameters and DNA damage in the liver of rats. Bioelectromagnetics 42(1):76–85.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.22315.
Aly A. , Crum R. (2016) Research review for possible relation between mobile phone radiation and brain tumor.
Int J Inf Technol Converg Serv 6:1–16. https://doi.org/10.5121/ijitcs.2016.6401.
Amara S. , Abdelmelek H. , Garrel C. , et al (2006) Effects of subchronic exposure to static magnetic field on
testicular function in rats. Arch Med Res 37(8):947–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcmed.2006.06.004.
Amjad F. , Farooq M.N. , Batool R. , Irshad A. (2020) Frequency of wrist pain and its associated risk factors in
students using mobile phones. Pak J Med Sci 36(4):746–749.
Anonymous (2022) How many smartphones are in the world? https://www.bankmycell.com/blog/how-many-
phones-are-in-the-world#sources
Antonopoulos A. , Yang B. , Stamm A. , Heller W.D. , Obe G. (1995) Cytological effects of 50 Hz
electromagnetic fields on human lymphocytes in vitro. Mutat Res Lett 346(3):151–157.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-7992(95)90047-0.
Antonopoulos A. , Eisenbrandt H. , Obe G. (1997) Effects of high-frequency electromagnetic fields on human
lymphocytes in vitro. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 395(2–3):209–214.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1383-5718(97)00173-3.
Augner C. , Florian M. , Pauser G. , Oberfeld G. , Hacker G.W. (2009) GSM base stations: Short-term effects
on well-being. Bioelectromagnetics 30(1):73–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.20447.
Avendaño C. , Mata A. , Sanchez Sarmiento C. , Doncel G. (2012) Use of laptop computers connected to
internet through Wi-fi decreases human sperm motility and increases sperm DNA fragmentation. Fertil Steril
97(1):39–45.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FERTNSTERT.2011.10.012.
Aweda M.A. , Usikalu M.R. , Wan J.H. , et al (2010) Genotoxic effects of low 2.45 GHz microwave radiation
exposures on Sprague Dawley rats. Int J Genet Mol Biol 2:189–197. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJGMB.9000028.
Baker K.B. , Tkach J.A. , Nyenhuis J.A. , et al (2004) Evaluation of specific absorption rate as a dosimeter of
MRI-related implant heating. J Magn Reson Imaging 20(2):315–320. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmri.20103.
Balode Z. (1996) Assessment of radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation by the micronucleus test in bovine
peripheral erythrocytes. Sci Total Environ 180(1):81–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(95)04923-1.
Banerjee S. , Singh N.N. , Sreedhar G. , Mukherjee S. (2016) Analysis of the genotoxic effects of mobile phone
radiation using buccal micronucleus assay: A comparative evaluation. J Clin Diagn Res 10(3):82–85.
https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2016/17592.7505.
Belpomme D. , Irigaray P. (2020) Electrohypersensitivity as a newly identified and characterized neurologic
pathological disorder: How to diagnose, treat, and prevent it. Int J Mol Sci 21(6):1915.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21061915.
Belyaev I.Y. , Hillert L. , Protopopova M. , et al (2005) 915 MHz microwaves and 50 Hz magnetic field affect
chromatin conformation and 53BP1 foci in human lymphocytes from hypersensitive and healthy persons.
Bioelectromagnetics 26(3):173–184. https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.20103.
Belyaev I.Y. , Markova E. , Hillert L. , Malmgren L.O. , Persson B.R. (2009) Microwaves from UMTS/GSM
mobile phones induce long-lasting inhibition of 53BP1/γ-H2AX DNARepair foci in human lymphocytes.
Bioelectromagnetics 30(2):129–141. https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.20445.
Bento N. (2016) Calling for change? Innovation, diffusion, and the energy impacts of global mobile telephony.
Energy Res Soc Sci 21:84–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2016.06.016.
Bisht K. , Moros E. , Straube W. , Baty J.D. , Roti Roti J.L. (2002) The effect of 835.62 MHz FDMA or 847.74
MHz CDMA modulated radiofrequency radiation on the induction of micronuclei in C3H 10T(1/2) cells. Radiat
Res 157(5):506–515. https://doi.org/10.1667/0033-7587(2002)157[0506:teomfo]2.0.co;2.
Blank M. , Goodman R. (2009) Electromagnetic fields stress living cells. Pathophysiology 16(2–3):71–78.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.01.006.
Blank M. , Goodman R. (2011) DNA is a fractal antenna in electromagnetic fields. Int J Radiat Biol
87(4):409–415. https://doi.org/10.3109/09553002.2011.538130.
Boileau N. , Margueritte F. , Gauthier T. , et al (2020) Mobile phone use during pregnancy: Which association
with fetal growth? J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod 49(8):101852.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOGOH.2020.101852.
Bourthoumieu S. , Joubert V. , Marin B. , et al (2010) Cytogenetic studies in human cells exposed in vitro to
GSM-900 MHz radiofrequency radiation using R-banded karyotyping. Radiat Res 174(6):712–718.
https://doi.org/10.1667/RR2137.1.
Brech A. , Kubinyi G. , Németh Z. , et al (2019) Genotoxic effects of intermediate frequency magnetic fields on
blood leukocytes in vitro. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 845:403060.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2019.05.016.
Bryant P.A. (2021) Communicating radiation risk: The role of public engagement in reaching ALARA. J Radiol
Prot 41(2):s1–S8. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6498/abd348.
Burlaka A. , Tsybulin O. , Sidorik E. , et al (2013) Overproduction of free radical species in embryonic cells
exposed to low intensity radiofrequency radiation. Exp Oncol 35(3):219–225.
Çam S.T. , Seyhan N. (2012) Single-strand DNA breaks in human hair root cells exposed to mobile phone
radiation. Int J Radiat Biol 88(5):420–424. https://doi.org/10.3109/09553002.2012.666005.
Campisi A. , Gulino M. , Acquaviva R. , et al (2010) Reactive oxygen species levels and DNA fragmentation on
astrocytes in primary culture after acute exposure to low intensity microwave electromagnetic field. Neurosci
Lett 473(1):52–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2010.02.018.
Carpenter D.O. (2013) Human disease resulting from exposure to electromagnetic fields. Rev Environ Health
28(4):159–172. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2013-0016.
Cecconi S. , Gualtieri G. , Di Bartolomeo A. , et al (2000) Evaluation of the effects of extremely low frequency
electromagnetic fields on mammalian follicle development. Hum Reprod 15(11):2319–2325.
https://doi.org/10.1093/HUMREP/15.11.2319.
Chavdoula E.D. , Panagopoulos D.J. , Margaritis L.H. (2010) Comparison of biological effects between
continuous and intermittent exposure to GSM-900-MHz mobile phone radiation: Detection of apoptotic cell-
death features. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 700(1–2):51–61.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2010.05.008.
Coghill R.W. , Steward J. , Philips A. (1996) Extra low frequency electric and magnetic fields in the bedplace of
children diagnosed with leukaemia: A case-control study. Eur J Cancer Prev 5(3):153–158.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00008469-199606000-0000.
D'Ambrosio G. , Lioi M.B. , Massa R. , Scarfi M.R. , Zeni O. (1995) Genotoxic effects of amplitude-modulated
microwaves on human lymphocytes exposed in vitro under controlled conditions. Electromagn Biol Med
14(3):157–164. https://doi.org/10.3109/15368379509030726.
D'Ambrosio G. , Massa R. , Scarfl M.R. , Zeni O. (2002) Cytogenetic damage in human lymphocytes following
GMSK phase modulated microwave exposure. Bioelectromagnetics 23(1):7–13.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.93.
D'Silva M.H. , Swer R.T. , Anbalagan J. , Rajesh B. (2017) Effect of radiofrequency radiation emitted from 2G
and 3G cell phone on developing liver of chick embryo – A comparative study. J Clin Diagn Res
11(7):AC05–AC09. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2017/26360.10275.
D'Silva M.H. , Swer R.T. , Anbalagan J. , Bhargavan R. (2021) Assessment of DNA damage in chick embryo
brains exposed to 2G and 3G cell phone radiation using alkaline comet assay technique. J Clin Diagn Res
15:AC01–AC04. https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2021/47115.14441.
Daroit N.B. , Visioli F. , Magnusson A.S. , Vieira G.R. , Rados P.V. (2015) Cell phone radiation effects on
cytogenetic abnormalities of oral mucosal cells. Braz Oral Res 29:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-3107BOR-
2015.vol29.0114.
De Iuliis G.N. , Newey R.J. , King B.V. , Aitken R.J. (2009) Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen
species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLOS ONE 4(7):e6446.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006446.
de Oliveira F.M. , Carmona A.M. , Ladeira C. (2017) Is mobile phone radiation genotoxic? An analysis of
micronucleus frequency in exfoliated buccal cells. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 822:41–46.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2017.08.001.
Delimaris J. , Tsilimigaki S. , Messini-Nicolaki N. , Ziros E. , Piperakis S.M. (2006) Effects of pulsed electric
fields on DNA of human lymphocytes. Cell Biol Toxicol 22(6):409–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10565-006-
0105-1.
Demsia G. , Vlastos D. , Matthopoulos D.P. (2004) Effect of 910-MHz electromagnetic field on rat bone marrow.
Sci World J 4(Suppl 2):48–54. https://doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2004.178.
Deniz O. , Kaplan S. , Selçuk M. , et al (2017) Effects of short and long term electromagnetic fields exposure on
the human hippocampus. J Microsc Ultrastruct 5(4):191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JMAU.2017.07.001.
Deshmukh P.S. , Megha K. , Banerjee B.D. , et al (2013) Detection of low level microwave radiation induced
deoxyribonucleic acid damage vis-à-vis genotoxicity in brain of Fischer rats. Toxicol Int 20(1):19–24.
https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-6580.111549.
Diem E. , Schwarz C. , Adlkofer F. , Jahn O. , Rüdiger H. (2005) Non-thermal DNA breakage by mobile-phone
radiation (1800 MHz) in human fibroblasts and in transformed GFSH-R17 rat granulosa cells in vitro. Mutat Res
- Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 583(2):178–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2005.03.006.
Dilli R. (2021) Implications of mmWave radiation on human health: State of the art threshold levels. IEEE
Access 9:13009–13021. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3052387.
Duan W. , Liu C. , Zhang L. , et al (2015) Comparison of the genotoxic effects induced by 50 Hz extremely low-
frequency electromagnetic fields and 1800 MHz radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in GC-2 cells. Radiat
Res 183(3):305–314. https://doi.org/10.1667/RR13851.1.
Erdal N. , Gürgül S. , Çelik A. (2007) Cytogenetic effects of extremely low frequency magnetic field on Wistar
rat bone marrow. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 630(1–2):69–77.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2007.03.001.
Erogul O. , Oztas E. , Yildirim I. , et al (2006) Effects of electromagnetic radiation from a cellular phone on
human sperm motility: An in vitro study. Arch Med Res 37(7):840–843.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ARCMED.2006.05.003.
Ferreira A.R. , Knakievicz T. , de Bittencourt Pasquali M.A. , et al (2006) Ultra high frequency-electromagnetic
field irradiation during pregnancy leads to an increase in erythrocytes micronuclei incidence in rat offspring. Life
Sci 80(1):43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2006.08.018.
Focke F. , Schuermann D. , Kuster N. , Schär P. (2010) DNA fragmentation in human fibroblasts under
extremely low frequency electromagnetic field exposure. Mutat Res - Fundam Mol Mech Mutagen
683(1–2):74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2009.10.012.
Frei P. , Mohler E. , Bürgi A. , et al (2009) A prediction model for personal radio frequency electromagnetic field
exposure. Sci Total Environ 408(1):102–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.09.023.
Fučić A. , Garaj-Vrhovac V. , Škara M. , Dimitrovič B. (1992) X-rays, microwaves and vinyl chloride monomer:
Their clastogenic and aneugenic activity, using the micronucleus assay on human lymphocytes. Mutat Res Lett
282(4):265–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-7992(92)90133-3.
Gadhia P.K. , Shah T. , Mistry A. , Pithawala M. , Tamakuwala D. (2003) A preliminary study to assess possible
chromosomal damage among users of digital mobile phones. Electromagn Biol Med 22(2–3):149–159.
https://doi.org/10.1081/ JBC-120024624.
Gandhi G. , Anita (2005) Genetic damage in mobile phone users: Some preliminary findings. Indian J Hum
Genet 11(2):99–104. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-6866.16810.
Garaj-Vrhovac V. , Horvat D. , Koren Z. (1990) The effect of microwave radiation on the cell genome. Mutat
Res Lett 243(2):87–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-7992(90)90028-I.
Garaj-Vrhovac V. , Horvat D. , Koren Z. (1991) The relationship between colony-forming ability, chromosome
aberrations and incidence of micronuclei in V79 Chinese hamster cells exposed to microwave radiation. Mutat
Res Lett 263(3):143–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-7992(91)90054-8.
Garaj-Vrhovac V. , Fučić A. , Horvat D. (1992) The correlation between the frequency of micronuclei and
specific chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes exposed to microwave radiation in vitro. Mutat Res
Lett 281(3):181–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-7992(92)90006-4.
Garaj-Vrhovac V. (1999) Micronucleus assay and lymphocyte mitotic activity in risk assessment of occupational
exposure to microwave radiation. Chemosphere 39(13):2301–2312. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-
6535(99)00139-3.
Garaj-Vrhovac V. , Orescanin V. (2009) Assessment of DNA sensitivity in peripheral blood leukocytes after
occupational exposure to microwave radiation: The alkaline comet assay and chromatid breakage assay. Cell
Biol Toxicol 25(1):33–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10565-008-9060-3.
Garson O. , McRobert T. , Campbell L. , Hocking B.A. , Gordon I. (1991) A chromosomal study of workers with
long-term exposure to radio-frequency radiation. Med J Aust 155(5):289–292. https://doi.org/10.5694/J.1326-
5377.1991.TB142282.X.
Görlitz B. , Müller M. , Ebert S. , et al (2005) Effects of 1-week and 6-week exposure to GSM/DCS
radiofrequency radiation on micronucleus formation in B6C3F1 mice. Radiat Res 164(4 Pt 1):431–439.
https://doi.org/10.1667/RR3440.1.
Goodman E.M. , Greenebaum B. , Marron M.T. , (1995): Effects of electromagnetic fields on molecules and
cells, International Rev Cytol. 158, 279–338.
Gosselin M-C. , Kühn S. , Kuster N. (2013) Experimental and numerical assessment of low-frequency current
distributions from UMTS and GSM mobile phones. Phys Med Biol 58(23):8339. https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-
9155/58/23/8339.
Gul A. , Celebi H. , Uğraş S. (2009) The effects of microwave emitted by cellular phones on ovarian follicles in
rats. Arch Gynecol Obstet 280(5):729–733. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-009-0972-9.
Gulati S. , Yadav A. , Kumar N. , et al (2016) Effect of GSTMl and GSTTl polymorphisms on genetic damage in
humans populations exposed to radiation from mobile towers. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 70(3):615–625.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0195-y.
Gulati S. , Yadav A. , Kumar N. , et al (2018) Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antioxidant enzyme
system in human population exposed to radiation from mobile towers. Mol Cell Biochem 440(1–2):1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-017-3150-6.
Gulati S. , Kosik P. , Durdik M. , et al (2020) Effects of different mobile phone UMTS signals on DNA, apoptosis
and oxidative stress in human lymphocytes. Environ Pollut 267:115632.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115632.
Guler G. , Tomruk A. , Ozgur E. , Seyhan N. (2010) The effect of radiofrequency radiation on DNA and lipid
damage in non-pregnant and pregnant rabbits and their newborns. Gen Physiol Biophys 29(1):59–66.
https://doi.org/10.4149/gpb_2010_01_59.
Guler G. , Ozgur E. , Keles H. , et al (2011) Apoptosis resulted from radiofrequency radiation exposure of
pregnant rabbits and their infants. Bull Vet Inst Pulawy 55:127–134.
Güler G. , Tomruk A. , Ozgur E. , et al (2012) The effect of radiofrequency radiation on DNA and lipid damage
in female and male infant rabbits. Int J Radiat Biol 88(4):367–373. doi.org/10.3109/09553002.2012.646349.
Guo L. , Lin J. , Xue Y. , et al (2019) Effects of 220 MHz pulsed modulated radiofrequency field on the sperm
quality in rats. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(7):1286. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH16071286.
Gurbuz N. , Sirav B. , Yuvaci H. , et al (2010) Is there any possible genotoxic effect in exfoliated bladder cells of
rat under the exposure of 1800 MHz GSM-like modulated radio frequency radiation (RFR)? Electromagn Biol
Med 29(3):98–104. https://doi.org/10.3109/15368378.2010.482498.
Gurbuz N. , Sirav B. , Colbay M. , Yetkin I. , Seyhan N. (2014) No genotoxic effect in exfoliated bladder cells of
rat under the exposure of 1800 and 2100 MHz radio frequency radiation. Electromagn Biol Med 33(4):296–301.
Gurbuz N. , Sirav B. , Kuzay D. , Ozer C. , Seyhan N. , et al (2015) Does radio frequency radiation induce
micronuclei frequency in exfoliated bladder cells of diabetic rats? Endocr Regul 49:126–130.
https://doi.org/10.4149/ENDO_2015_03_126.
Gürler H. , Bilgici B. , Akar A.K. , Tomak L. , Bedir A. (2014) Increased DNA oxidation (8-OHdG) and protein
oxidation (AOPP) by low level electromagnetic field (2.45 GHz) in rat brain and protective effect of garlic. Int J
Radiat Biol 90(10):892–896. https://doi.org/10.3109/09553002.2014.922717.
Hanci H. , Odaci E. , Kaya H. , et al (2013) The effect of prenatal exposure to 900-MHz electromagnetic field on
the 21-old-day rat testicle. Reprod Toxicol 42:203–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2013.09.006.
Hardell L. , Hallquist A. , Mild K.H. , et al (2002) Cellular and cordless telephones and the risk for brain tumours.
Eur J Cancer Prev 11(4):377–386. https://doi.org/10.1097/00008469-200208000-00010.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , Söderqvist F. , Mild K.H. , Morgan L.L. (2007) Long-term use of cellular phones and
brain tumours: Increased risk associated with use for ≥10 years. Occup Environ Med 64(9):626–632.
https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2006.029751.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. (2009) Mobile phones, cordless phones and the risk for brain tumours. Int J Oncol
35(1):5–17. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijo_00000307.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. , Söderqvist F. , Mild K.H. (2013) Case-control study of the association between
malignant brain tumours diagnosed between 2007 and 2009 and mobile and cordless phone use. Int J Oncol
43(6):1833–1845. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2013.2111.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. (2020) Health risks from radiofrequency radiation, including 5G, should be assessed by
experts with no conflicts of interest. Oncol Lett 20(4):15. https://doi.org/10. 3892/ol.2020.11876.
Hardell L. , Carlberg M. (2021) Lost opportunities for cancer prevention: Historical evidence on early warnings
with emphasis on radiofrequency radiation. Rev Environ Health 36(4):585–597. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-
2020-0168.
Harremoes P. , Gee D. , MacGarvin M. , et al. (Eds.). (2013). The precautionary principle in the 20th century:
Late lessons from early warnings. London: Routledge.
Harris A. , Cooper M. (2019) Mobile phones: Impacts, challenges, and predictions. Hum Behav Emerg Technol
1(1):15–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.112.
Hatch E. , Willis S. , Wesselink A. , et al (2021) Male cellular telephone exposure, fecundability, and semen
quality: Results from two preconception cohort studies. Hum Reprod 36(5):1395–1404.
https://doi.org/10.1093/HUMREP/DEAB001.
Haumann T. , Münzenberg U.W.E. , Maes W. , Sierck P. (2002) HF-radiation levels of GSM cellular phone
towers in residential areas. Proc 2nd Int Work Biol Eff EMFS 1:327–333.
Herrala M. , Mustafa E. , Naarala J. , Juutilainen J. (2018) Assessment of genotoxicity and genomic instability in
rat primary astrocytes exposed to 872 MHz radiofrequency radiation and chemicals. Int J Radiat Biol
94(10):883–889. https://doi.org/10.1080/09553002.2018.1450534.
Hook G.J. , Zhang P. , Lagroye I. , et al (2004) Measurement of DNA damage and apoptosis in Molt-4 cells
after in vitro exposure to radiofrequency radiation. Radiat Res 161(2):193–200. https://doi.org/10.1667/RR3127.
Houston B.J. , Nixon B. , King B.V. , Aitken R.J. , De Iuliis G.N. (2018) Probing the origins of 1,800 MHz radio
frequency electromagnetic radiation induced damage in mouse immortalized germ cells and spermatozoa in
vitro. Front Public Health 6:270. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00270.
Houston B.J. , Nixon B. , McEwan K.E. , et al (2019) Whole-body exposures to radiofrequency-electromagnetic
energy can cause DNA damage in mouse spermatozoa via an oxidative mechanism. Sci Rep 9(1):17478.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-53983-9.
Huang C-Y. , Chang C-W. , Chen C-R. , Chuang C-Y. , Chiang C-S. , et al (2014) Extremely low-frequency
electromagnetic fields cause Gl phase arrest through the activation of the ATM-Chk2-p21 pathway. PLoS ONE
9(8): e104732. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0104732.
Hui W. , Xu Y.S. , Miao Lin W. , et al (2017) Protective effect of naringin against the LPS-induced apoptosis of
PC12 cells: Implications for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Int J Mol Med 39(4):819–830.
https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2017.2904.
Hutter H.P. , Moshammer H. , Wallner P. , Kundi M. (2006) Subjective symptoms, sleeping problems, and
cognitive performance in subjects living near mobile phone base stations. Occup Environ Med 63(5):307–313.
https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2005.020784.
Hyland G.J. (2000) Physics and biology of mobile telephony. Lancet 356(9244):1833–1836.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(00)03243-8.
Hyland G.J. (2008) Physical basis of adverse and therapeutic effects of low intensity microwave radiation.
Indian J Exp Biol 46(5):403–419.
ICNIRP . (1998) Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields
(up to 300 GHz). Health Phys 74(4):494–521.
ICNIRP . (2010) Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric and magnetic fields (1 Hz to 100 kHz).
Health Phys 99(6):818–836. https://doi.org/10.1097/HP.0b013e3181f06c86.
ICNIRP . (2020) Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz to 300 GHz). Health Phys
118(5):483–524. https://doi.org/10.1097/HP.0000000000001210.
Ivancsits S. , Diem E. , Pilger A. , Rüdiger H.W. , Jahn O. (2002) Induction of DNA strand breaks by intermittent
exposure to extremely-low-frequency electromagnetic fields in human diploid fibroblasts. Mutat Res - Genet
Toxicol Environ Mutagen 519(1–2):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1383-5718(02)00109-2.
Ivancsits S. , Diem E. , Jahn O. , Rüdiger H.W. (2003) Intermittent extremely low frequency electromagnetic
fields cause DNA damage in a dose-dependent way. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 76(6):431–436.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-003-0446-5.
Ivancsits S. , Pilger A. , Diem E. , Jahn O. , Rüdiger H.W. (2005) Cell type-specific genotoxic effects of
intermittent extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen
583(2):184–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2005.03.011.
Jeong Y.J. , Son Y. , Han N.K. , et al (2018) Impact of long-term RF-EMF on oxidative stress and
neuroinflammation in aging brains of C57BL/6 mice. Int J Mol Sci 19(7):2103.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19072103.
Juutilainen J. , Heikkinen P. , Soikkeli H. , Mäki-Paakkanen J. (2007) Micronucleus frequency in erythrocytes of
mice after long-term exposure to radiofrequency radiation. Int J Radiat Biol 83(4):213–220.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09553000601169800.
Karaca E. , Durmaz B. , Altug H. , et al (2012) The genotoxic effect of radiofrequency waves on mouse brain. J
Neurooncol 106(1):53–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-011-0644-z.
Kerbacher J.J. , Meltz M.L. , Erwin D.N. (1990) Influence of radiofrequency radiation on chromosome
aberrations in CHO cells and its interaction with DNA-damaging agents. Radiat Res 123(3):311–319.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3577738.
Kesari K.K. , Luukkonen J. , Juutilainen J. , Naarala J. (2015) Genomic instability induced by 50Hz magnetic
fields is a dynamically evolving process not blocked by antioxidant treatment. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol
Environ Mutagen 794:46–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2015.10.004.
Khalil A.M. , Gagaa M.H. , Alshamali A.M. (2012) 8-Oxo-7, 8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine as a biomarker of
DNA damage by mobile phone radiation. Hum Exp Toxicol 31(7):734–740.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0960327111433184.
Khalil A.M. , Alemam I.F. , Al-Qaoud K.M. (2020) Association between mobile phone using and DNA damage of
epithelial cells of the oral mucosa. J Biotechnol Biomed 3(2):50–66. https://doi.org/10.26502/jbb.2642-
91280027.
Kim J. , Ha C.S. , Lee H.J. , Song K. (2010) Repetitive exposure to a 60-Hz time-varying magnetic field induces
DNA double-strand breaks and apoptosis in human cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 400(4):739–744.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.08.140.
Kim J. , Yoon Y. , Yun S. , et al (2012) Time-varying magnetic fields of 60Hz at 7mT induce DNA double-strand
breaks and activate DNA damage checkpoints without apoptosis. Bioelectromagnetics 33(5):383–393.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.21697.
Komatsubara Y. , Hirose H. , Sakurai T. , et al (2005) Effect of high-frequency electromagnetic fields with a
wide range of SARs on chromosomal aberrations in murine m5S cells. Mutat Res 587(1–2):114–119.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MRGENTOX.2005.08.010.
Koyama S. , Nakahara T. , Wake K. , et al (2003) Effects of high frequency electromagnetic fields on
micronucleus formation in CHO-K1 cells. Mutat Res - Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 541(1–2):81–89.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2003.07.009.
Koyama S. , Isozumi Y. , Suzuki Y. , Taki M. , Miyakoshi J. (2004) Effects of 2.45-GHz electromagnetic fields
with a wide range of SARs on micronucleus formation in CHO-K1 cells. Sci World J 4(Suppl 2):29–40.
https://doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2004.176.
Koyama S. , Narita E. , Shimizu Y. , et al (2016) Effects of long-term exposure to 60 GHz millimeter-wavelength
radiation on the genotoxicity and heat shock protein (HSP) expression of cells derived from human eye. Int J
Environ Res Public Health 13(8):802. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13080802.
Koyama S. , Narita E. , Suzuki Y. , et al (2019) Long-term exposure to a 40-GHz electromagnetic field does not
affect genotoxicity or heat shock protein expression in HCE-T or SRA01/04 cells. J Radiat Res 60(4):417–423.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jrr/rrz017.
Kumar G. , McIntosh R.L. , Anderson V. , McKenzie R.J. , Wood A.W. (2015) A genotoxic analysis of the
hematopoietic system after mobile phone type radiation exposure in rats. Int J Radiat Biol 91(8):664–672.
https://doi.org/10.3109/09553002.2015.1047988.
Kumar S. , Kesari K.K. , Behari J. (2010) Evaluation of genotoxic effects in male Wistar rats following
microwave exposure. Indian J Exp Biol 48(6):586–592. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20882761/.
Lagroye I. , Anane R. , Wettring B.A. , et al (2004a) Measurement of DNA damage after acute exposure to
pulsed-wave 2450 MHz microwaves in rat brain cells by two alkaline comet assay methods. Int J Radiat Biol
80(1):11–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/09553000310001642911.
Lagroye I. , Hook G. , Wettring B. , et al (2004b) Measurements of alkali-labile DNA damage and protein-DNA
crosslinks after 2450 MHz microwave and low-dose gamma irradiation in vitro. Radiat Res 161(2):201–214.
https://doi.org/10.1667/RR3122.
Lai H. , Singh N.P. (1995) Acute low-intensity microwave exposure increases DNA single-strand breaks in rat
brain cells. Bioelectromagnetics 16(3):207–210. https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.2250160309.
Lai H. , Singh N.P. (1996) Single- and double-strand DNA breaks in rat brain cells after acute exposure to
radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation. Int J Radiat Biol 69(4):513–521.
https://doi.org/10.1080/095530096145814.
Lai H. , Singh N.P. (1997) Acute exposure to a 60 Hz magnetic field increases DNA strand breaks in rat brain
cells. Bioelectromagnetics 18(2):156–165. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1521-186x(1997)18:2<156::aid-
bem8>3.0.co;2-1.
Lai H. , Singh N.P. (2004) Magnetic field-induced DNA strand breaks in brain cells of the rat. Environ Health
Perspect 112(6):687–694. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.6355.
Leach V. , Weller S. , Redmayne M. (2018) A novel database of bio-effects from non-ionizing radiation. Rev
Environ Health 33(3):273–280. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2018-0017.
Lee J.W. , Kim M.S. , Kim Y.J. , et al (2011) Genotoxic effects of 3T magnetic resonance imaging in cultured
human lymphocytes. Bioelectromagnetics 32(7):535–542. https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.20664.
Li L. , Bisht K. , LaGroye I. , et al (2001) Measurement of DNA damage in mammalian cells exposed in vitro to
radiofrequency fields at SARs of 3–5 W/kg. Radiat Res 156(3):328–332. https://doi.org/10.1667/0033-
7587(2001)156[0328:moddim]2.0.co;2.
Li R. , Ma M. , Li L. , et al (2018) The protective effect of autophagy on DNA damage in mouse spermatocyte-
derived cells exposed to 1800 MHz radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. Cell Physiol Biochem 48(1):29–41.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000491660.
Liu C. , Duan W. , Xu S. , et al (2013a) Exposure to 1800 MHz radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation
induces oxidative DNA base damage in a mouse spermatocyte-derived cell line. Toxicol Lett 218(1):2–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2013.01.003.
Liu C. , Gao P. , Xu S.C. , et al (2013b) Mobile phone radiation induces mode-dependent DNA damage in a
mouse spermatocyte-derived cell line: A protective role of melatonin. Int J Radiat Biol 89(11):993–1001.
https://doi.org/10.3109/09553002.2013.811309.
Liu C. , Guo H. , Chen J. , Guo H. , Chen J. (2019) Research on pulse response characteristics of wireless
ultraviolet communication in mobile scene. Opt Express 27(8):10670–10683.